8 1 8

Taiwan Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Issue 15), June 2011, pp.
235-252

General Art icle
Dgen: A Japanese Transformation of
Ch'an Buddhism

Shigenori NAGATOMO
*

Keywords: Cast ing off the body and t he mind, Cast ing off the mind dust ,
Five desires, Five hindrances, Act ive-passive scheme,
Nondiscriminat ory awareness, Seeing wit hout being a seer,
Foreground-background, Bott omless background, Zero Space, Zero
Time, Being-t ime, Logic of int erdependence, Mut ual nt erdependence

* Professor of Comparative Philosophy and East Asian Buddhism, Temple University, U.S.A.

236 Taiwan Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Issue 15), June 2011
ii
Abstract
This art icle is an att empt at art iculat ing a Japanese transformat ion of Ch'an
Buddhism by focusing on a t hirteenth cent ury Japanese Zen Mast er, Dgen
(1200-1254), in such a way that his religious-philosophical thought can be
dist inguished from the Chinese count er-part s. To do so, it will elucidat e some of
t he salient differences by comparing Dgen's magnus opus, Shbgenz (
) wit h the works of Chinese Ch'an mast ers. It will briefly examine the following
four t opics in order t o accomplish t he goals of t he art icle: 1) Dgen's st ance on
language, 2) his Zen Experience, 3) a philosophical analysis of t he struct ure of
appearing in light of his experience, and 4) his philosophical expression concerning
Zen spat ial-t emporal awareness.

1200-1254
1
23
4
Dgen: A Japanese Transformation of Ch'an Buddhism 237
iii
When one side is illuminat ed,
t he other side remains in darkness.
from Dgen's "Genjkan" fascicle
I. Introduction
This art icle att empt s to art iculat e a Japanese t ransformat ion of Ch'an
Buddhism
1
by focusing on a thirt eent h cent ury Japanese Zen Mast er, Dgen
(1200-1253), in such a way that his religious-philosophical thought can be
dist inguished in cert ain respect s from his Chinese count erpart s. In order to
accomplish this goal, I will first 1) elucidat e a few differences I can discern in the
st ance Dgen t akes on language in comparison with some of the Chinese Ch'an
mast ers,
2
and t hen 2) I will examine his Zen experience, as preparatory 3) t o
philosophically analyzing the st ruct ure of how t hings appear in t he field of
medit at ive awareness, and last ly 4) his philosophical expression concerning Zen
spat ial-t emporal awareness. The examinat ion of the last t wo point s will enable us
t o philosophically reconstruct an experient ial st ruct ure unique to Zen Buddhism
in general, and to Dgen's Zen in part icular, where I am no longer interest ed in

1 D.T. Suzuki, who disseminated Zen Buddhism to the West, mentions three figures of Japanese
Zen Buddhism as instances of the Japanization of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism; Dgen [],
Bankei [], and Hakuin []. For my general understanding of Zen Buddhism, see an
online article, "Philosophy of Zen Buddhism" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
(http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/japanese-zen/).
2 I am aware of a logical issue that presents itself when approaching the present topic in the way I
have suggested above, namely that in order to articulate differences, the logic of interdependence
demands that it presuppose the idea of sameness at the same time, for the meaning of difference
is logically incomprehensible unless it is predicated on the meaning of sameness. In other
words, this logic acknowledges that there is no absolute difference nor is there absolute
sameness, because it stipulates a relativity of each term for each to be meaningful in a domain
of discourse. Accordingly, I am afraid that my attempt will be charged as being one-sided, but I
cannot dodge this charge, simply because the space/time available to me is limited for this
presentation. Technically, this logic is called "logic of not." For further details, see Shigenori
Nagatomo, The Diamondstra's Logic of Not and a Critique of Katz's Contextualism: toward a
Non-dualist Philosophy (New York: The Edwin and Mellen Press, 2006). pp. xvii + 178.
iv
point ing out differences, but inst ead groping for some commonalit ies with some
of the Chinese Ch'an mast ers.
Regarding Chinese Ch'an mast ers, I would like t o not e at the out set that
Dgen's evaluat ion of t hem is not uniform; he praises some with exalt ing
remarks while reject ing some ot hers wit h scat hing crit icisms. In addit ion, t here
are cases of an ambiguous evaluat ion of them.
3

II. Dgen's Stance on Language
I would like to not e a significant fact t hat Dgen's Shbgenz
4
[]
consist ing of 75 fascicles, is writt en in Japanese. This allows him, comparat ively
speaking, flexibility and precision in his linguist ic expression due to the
post posit ions t hat connect various syntact ic element s t hat produce a well-formed
sent ence in t his language. Moreover, I would like t o observe in t his connect ion
t hat he art fully craft s his writ ings using an essay format , ranging from a few
pages to several t ens of pages. This format is different from the format s a
majority of Chinese Ch'an mast ers use for t heir writ ings, where we find verses
[gathas], pit hy sent ences, and/or short dialogue of quest ion-answer [] as a
way of capt uring their Zen experiences. Unlike these format s, Dgen's

3 Just to mention a few, those Ch'an masters he praises highly include Nyoj [], Hyakuj
Ekai [], Jyosh [], Kchi [], Engo [], and Yakuzan [
] and those who he vehemently rejects are Ch'an masters belonging to the Daie []
line of the Rinzai School. His evaluation of Rinzai [] is ambiguous in that he praises
his dedicated, "pure" practice, while denouncing the doctrines he used for guiding his disciples.
See Imaeda Aishin, Dgen: sono kd to shis [] (Tokyo: Hyronsha,
1975).
4 We may also note in this connection that Daie Sog [] had a book with the same title.
Because Dgen unrelentingly criticizes him (see for example the fascicle "the Samdhi of Sel f-
Authentication" [], "A Deep Belief in the [karmic] Retribution" [], and [
]), he must have an intention of correcting Daie's understanding of Buddhism in
general, and Zen Buddhism in particular.
v
Shbgenz develops descript ive explanat ions or explanat ory descript ions
5
t o
unfold his religious-philosophical insight s such t hat according t o IMAEDA Aishin,
"[b]uddhist thought achieved a unique [pinnacle by] leaps and bounds, which had
not occurred before and aft er."
6
This is t he first point I should like t o observe as
fact ors contribut ing Dgen's Japanizat ion of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism.
The second point I would like t o ment ion is that Dgen dist inguishes
bet ween the language about enlightenment and the language of enlight enment .
7

The latt er fact suggest s t hat he is cognizant of the efficacy of linguist ic express-
abilit y or say-ability,
8
if I may neologize t hese words, of Zen enlight enment
experiences. This is in fact his convict ion, so that he masterfully forces the Chinese
compounds/sent ences t o perform a t ask of describing reality apprehended in and
t hrough Zen medit at ion. Observe the following examples: he changes "at one
t ime" () t o read "being-t ime;" "all sent ient beings, wit hout except ion, have
Buddha-nat ure" () to "all are sent ient beings and every being
is a Buddha-nat ure."
Dgen's st ance toward language as is exemplified above shows a marked
difference, for example, from t he att it ude which Baso [] lineage ()
generally assumed during t he Tang dynast y. Take t he examples of t he following
mott oes: "Special transmission out side of script ures" ( ) and "No

5 I do not mean to suggest that because Dgen provides descriptive explanations or explanatory
descriptions, the content of his writing is easy to follow and understand. Regarding this
point,Tamaki raises the following question, while commenting that it is possible to understand
Thomas Aquinas, Kant, Hegel and Heidegger even for a Japanese as long as he/she can follow
their logic and the thread of their thinking, why is it difficult to understand Dgen? He notes
that even though their writings are developed with an axis of thinking, there must be a
difference in what it means to think between these Western thinkers and Dgen. He thinks that a
total personal being is involved in case of Dgen's "thinking," which is beyond the discursive
mode of reasoning, and as such it is "to think of the unthinkable" when it is seen in light of the
everyday standpoint. It is done vis--vis Zen meditation. See Takaki Kshir, Nihon no meicho:
Dgen [] (Tokyo: Chkron sha, 1974), p. 8.
6 Imaeda Aishin, Dgen: sono kd to shis [] (Tokyo: Hyronsha, 1975),
p. 2.
7 See for example, "Say-ability" [] fascicle in the Shbgenz.
8 This should not suggest, however, that he believed every aspect of Zen enlightenment experience
could linguistically be articulated.
vi
dependence on words" (). These mottoes are predicated on t he belief
t hat language is incapable of capt uring t he t ranscendent and t rans-logical
9
event
of Zen experience
10
and declare t hat language is simply a point ing device.
A quest ion we may now ent ert ain is: what enabled Dgen t o hold the
convict ion such that he came t o believe t he extra-linguist ic event s could be
capt ured linguist ically? One of t he ways we can approach this query, aside from
acknowledging his innat e capacit y t o handle language, is t o look into his Zen
experience, because it t ransformed him t o exist ent ially ground t he whole of his
being, including his use of language.
III. Dgen's Zen Experience
Dgen's Zen experience I have ment ioned above refers to an experience he
had under t he t ut elage of his Chinese mast er, Nyoj (Juching), as a confirmat ion
of his enlight enment. He capt ured t his experience linguist ically as "cast ing off
t he mind and the body" (). According to Takazaki Jikid, this is
Dgen's creat ive misunderstanding, because no phrase to this effect appears in
Juching's recorded sayings. Inst ead, Takazaki not es t hat a similar sounding
phrase, "cast ing off the mind-dust " () is used only once in it ,
11
where it

9 I mean by this term the logic that goes beyond the Aristotelian either-or logic with its three laws
of identity, contradiction and excluded middle.
10 We can find Dgen's rejection of the doctrines which some Ch'an masters employed as the
standard for teaching in such fascicles as "the Buddha's Teaching" [], "the Buddha Way"
[], and "Spring and Autumn"[]; for example, "Four Scenes of Weighing" []
and the use of Four Illuminations [] proposed by Rinzai []; "Three Phrases" []
utilized by Unmon []; "Three Paths" [] and Five Ranks [] upheld by Dzan [
]. In addition, we may also mention that he vehemently rejected "oneness of the three
teachings" [] in the fascicle "the Monks of the Four Dhynas" [] as "the
worst of all evil teachings," "its extreme folly to which nothing is comparable," and "destroying
Buddha dharmas."
11 See Takazaki Jikid in Umehara Takeshi, Bukky shis 11: Kobutsu no manebi Dgen [
11] (Tokyo: Kaokawa shoten, 1974), p. 50.
vii
is underst ood t o mean an eliminat ion, following t he t radit ional underst anding of
Buddhism, of five desires and/or five hindrances.
12

Consequent ly, we are led to acknowledge t hat Dgen's misunderst anding
had opened up a philosophical horizon of describing Zen experiences in a way
t hat had been impossible before. To replace t he t radit ional cat egories
13
wit h the
phrase "the mind and t he body," which is not usually a t echnical t erminology in
Buddhism, enables us, for example, to philosophically discuss his experience in
light of t he mind-body issue. The phrase suggest s t hat in his confirmat ory
experience t here was no lived, dualist ic dist inct ion bet ween the mind and the
body. That is, the mind-body dualism, as it is operative in our everyday standpoint ,
was overcome experient ially. It was a nondualist ic experience.
IV. The Structure of Appearing
Given Dgen's nondualist ic experience, what is the struct ure of t hings
appearing in the field of medit at ive awareness that enables him to provide
descript ive explanat ions or explanat ory descript ions to many of t he t opics he
addresses in the Shbgenz?
14
We can interpret his nondualist ic experience
epist emologically as that experience which arises from a nondiscriminatory st at e
of medit at ional awareness.
15
In this nondiscriminat ory awareness, no ego is

12 Buddhism counts five desires: desires for material wealth, sex, food, honor, and sleep, while the
five hindrances include avarice, anger, sleep, anxiety and doubt.
13 The traditional phrase to thematize the whole person in Buddhism was five skandhas; form,
consciousness, perception, sensation and potential formative force.
14 We may note here that his Shbgenz is a collection of profoundly philosophical-religious
fascicles, but is not a systematic treatise of philosophy as most of the fascicle were delivered to
his disciples and lay followers either as a lecture or in an epistolary form.
15 To be more specific, the nondiscriminatory awareness means that it is the foundational
background that is bottomless or is nothing, and as such it does not participate in the
discriminatory activity. However, when a thing appears, a discrimination occurs on this
foundational, though bottomless, background. Because it occurs on this foundation, it does not
distort the shape of things along with its force. With this qualification, it is more accurate to use
a phrase, nondiscriminatory discrimination, to capture a sense of how things appear in
meditational awareness.
viii
posit ed eit her as an act ive or a passive agent in const it ut ing things of experience
as this awareness renders useless the act ive-passive scheme as an explanat ory
model. Rat her, it is the st at e of no-ego in which no project ion from the
unconscious cont ent and no superimposit ion of int ellect ual ideas occur in the
field of medit at ive awareness.
Moreover, because things are experient ially const it ut ed in t his manner, we
can interpret the epist emological st ruct ure of appearing t o be such t hat t hings
appear in t he field of medit at ive awareness wit hout presupposing t he Gest alt
psychology's dist inct ion bet ween foreground and background. This is because the
ego is t urned int o nothing in the st ate of nondiscriminatory awareness, and hence
no-ego, where this nothing is paradoxically a background that is not the background
at all, or it is a bottomless background. To use Nishida's t erminology, the
nondiscriminatory awareness is an act of "seeing wit hout being a seer." Or, to use
the t erminology of phenomenology, the bottomless background or the background
of not hing means t hat because the noet ic act is rendered nothing, t he noemat ic
object is allowed t o announce it self wit hout an int ent ional const it ut ion of the
latt er. This is the meaning of "no project ion" and "no superimposit ion" ment ioned
above. It consequent ly opens up a bottomless horizon, on which a noemat ic
object announces it self in toto as a phenomenon.
This opening up simult aneously accompanies a de-subst ant ializat ion and de-
ont ologizat ion of things of experience, because there is no act of t he ego that
subst ant ializes and ont ologizes them; subst ant ializat ion and ontologizat ion both
arise as a consequence of an anthropomorphic act ivit y that is int ricat ely t ied to
t he discursive mode of reasoning. This implies t hat Dgen's st ance mit igat es the
idea of "seeing into one's nat ure," where a substantializat ion of nat ure is implied.
16

We are led to conclude that things of experience announce themselves in toto

16 This was the stance, of example, that was assumed by the Taihui [] lineage of Linchi
school [], flourishing at the time of his visit to Sung China (1224-1228), and under
which school's masters he studied for approximately two years at different temples before he
came to study under Juching for another two years.
ix
wit hout concealing anyt hing behind t hem, because there is not hing in the
bott omless background t o det ermine or delimit how t hings appear. To capt ure it ,
Dgen st ates in t he "Buddha-nat ure" () fascicle that "nothing is concealed in
t he universe."
These point s invit e us to rethink the problem of const it ut ion, because t hey
are a reject ion of t he idealist as well as the empiricist posit ion. In t he nondualist ic
experience, the logic of int erdependence makes clear how things are mut ually
dependent on each ot her, a point which Dgen emphasizes in his writ ings. For
example, we can see the idea of int erdependence in the statement s: "t he fish
swims t he ocean and the ocean swims t he fish," or "t he sky flies a bird and the
bird flies t he sky." This exemplifies t he logic of interdependence.
V. Dgen's Philosophical Expression: Time and Space
What does this bott omless background that is nothing mean when it is
examined in light of a spat ial-t emporal awareness? We have a clue to respond to
t his query in the above ment ioned Buddha-nat ure fascicle in which Dgen
art iculat es his underst anding of what t he Buddha-nat ure is, by st at ing that "if [a
t ime] arrives" () means "[it] already arrives" (). If one att empt s to
underst and this ident ificat ion by following a linear concept of t ime, it will force
us t o dismiss it as meaningless and nonsensical because it appears to be
hopelessly confused, as it violates t he logic of everyday understanding. If on the
other hand, Dgen's nondiscriminat ory experience is a transcendent experience
t hat goes beyond t he confine of t he everyday mode of dualist ically experiencing
t hings, this ident ificat ion makes sense only if we take the bott omless background
t o mean t hat t here is no t ranspirat ion of t ime as well as no spat ial dist inct ion
bet ween part s and whole. Accordingly, t he bottomless background comes t o be
charact erized as zero t ime and zero space, although both zero t ime and zero space
x
are, needless to say, an "unt hinkable" designat ion for t ime and space as long as
we rely on t he discursive mode of t hinking.
17
This means, when int erpret ed in
reference to things of experience, t hat there is absolut ely no determinat ion, either
a priori or a posteriori, as t o how things appear in t he field of medit at ive
awareness. Buddhism uses t he t erm "suchness" () to designate t his st at e of
affairs, i.e., things, as t hey really are, announce the primordial mode of their
being.
Wit h t his int erpret at ion of t he bott omless background that is not hing, we can
appreciat e how Dgen develops t emporal and spat ial awareness. I will deal wit h
t he spat ial awareness first and then t he t emporal awareness. In the fascicle of
"this mind is a Buddha" () of t he Shbgenz, we find the following
passage:
What the mind is, is mountains, rivers and the great earth. It is the sun,
the moon and the stars. However, if one advances beyond what is thus
captured linguistically, it will become inadequate, and i f one retreats
from it, one will err.
In this passage we see Dgen reject ing bot h mat erialism and idealism as being a
one-sided recapit ulat ion of realit y. Inst ead, he shows a clear inst ance of how
t hings appear in the spat ial awareness when the background is bott omless or
not hing, t hat is, wit hout post ulat ing t he foreground-background dist inct ion.
There is no difference bet ween the mind and the nat ural phenomena, because the
nat ural phenomena announce t hemselves in toto in t he mode of not hingess t hat is
t he mind. Hence, for Dgen looking at the mount ains and rivers is no different
from looking at buddhas.

17 The understanding of them belongs to the realm beyond thinking that is disclosed in meditational
experience.
xi
Another import ant point in this spat ial awareness is an idea of mut ual
interdependence among things. Observe the following sent ence t aken from the
genjkan fascicle (): "Fish swims t he ocean and the ocean swims a
fish; a bird flies t he sky and the sky flies a bird." Here, space is not conceived of
in terms of a container model. Instead, spatial awareness in Dgen is charact erized
by t he mut ual int erdependence among t hings, while being permeat ed by the
announcement of t he primordial mode of being that is t heir suchness, and their
announcement is propelled by t he dynamic act ivit y of t ime.
In order to see how t he above ment ioned st ruct ure of appearing, as well as
t he logic of int erdependence operat e, let us look into Dgen's underst anding of
t ime and space. This is an issue concerning a t emporal-spat ial awareness reflect ive
of t he non-dualist ic experience, in which t ime and space are expressions of t hings
"thinging" t he primordial mode of their being. This "t hinging" of things springs
from zero t ime and zero space. It presupposes an experience of non-temporalization
and non-spat ializat ion of things. One must st and in t he zero ground t o underst and
t his point . We will now t urn to t he idea of his t emporal awareness.
His t heory of t ime is found in the fascicle "Being-t ime" (), where he
develops a creat ive reading of t he Chinese compound, " ." While the
compound is ordinarily underst ood as "at one t ime" or "at a cert ain t ime," he
advances a t heory of t ime as "being-t ime" such t hat t ime is a being and a being is
a t ime. Time and being are inseparable from each other: t emporalizat ion of a
being is a spat ializat ion of a t ime, whet her this inseparability is t aken ideally or
really. The idea of spat ializat ion and t emporalizat ion makes sense only if and
when t he bottomless background is zero t ime and zero space, from which being-
t ime announces it self as an individuat ing being-t ime. Here, reality of being-t ime
in t he t emporal axis is int erconnect ed with the spat ial axis of a dynamic act ivity
of mut ual int erdependence of t hings. Dgen takes this temporal-spat ial
interconnect ion t o express impermanence, and religiously as an expression of
buddha-nat ure, i.e., impermanent -buddha-nat ure.
xii
Dgen's "being-t ime" has t wo profiles of "just now" and "ranging": the
former indicat es an aspect of discont inuity of t ime, while t he latt er indicat es an
aspect of it s cont inuity. Seen in this manner, "just now" capt ures a sense of
discont inuity qua cont inuit y while "ranging" or "passing" discloses a sense of
cont inuit y qua discont inuit y.
18
Dgen conceives of "being-t ime" as expressing
mult i-direct ionalit y:
It moves from today to tomorrow; it moves from today to yesterday; it
moves from yesterday to today; it moves from today to today; it moves
from tomorrow to tomorrow.
19

This mult i-direct ional movement of t ime is predicated on t he medit at ional
awareness t hat is anchored in the nondiscriminat ory dimension of the bott omless
background, where t ime and space, as we observed in the foregoing, are zero.
20

Dgen met aphorically speaks of t hese movement s as if observing at op the
highest mount ain range, an indicat ion of, paradoxically, a deep st at e of medit at ive
awareness. It is a dynamically lived t ime, where according t o TAMAKI Kshir,
t ime, being, illuminat ion and t he authent ic self are inseparably t ied t ogether.
21

18 We may note that his theory is not of a quantifiable time, as in Aristotle's definition of time as a
measurement of before and after, or as in natural science's theory of time where time is
conceived to be a linear or symmetrical series of uniformly punctuated, homogenous units for
the purpose of quantification or measurement of things. Moreover, there is no theoretical
postulation of time (and space) as in Newton's absolute time (or absolute space) without any
content to it. Kant's understanding of time and space as an a priori condition for sense intuition
is a philosophical rendition of Newton's absolute time and absolute space.
19 See his "being-time" [] fascicle.
20 A linear concept of time, it would seem, is anchored in a model of sensory perception, while
presupposing a presence of the body to an object. This model is in turn predicated on an
anthropomorphic observation of a human birth and a death, thus rending time to have a
beginning and an end, allowing it to "move" from the past to the future.
21 Takaki Kshir, Nihon no meicho: Dgen [] (Tokyo: Chkron sha, 1974,
p. 59 ff.
xiii
VI. Concluding Remarks
In t he foregoing I have given a cursory t reat ment of Dgen's religious-
philosophical thought s wit h t he view to showing a Japanese transformat ion of
Ch'an Buddhism, by briefly t ouching on his st ance on language, his Zen
experience, how things appear in light of the Zen experience, and his theories of
t ime and space. I am afraid that t his art icle has not gone beyond t he sit uat ion
where a blind man describes an elephant by t ouching a miniscule part of it . In
spit e of this, I hope it has given t he reader a glimpse int o Dogen's Zen, and I hope
an int erest has arisen in t he reader want ing to read him on his/her own.
To conclude this art icle, I would like to offer a concern for t he spread of Zen
Buddhism. Dgen's Shbgenz didn't see the light of the day for several cent uries
even inside the St school, and much less in a larger circle of the Japanese
intellect ual communit y unt il Wat suji Tet sur wrot e in 1929 a book on him,
Shamon Dgen [Dgen, the Monk of the Way], based on Shbgenz zuimonki.
Aft er Wat suji's work, Japanese scholars have become int erest ed in him, producing
voluminous amount s of writ ings on him t o the point that one can become a
Dgen scholar. Today t here has been an increasing number of West ern scholars
who also show interest in him, due primarily t o Abe Masao's init ial effort s of
introducing him t o the West, an int ellect ual milieu of which was prepared by D.T.
Suzuki since the beginning of t he 20
th
cent ury. I wonder if this trend in the West
will cont inue, because Buddhism in Japan, at least it s raison d'tre, has
increasingly been minimized, and consequent ly it is playing a negligible role in
cont emporary Japanese societ y. I have t his concern because Chinese Ch'an
Buddhism disappeared as an independent school from Chinese history aft er
merging wit h Pure Land Buddhism in t he Ming dynasty.
xiv
Glossary
1. Cast ing off t he body and t he mind: Dgen's linguist ic expression to
designat e his Zen confirmat ory experience under t he t ut elage of Nyoj,
wherein t he dualist ic dist inct ion bet ween mind and body disappeared.
2. Cast ing off the mind dust : Nyoj's phrase t o designat e a Zen enlightenment
experience.
3. Five desires and five hinderances: t he five desires are desires for mat erial
wealt h, sex, food, honor, and sleep, which five hinderances include
avarice, anger, sleep, anxiet y, and doubt .
4. Act ive-passive scheme: An explanat ory scheme to account how t he mind
funct ions in const it ut ing it s object, whether it is an idea or an external
object .
5. Nondiscriminat ory awareness or "seeing wit hout being a seer": a deep
st at e of meditat ion or a state of absorpt ion in which awareness becomes
nondiscriminatory, or a st at e of awareness in which no ego is posit ed for
awareness t o occur.
6. Foreground-background dist inct ion: Gest alt 's psychology's terminology
t o explain how a thing appears in the field of percept ual consciousness.
7. Bottomless background (of not hing): refers to a special mode of awareness
which is in t une with t he primordial ground of things that are not
det ermined by anything else except by it s own self-det erminat ion.
8. Zero Space and Zero Time: t he primordial ground of things wherein t here
is no t emporalizat ion and spat ializat ion.
xv
9. Being-t ime (just now & ranging/passing): Dgen's theory of t ime wherein
t ime and being are t hought to be inseparable from each other.
10. Logic of int erdependence: t he logic which st at es t hat a being or a thing
depends on something else for it t o be.
11. Mut ual int erdependence: a thing/event is what it is in virt ue of t he fact
t hat it is det ermined by ot her t hing-event s, and while at the same t ime
det ermining them.

Responsible editor: Suet Huey Soon ().
xvi
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1989 Zen and Western Thought (Honolulu, Hawai'i: t he University of
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Taiwan Journal of East Asian Studies, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Issue 15), June 2011, pp.

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