01-Tm2106euo1 - Eg0001-Theway To Cdma (Abeer)

The Way to CDMA Technology
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Contents
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
2
2.1
2.2
3
3.1
3.2
4
4.1
5
5.1
5.2
6
6.1
6.2
7
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.1.1
7.2.2
7.2.2.1
7.2.3
8
8.1
Introduction to Cellular Technology
Progress in Radio Communications
The Growth in Cellular Market & its demands
Why is it called cellular?
Advantages of Digital Communications
Digital Communication
Digital Mobile Systems
Cellular System Architecture
System Architecture
Types of cells
Cellular System Components
Cellular System Componants
Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
Reasons leading to Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
Result of Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
Solutions against Air transmission Problems
Solutions for Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
Solutions for Bit Error Rate
Transmission Principles
Duplex Transmission
Multiple Access Techniques
Frequency Division Multiple Access
The Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
Time Division Multiple Access
The GSM network
Code Division Multiple Access
Data Transmission
Data Transmission Development
3
4
6
8
11
12
14
17
18
20
23
24
26
27
29
32
33
35
38
39
41
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1 Introduction to Cellular Technology
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1.1 Progress in Radio Communications
The quest to know the unknown and see the unseen is inherent in human nature.
It is this restlessness that has propelled mankind to ever-higher pinnacles and ever-
deeper depths. This insatiable desire led to the discovery of light as being
electromagnetic, paving the way to discovery of the radio.
The origin of radio can be traced back to the year 1680 to Newton theory of
composition of white light of various colors. This theory brought the importance as
light as an area of study to the attention of many scientists, especially those in
Europe, who began to pursue experiments with light which lead to
importantdiscoveries connected to the eventual development of the radio.
These discoveries are the foundation of todays wireless cimmunicaton systems.
Experiments with light are still being carried out today in many universities, and
industries. One of the outcomes of light experiments in the 1970s is the optical fiber,
which is currently being used for long haul voice and data transmission. It is
believed that the use of optical fiber technology will increase dramatically the
introduction of wideband networks for voice, data, and video transmission, which is
based on the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) switch.
Radio connections were first used for Wireless Communications in the late 19th
century; information was sent via "ether" as follows:


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Progress in Radio communications

1873 Electromagnetic wave theory by J.C. Maxwell
1887 Experimental proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves by H. Hertz
1895 First receiver with antenna for weather reports by A. Popow
1895 First wireless transmission using spark inductor generated by G. M. Marconi
1897 Marconi Wireless Telegraphy Company founded
1901 First transatlantic transmission by Marconi
1909 First radio broadcast at New York, Caruso
1917 First mobile transmission, BS - train
1952 Usage of Analogue Mobile Systems in USA and Europe
1978 CEPT reserved 2x25MHz for GSM
1992 Commercial use of GSM
Fig.1

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1.2 The Growth in Cellular Market & its demands
The cellular telephone industry has enjoyed phenomenal growth since its inception
in 1983. In just one more example of the impossibility of projecting the adoption of
new technologies, a widely accepted 1985 prediction held that the total number of
cellular subscribers might reach as many as 900,000 by the year 2000. In fact, by the
end of 1994 there were well over 20 million subscribers in the United States alone,
and approximately 50 million worldwide. Recent annual subscriber growth rates have
been as high as 40%, and it is believed that this growth rate could continue through
the rest of the 1990s.
In order to meet this increasing demand for service, new digital cellular telephone
systems have been introduced during the first half of the 1990s. As today's cellular
operators move to adopt these new technologies in their systems, they demand:

l Increased capacity within their existing spectrum allocation and easy
deployment of any technology it takes to get them that capacity increase.
l Higher capacities and lower system design costs (plus lower infrastructure
costs) which will lead to a lower cost per subscriber.
l A lower cost per subscriber combined with new subscriber features, which
will help the operators to increase their market penetration.
l An increased market penetration, which will lead to an increase in number of
subscribers and a system, which offers support for that, increased capacity.
l High quality calls must be maintained during the change to or migration to any
new digital technology.


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Avdantages of cellular communications

Fig.2

lower cost per subscriber
Increased market penetration
Higher capacities
lower system design costs
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1.3 Why is it called cellular?
Everyone is familiar with the usage of the term cellular in describing mobile radio
systems. You probably know that it is called cellular because the network is
composed of a number of cells. Mobile radio systems work on the basis of cells for
two reasons.
The first reason is that radio signals at the frequencies used for cellular travel
only a few kilometers (kms) from the point at which they are transmitted.
They travel more or less equal distances in all directions; hence, if one transmitter
is viewed in isolation, the area around it where a radio signal can be received is
typically approximately circular. If the network designer wants to cover a large area,
then he must have a number of transmitters positioned so that when one gets to the
edge of the first cell there is a second cell overlapping slightly, providing radio signal.
Hence the construction of the network is a series of approximately circular cells.
The second reason has to do with the availability of something called radio
spectrum. Simply, radio spectrum is what radio signals use to travel through space.
Using a mobile radio system, it consumes a certain amount of radio spectrum for
the duration of the call. An analogy here is car parks. When you park your car in a car
park it takes up a parking space. When you leave the car park, the space becomes
free for someone else to use. The number of spaces in the car park is strictly limited
and when there are as many cars as there are spaces nobody else can use the car
park until someone leaves.
Radio spectrum in any particular cell is rather like this. However, there is an
important difference. Once you move far enough away from the first cell, the radio
signal will have become much weaker and so the same bit of radio spectrum can be
reused in another cell without the two interfering with each other. By this means, the
same bit of radio spectrum can be reused several times around the country. So
splitting the network into a number of small cells increases the number of users who
can make telephone calls around the country.
So, in summary, cellular radio systems are often called cellular because the
network is composed of a number of cells, each with radius of a few kilometers,
spread across the country. This is necessary because the radio signal does not travel
long distances from the transmitter, but it is also desirable because it allows the radio
frequency to be reused, thus increasing the capacity of the network.


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Fig. 3

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2 Advantages of Digital Communications
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2.1 Digital Communication
First of all we can say that a digital communication system is one where the voice
signal has been digitized prior to wireless transmission.
Digitizing is aprocess where the voice signal is sampled and discrete, numiric
representation of the signal are transmitted ,rather than the original signal itself.
This is much different from analog systems where the original,continuous voice
signal is transmitted using a standard form of FM modulation.
As the term Digital implies, the voice signal is digitized for transmission within the
cellular networks.Once digitized, Advanced coding , transmission,and error correction
techniques are employed. These additional techniques make it possible to detect and
correct transmission errors at the receiving end.
Another advantage of digital wireless communications is that digital provides more
traffic capacity per given RF spectrum. This is made possible by using the channel
bandwidth more efficiently .
In digital systems, multible users occupy the same frequency, and they are
separated by time or codes. This is more efficient than assigning each user to a
separate frequency , which is efficient than assigning each user to a separate
frequency, which is common in analog systems.
Digital systems also use techniques to reduce, or compress the amount of
information to be transmitted over the air from each user.
These compression techniques can take advantage of the probability that not
every user needs maximum bandwidth at exactly the same moment.
Another advantage of digital communication system is that they have ah inherent
level of security . Unothorized listeners must have complex receivers, they must
decode the digital information, and then they must convert the digital signal into
analog signal.
Digital has better built-in support for non-voice services and user data traffic.
By bypassing the voice signal compression process, user data can be processed
directly in their digital formats.
With digital systems, there is no need to convert the signal. The data is simply
passed through as digital information. This digital information can usually be
processed through the system at higher speeds.
Lastly , Analog sytems, on the other hand, use much simpler transmission
techniques, which require a receiver no more complex than an inexpensive FM radio.


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Avdantages of digital communications

Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Security
Higher capacities
Easily Maintainance
Minaturization an friendleness
High Quality with low cost
Worlwide Availability
New Service Implementation
High Fidility
Distance to BS
Signal
Quality
Digital Signal
Analogue
Signal
Transmission
Quality:
Easy to regenerate
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2.2 Digital Mobile System
As demand for mobile telephone service has increased, service providers found
that basic engineering assumptions borrowed from wireline (landline) networks did
not hold true in mobile systems and the early analogue systems quickly became
saturated, and the quality of service decreased rapidly.
The components of a typical digital cellular system is shown in fig..
The advantages of digital cellular technologies over analog cellular networks
include increased capacity and security. Technology options such as TDMA and
CDMA offer more channels in the same analog cellular bandwidth and encrypted
voice and data.


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Fig.6

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3 Cellular System Architecture
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3.1 System Architecture
Increases in demand and the poor quality of old service led mobile service
providers to research ways to improve the quality of service and to support more
users in their systems. Because the amount of frequency spectrum available for
mobile cellular use was limited, efficient use of the required frequencies was needed
for mobile cellular coverage. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions
are divided into areas according to specific provisioning guidelines.
Deployment parameters, such as amount of cell-splitting and cell sizes, are
determined by engineers experienced in cellular system architecture.
Provisioning for each region is planned according to an engineering plan that
includes cells, clusters, frequency reuse, and handovers.
Cells and Cell Splitting
A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system.The term cellular comes
from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region is divided.
Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas that are represented
as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the landscape. Because of
constraints imposed by natural terrain and man-made structures, the true shape of
cells is not a perfect hexagon.
Unfortunately, economic considerations made the concept of creating full systems
with many small areas impractical. To overcome this difficulty, system operators
developed the idea of splitting cells into sectors to form sector cells.
Clusters
A cluster is a group of cells in which all available frequencies have been used
once. No channels are reused within a cluster.
Frequency Reuse
The concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning to each cell a group of radio
channels used within a small geographic area. Cells are assigned a group of
channels that is completely different from neighboring cells. The coverage area of
cells are called the footprint. This footprint is limited by a boundary so that the same
group of channels can be used in different cells that are far enough away from each
other so that their frequencies do not interfere.Cells with the same number have the
same set of frequencies.


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Cluster

Fig.7

Fig.8

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3.2 Types of cells
Different types of cells are used due to the density variation of population.
Macrocells
The macrocells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas.
Microcells
These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas
into smaller cells, the number of channels available is increased as well as the
capacity of the cells. The power level of the transmitters used in these cells is then
decreased, reducing the possibility of interference between neighboring cells.
Selective cells
It is not always useful to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In some
cases, cells with a particular shape and coverage are needed. These cells are called
selective cells.
A typical example of selective cells is the cells that may be located at the
entrances of tunnels where coverage of 360 degrees is not needed. In this case, a
selective cell with coverage of 120 degrees is used.
Umbrella cells
A freeway crossing very small cells produces an important number of handovers
among the different small neighboring cells. In order to solve this problem, the
concept of umbrella cells is introduced. An umbrella cell covers several microcells.
The power level inside an umbrella cell is increased comparing to the power levels
used in the microcells that form the umbrella cell. When the speed of the mobile is
too high, the mobile is handed off to the umbrella cell. The mobile will then stay
longer in the same cell (in this case the umbrella cell). This will reduce the number of
handovers and the work of the network .A too important number of handover
demands and the propagation characteristics of a mobile can help to detect its high
speed.
Handoff
The final obstacle in the development of the cellular network involved the problem
created when a mobile subscriber traveled from one cell to another during a call. As
adjacent areas do not use the same radio channels, a call must either be dropped or
transferred from one radio channel to another when a user crosses the line between
adjacent cells. Because dropping the call is unacceptable, the process of handoff
was created. Handoff occurs when the mobile telephone network automatically
transfers a call from radio channel to radio channel as a mobile crosses adjacent
cells.
During a call, When the mobile unit moves out of the coverage area of a given cell
site, the reception becomes weak. At this point, the cell site in use requests a
handoff. The system switches the call to a stronger frequency channel in a new site
and the call continues as long as the user is talking, and the user does not notice the
handoff at all.


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Fig.9

Fig.10

Fig.11

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4 Cellular System Components
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4.1 Cellular System Components
The cellular system offers mobile and portable telephone stations the same
service provided fixed stations over conventional wired loops. It has the capacity to
serve tens of thousands of subscribers in a major metropolitan area. The cellular
communications system consists of the following four major components that work
together to provide mobile service to subscribers:
1. Mobile telephone switching office (MTSO)
2. Cell site with antenna system
3. Mobile Station (MS)
Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
The MTSO is the central office for mobile switching. It houses the mobile switching
center (MSC), field monitoring and relay stations for switching calls from cell sites to
wireline central offices (PSTN).
The Cell Site
The term cell site is used to refer to the physical location of radio equipments that
provide coverage within a cell. A list of hardware located at a cell site includes power
sources, interface equipment, radio frequency transmitters and receivers, and
antenna systems.
Mobile Station (MS)
The mobile subscriber unit consists of a control unit and a transceiver that
transmits and receives radio transmissions to and from a cell site. Three types of
MSUs are available:
1. The mobile telephone (typical transmit power is 4.0 watts)
2. The portable (typical transmit power is 0.6 watts)
3. The transportable (typical transmit power is 1.6 watts)
The mobile telephone is installed in the trunk of a car, and the handset is installed
in a convenient location to the driver. Portable and transportable telephones are hand
held and can be used anywhere. The use of port able and transportable telephones
is limited to the charge life of the internal battery.


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Fig.12

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5 Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
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5.1 Reasons leading to Wireless Digital Transmission
Problems
Wireless communication channels suffer from severe attenuation and signal
fluctuations and this is mainly due to three important reasons which are:
1. Velocity of Mobile Station within the area of the Base Tranciever Station.
2. Distance between Mobile Station and the Base Tranciever Station.
3. Obstacles between the Mobile Station and the Base Tranciever Station.
Large attenuation is due to the users mobility through the propagation
environment that causes almost no direct signal from the transmitter can reach the
receiver. Even if so, the line-of-sight signal may be superimposed by its reflected
or scattered duplicates that reach the receiver at different time instant causing
signal fluctuations. When a mobile station moves from one location to another, all
propagation scenario may change completely and the received signal changes
accordingly. Three different models that are commonly used to characterise a
wireless channel are:
Propagation path loss (near-far attenuation) .
Shadowing (variation on the average power) .
Multipath fading (fast signal fluctuation).

Propagation path loss
It occurs when the received signal becomes weaker and weaker due to
increasing distance between MS and BTS . Path loss is proportional to the square
of the distance and the square of the transmitted frequency .
Shadowing
It is due to obstacles being between the MS and the BTS , like buildings, hills
etc. When the MS moves around , the signal fluctuates normally around a mean
value depending on the obstacles.
Multipath fading
It occures when there is more than one transmission path to the MS or BTS ,
and therefore more than one signal is arriving at the receiver .This may be due to
buildings or mountains , either close to or far from the reciving device,Rayleigh
fading and time dispersion are forms of multipath fading.
1. Rayleigh fading
It occures when the signal takes more than one path between the MS and
BTS. Rayleigh fading occurs when the obstacles are near to the receiving antenna
2. Time dispersion
It contrasts to Rayleigh fading , the reflected signal comes from an object far
away from the receiving antenna .Since the bit rate on the air is 270 kbit/sec,one
bit corresponds to 3.7 sec or 1.1 km . If an obstacle is further than 500 m away,
then the reflected bit will interfere with the next transmitted bit (ISI).


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Fig.13

Fig.14

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5.2 Result of Wireless Digital Transmission Problems
Bit Error Rate
Sometimes, when you are using a mobile phone, you will notice that the speech
quality breaks up or disappears completely for short periods of time. By moving
toward a window you can sometimes improve the situation. This loss of speech
quality is caused by errors. That means, the transmitter might send 1011, but
because of propagation problems, such as fast fading, the receiver gets 1001.The
third bit is said to be in error. This is a little like spelling something over the
phone.You might say S but the person at the other end might respond was that F?
An error was made because the line was not of sufficient quality.
Mobile phones contain advanced systems for correcting errors but However, these
systems are not always able to remove all the errors. Without error correction, the
speech quality would always be so terrible that you would never be able to
understand the other person.
Interference, fading, and random noise cause errors to be received, the level of
which will depend on the severity of the interference. The presence of errors can
cause problems. For speech coders such as ADPCM (Adaptive Defrential PCM), if
the bit error rate (BER) rises above 10
-3
(that is, 1 bit in every 1000 is in error, or the
error rate is 0.1%) then the speech quality becomes unacceptable.
For near-perfect voice quality, error rates of the order of 10
-6
are required. For data
transfers, users expect much better error rates, for example on computer files, error
rates higher than 10
-9
are normally unacceptable.
If the only source of error on the channel was random noise, then it would be
possible, and generally efficient, to simply ensure that the received signal power was
sufficient to achieve the required error performance without any need for error
correction. However, where fast fading is present, fades can be momentarily as deep
as 40 dB. To increase the received power by 40 dB to overcome such fades would
be highly inefficient, resulting in a significantly reduced range and increased
interference to other cells. Instead, error correction coding accepts that bits will be
received in error during fades but attempts to correct these using extra bits
(redundant bits) added to the signal.


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Fig.15

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6 Solutions of Air transmission problems
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6.1 Solutions for Wireless Digital Transmission
Problems
Antenna Diversity
It increases the received signal strength by taking advantage of the nature
properties of radio waves , there are two diversity methods, they are :-
1. Space diversity .
2. Polarization diversity .
Space diversity
can be achieved by mounting two receivers instead of one . If the two receivers
are physically separated , the probability that both of them are affected by a deep
fading dip at the same time is low .
Polarization diversity
With this technique the two space diversity receivers are replased by one dual
polarized antenna , the antenna contains two differently polarized antenna arrays.

Time Advance
Time Advance is introduced to overcome the effect of time alignment. When the
MS is moving far away from the BTS , this BTS tells the MS how much time ahead of
the synchronization time it must transmit the burst .


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Fig.16

Fig.17

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6.2 Solutions for Bit Error Rate
Channel Coding
Error correction is widely deployed in mobile radio, where fast fading is
almost universally present. Error correction systems all work by adding redundancy
to the transmitted signal. The receiver checks that the redundant information is as it
would have expected and, if not, can make error correction decisions. In an error
detection scheme, the receiver requests that the block that was detected to be in
error is retransmitted. Such schemes are called automatic request repeat
(ARQ).Some of the more advanced coding systems can perform error correction and
also detect if there were too many errors for it to be possible to correct them all and
hence request retransmission in this case.
Interleaving
Signals traveling through a mobile communication channel are susceptible
to fading. The error-correcting codes are designed to combat errors resulting from
fades and, at the same time, keep the signal power at a reasonable level. Most error-
correcting codes perform well in correcting random errors. However, during periods
of deep fades, long streams of successive or burst errors may render the error-
correcting function useless. Interleaving is a technique for randomizing the bits in a
message stream so that burst errors introduced by the channel can be converted to
random errors.


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Fig.17

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7 Transmission Principles
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7.1 Duplex Transmission
FDD and TDD
Two duplex methods are used for coordinating the uplink (UL) and downlink (DL)
components of a transmission between a base station and a mobile station, namely
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD).
UL and DL are implemented for FDD in different frequency bands. The gap
between the two frequency bands for UL and DL is known as the duplex distance. It
is constant for all mobile stations in a standard. Generally the DL frequency band is
positioned at the higher frequency than the UL band.
In the case of TDD, UL and DL are implemented in the same frequency band,
Uplink (UL) and Downlink (DL) takes place at different times. There is fast switching
between UL and DL transmission, so that the user has the impression of
simultaneous transmission and reception.
As a result, only a fraction of the time needed for analog transmission is required
for digital transmission of subscriber data.


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Fig.18

Fig.19

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7.2 Multiple Access Techniques
Wireless telecommunications has drastic increase in popularity, resulting in the
need for technologies that allow multiple users to share the same spectrum, called
Multiple Access techniques.
FDMA, TDMA and CDMA are the three major technologies available, along with
variations of each.
All three technologies have one goal in common that is the most important concept
to any cellular telephone systems which is Multiple Access, meaning that multiple,
simultaneous users can be supported. In other words, a large number of users share
a common pool of radio channels. The technologies differ significantly in the manner
by which they accomplish this sharing.

7.2.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access
FDMA is used for standard analog cellular. Each user is assigned a discrete band
of the RF spectrum.The voice signal of each user is modulated on a separate
channel frequency, which is assigned 100% of the time to that user.
For example:
AMPS systems use 30 kHz "slices" of spectrum for each channel. Narrowband
AMPS (NAMPS) requires only 10 kHz per channel. TACS channels are 25 kHz wide.
With FDMA, only one subscriber at a time is assigned to a channel. No other
conversations can access this channel until the subscriber's call is finished, or until
that original call is handed off to a different channel by the system. In order to
overcome this inefficiency, digital access technologies were introduced.

FDMA requires NO system timing.
FDMA requires NO timing accuracy.
FDMA based Analog system generally considered as a low capacity system.


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Fig.20

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7.2.1.1 The Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
AMPS was released in 1983 using the 800-MHz to 900-MHz frequency band and
the 30 kHz bandwidth for each channel as a fully automated mobile telephone
service. It was the first standardized cellular service in the world and is currently the
most widely used standard for cellular communications. Designed for use in cities,
AMPS later expanded to rural areas. It maximized the cellular concept of frequency
reuse by reducing radio power output. The AMPS telephones (or handsets) have the
familiar telephone-style user interface and are compatible with any AMPS base
station. This makes mobility between service providers (roaming) simpler for
subscribers. Limitations associated with AMPS include:

1. Low calling capacity
2. Limited spectrum
3. No room for spectrum growth
4. Poor data communications
5. Minimal privacy
6. Inadequate fraud protection

AMPS is used throughout the world and is particularly popular in the United
States, South America, China, and Australia. AMPS uses frequency modulation (FM)
for radio transmission. In the United States, transmissions from mobile to cell site use
separate frequencies from the base station to the mobile subscriber.


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7.2.2 Time Division Multiple Access
In TDMA users are still assigned a discrete slice of RF spectrum, but multiple
users now share that RF channel on a time slot basis. Each of the users alternate
their use of the RF channel . Frequency Division is still used, but these carriers are
now further subdivided into some number of time slots ber carrier.
A user is assigned a particular time slot in a carrier and can only send or receive
information at those times. This is true wether or not the other time slots are being
used. Information flow is not continuous for any user, but rather is sent and received
in bursts . The bursets are re-assembled at the receiving end , and appear to
provide continuous sound because the process is very fast.
TDMA digital standards include North American Digital Cellular (known by its
standard number IS-54), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), and
Personal Digital Cellular (PDC).
For example, IS-54 based TDMA system, a 30 kHz channel is divided into 6 time
slots each with 30 kHz band modulated signal. Although there are 6 time slots, each
user needs 2 time slots, so there are a total of 3 users per 30 kHz channel. This is
three times more efficient than AMPS
PDC divides 25 kHz slices of spectrum into three channels.
GSM system uses both FDMA and TDMA operates with a 200 Khz bandwidth,
divided into 8 timeslots, where each user is assigned a single timeslot, thus allowing
8 users per channel frequency.

TDMA requires timing synchronization
TDMA requires millisecond accuracy.
GSM and TDMA are about 3 times more spectral efficient than analog.


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Fig.21

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7.2.2.1 The GSM network
The GSM technical specifications define the different entities that form the GSM
network by defining their functions and interface requirements.
The GSM network can be divided into four main parts:
The Mobile Station (MS).
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS).
The Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS).
The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS).

Mobile Station MS
A Mobile Station consists of two main elements:
1. The Mobile Equipment Terminal.
2. The Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
There are different types of terminals distinguished principally by their power and
application: The `fixed' terminals are the ones installed in cars. Their maximum
allowed output power is 20 W.The GSM portable terminals can also be installed in
vehicles. Their maximum allowed output power is 8W.
The handhels terminals have experienced the biggest success thanks to their
weight and volume, which are continuously decreasing. These terminals can emit up
to 2 W. The evolution of technologies allows decreasing the maximum allowed power
to 0.8 W.

The SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)
The SIM is a smart card that identifies the terminal. By inserting the SIM card into
the terminal, the user can have access to all the subscribed services. Without the
SIM card, the terminal is not operational. The SIM card is protected by a four-digit
Personal Identification Number (PIN). In order to identify the subscriber to the
system, the SIM card contains some parameters of the user such as its International
Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Another advantage of the SIM card is the mobility of the users. In fact, the only
element that personalizes a terminal is the SIM card. Therefore, the user can have
access to its subscribed services in any terminal using its SIM card.


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Fig.22

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The Base Station Subsystem

The BSS connects the Mobile Station and the NSS. It is in charge of the transmission
and reception. The BSS can be divided into two parts:
The Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
The Base Station Controller (BSC).

1. The Base Transceiver Station:
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the
network. A BTS is usually placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines
the size of a cell. Each BTS has between one and sixteen transceivers depending on
the density of users in the cell.

2. The Base Station Controller:
The BSC controls a group of BTS and manages their radio ressources. A BSC is
principally in charge of handovers, frequency hopping, exchange functions and
control of the radio frequency power levels of the BTSs.


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Fig.23

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The Network and Switching Subsystem
Its main role is to manage the communications between the mobile users and
other users, such as mobile users, ISDN users, fixed telephony users, etc. It also
includes data bases needed in order to store information about the subscribers and
to manage their mobility. The different components of the NSS are described below.
1. The Mobile services Switching Center (MSC)
It is the central component of the NSS. The MSC performs the switching functions
of the network. It also provides connection to other networks.
2. Home Location Register (HLR)
The HLR is considered as a very important database that stores information of the
suscribers belonging to the covering area of a MSC. It also stores the current location
of these subscribers and the services to which they have access. The location of the
subscriber corresponds to the SS7 address of the Visitor Location Register (VLR)
associated to the terminal.
3. Visitor Location Register (VLR)
The VLR contains information from a subscriber's HLR necessary in order to
provide the subscribed services to visiting users. When a subscriber enters the
covering area of a new MSC, the VLR associated to this MSC will request information
about the new subscriber to its corresponding HLR. The VLR will then have enough
information in order to assure the subscribed services without needing to ask the
HLR each time a communication is established. The VLR is always implemented
together with a MSC; so the area under control of the MSC is also the area under
control of the VLR.
4. The Authentication Center (AuC)
The AuC register is used for security purposes. It provides the parameters needed
for authentication and encryption functions. These parameters help to verify the
user's identity.
5. The Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
The EIR is also used for security purposes. It is a register containing information
about the mobile equipments. More particularly, it contains a list of all valid terminals.
It is identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The EIR allows
then to forbid calls from stolen or unauthorized terminals (e.g, a terminal which does
not respect the specifications concerning the output RF power).
6. The Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
The OSS is connected to the different components of the NSS and to the BSC, in
order to control and monitor the GSM system. It is also in charge of controlling the
traffic load of the BSS. However, the increasing number of base stations, due to the
development of cellular radio networks, has provoked that some of the maintenance
tasks are transfered to the BTS. This transfer decreases considerably the costs of the
maintenance of the system.


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Fig.24

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7.2.3 Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA is a general category of digital wireless radio technologies that uses spread
spectrum techniques to modulate information across given bandwidth.
IS-95 was the first application of CDMA, where information signals from all users
are simultaneously modulated across the entire channel band width (1.23 Mhz).
Unique digital codes keep users separated on the 1.23 Mhz channel.
All the three multiple Access technologies take advantage of the fact that radio
signals travel only a finite distance. The result is that frequencies can be reused with
minimal interference after a minimum distance. The resulting assignment of
frequencies is referred to reuse pattern.
CDMA doesnt require frequency reuse pattern i.e. every code can be used in
every sector of every cell.
In CDMA, timing is critical and aquired from the Global Positioning systemGPS
as accurate synchronization between cells is critical to CDMA operation.
CDMA also requires microsecond accuracy.
The major advantage of CDMA when compared to the other technologies is its
efficient use of available spectrum, as bandwidth efficiecy directly to system capacity.
The greater the efficiency, the more users can share the same spectrum, but it also
can impact the amount of infrastructure equipment required to support a given
number of users. This indirectly impacts the cost of operation.
In recent times, CDMA has gained widespread international acceptance by cellular
radio system operators as an upgrade that will increase both their system capacity
and the service quality.


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Fig.25

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8 Data Transmission
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8.1 Data Transmission Development
One of the problems of data transmission using GSM is posed by the current
comparatively user-unfriendly usage of data services in the terminals (e.g. SMS) or
the complicated connection of terminal equipment via adapter.
Terminal equipment in which different functions are integrated, as well as displays
optimized for each individual data transmission form provide an answer to this.
A decisive problem is posed by the comparatively low data transmission rates of
GSM Phase 1 and 2. Data transmission rates of 0.3 -9.6 kbit/s compared to 64 kbit/s
using ISDN are considerably too low.
To increase the data transmission rates in the Europian system new bearer
services are being developed in GSM Phase 2+, which will adapt the data
transmission rates to the ISDN transmission rates in various usage areas or even, be
considerably above them.

1. High Speed Circuit Switched Data HSCSD
2. General Packet Radio Service GPRS
3. Enhanced Data rates for the GSM Evolution EDGE

To increase the data transmission rates in American System after deployment of
CDMA techniques IS95B was developed, which will adapt the data transmission
rates to the ISDN transmission rates in various usage.


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Fig.26

Fig.27

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