Timeline of Signifcant Events in the Roman Empire, Predating 30 BC

Date Event Details

63 BC Fall of Jerusalem
The Siege of Jerusalem occurred during Pompey the Great's campaigns in the east, shortly
after his successful conclusion of the Third Mithridatic War.
Pompey had been asked to intervene in an internecine war between Hyrcanus II and
Aristobulus II for the throne of the Hasmonean Kingdom. His conquest of Jerusalem, however,
spelled the end of Jewish independence and the incorporation of Judea into the Roman
Republic as a client kingdom.
60!"
BC
An informal coalition
is formed by Gius
Jlius Caesar,
Pompey and Marcus
Licinius Crassus to
govern the Roman
republic. This
coalition is often
referred to as the First
triumvirate, even
though it did not have
the ofcial sanction of
law required for a
legal triumvirate.
The First Triumvirate was the political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus,
and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Unlike the Second Triumvirate, the First Triumvirate had no
ofcial status whatsoever; its overwhelming power in the Roman Republic was strictly unofcial
infuence, and was in fact kept secret for some time as part of the political machinations of the
Triumvirs themselves. It was formed in 60 BC and lasted until Crassus' death in 53 BC.
The Triumvirate was kept secret until the Senate obstructed Caesar's proposed agrarian law
establishing colonies of Roman citizens and distributing portions of the public lands (ager
publicus). He promptly brought the law before the Council of the People in a speech that found
him fanked by Crassus and Pompey, thus revealing the alliance.
The alliance had allowed the Triumvirs to dominate Roman politics completely, but it would not
last indefnitely due to the ambitions, egos, and jealousies of the three; Caesar and Crassus
were implicitly hand-in-glove, but Pompey disliked Crassus and grew increasingly envious of
Caesar's spectacular successes in the Gallic War, whereby he annexed the whole of the Three
Gauls to Rome.
!#!0
BC
Caesar fghts the
Gallic Wars, acquiring
the province of Gallia
Comata
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius
Caesar against several Gallic tribes. Rome's war against the Gallic tribes lasted from 58 BC to
50 BC and culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman
victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul (mainly present
day France and Belgium). The wars paved the way for Julius Caesar to become the sole ruler
of the Roman Republic.
Although Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, most
historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost Caesar's political career and to
pay of his massive debts. Still, Gaul was of signifcant military importance to the Romans, as
these had been attacked several times by native tribes both indigenous to Gaul and farther to
the north. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the river Rhine.
!"!3
BC
First campaign
against the Parthian
Empire; Crassus
utterly defeated and
killed
Following his second Consulship, Crassus was appointed as the Governor of Roman Syria.
Crassus used Syria as the launchpad for a military campaign against the Parthian Empire,
Rome's long-time Eastern enemy. Crassus' campaign was a disastrous failure, resulting in his
defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae.
"$ BC Caesar crosses the
Rubicon (alea iacta
est) and begins the
Second Roman civil
war against the
Optimates, the
conservative faction
of the Senate, led by
Pompey
In 49 BC, perhaps on January 10, C. Julius Caesar led a single legion, Legio XIII Gemina,
south over the Rubicon from Cisalpine Gaul to Italy to make his way to Rome. In doing so, he
(deliberately) broke the law on imperium and made armed confict inevitable. Suetonius depicts
Caesar as undecided as he approached the river, and attributes the crossing to a supernatural
apparition.
It was reported that Caesar dined with Sallust, Hirtius, Oppius, Lucius Balbus and Sulpicus
Rufus on the night after his famous crossing into Italy January 10.
According to Suetonius, Caesar uttered the famous phrase lea iacta est ("the die has been
cast"). The phrase "crossing the Rubicon" has survived to refer to any individual or group
committing itself irrevocably to a risky or revolutionary course of action, similar to the modern
phrase "passing the point of no return". Caesar's decision for swift action forced Pompey, the
lawful consuls (C. Claudius Marcellus and L. Cornelius Lentulus Crus), and a large part of the
Roman Senate to fee Rome in fear. Caesar's subsequent victory in Caesar's civil war ensured
that punishment for the infraction would never be rendered.
"#"!
BC
Caesar pursues and
defeats the
Optimates in Greece
and Africa
In general, the optimates favored the nobiles and opposed the ascension of novi homines into
Roman politics, but exceptions exist.
Cicero, for example, a strong supporter of the optimates' cause, was himself a novus homo,
being the frst in his family to enter the Senate; he was thus never fully accepted by the
optimates. On the other hand, during the civil war of 49 BC, Julius Caesar, of a respectable old
family, contended against a Senate championed by Pompey the Great.
In addition to their political aims, the optimates opposed the extension of Roman citizenship,
and sought the preservation of the mos maiorum, the ways of their forefathers. They sought to
prevent successful generals, such as Gaius Marius, Pompey the Great, and Julius Caesar,
from using their armies to accrue such power that they might be in a position to challenge the
Senate. They opposed Marius' plan to enlist impoverished Romans, too poor to provide their
own arms and supplies in the legions, and the generals' attempts to settle these veterans on
state-owned land.
"" BC Caesar is
assassinated on the
Ides of March
On the Ides of March, Caesar was due to appear at a session of the Senate. Mark Antony,
having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrifed Liberator named Servilius
Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar of. The plotters, however, had anticipated
this and, fearing that Antony would come to Caesar's aid, had arranged for Trebonius to
intercept him just as he approached the portico of Theatre of Pompey, where the session was
to be held, and detain him outside. (Plutarch, however, assigns this action to delay Antony to
Brutus Albinus). When he heard the commotion from the senate chamber, Antony fed.
According to Plutarch, as Caesar arrived at the Senate, Tillius Cimber presented him with a
petition to recall his exiled brother.The other conspirators crowded round to ofer support. Both
Plutarch and Suetonius say that Caesar waved him away, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders
and pulled down Caesar's tunic. Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!"
The senators encircle Caesar. A 19th-century interpretation of the event by Carl Theodor von
Piloty. At the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the
dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to
Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?"Casca, frightened, shouted,
"Help, brother!" Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the
dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men
continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to
Eutropius, around 60 or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times.
"""%
BC
Third Roman civil war,
between the
assassins of Caesar
(led by Cassius and
Brutus) and Caesar's
heirs, Octavian and
Mark Antony
After the murder of Caesar, Brutus and Cassius (the two main conspirators, also known as the
Liberatores) had left Italy and taken control of all Eastern provinces (from Greece and
Macedonia to Syria) and of the allied Eastern kingdoms. In Rome the three main Caesarian
leaders (Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus), who controlled almost all the Roman
army in the west, had crushed the opposition of the senate and established the second
triumvirate. One of their frst tasks was to destroy the Liberators forces, not only to get full
control of the Roman world, but also to avenge Caesars death.
The frst Battle of Philippi consisted of two engagements in the plain to the west of the ancient
city of Philippi. The frst occurred on the frst week of October; Brutus faced Octavian, while
Antony's forces were up against those of Cassius. At frst, Brutus pushed back Octavian and
entered his legions' camp. But to the south, Antony defeated Cassius, and Cassius, hearing a
false report of Brutus' failure, committed suicide. Brutus rallied Cassius's remaining troops and
both sides ordered their army to retreat to their camps with their spoils, and the battle was
essentially a draw, but for Cassius' suicide.
A second encounter, on 23 October, fnished of Brutus's forces, and he committed suicide in
turn, leaving the triumvirate in control of the Roman Republic. The battle resulted in close
combat between two armies of well-trained veterans. Arrows or javelins were largely ignored
and the soldiers packed into solid ranks fought face-to-face with their swords, and the slaughter
was terrible. In the end, Brutus attack was repulsed, and his soldiers routed in confusion, their
ranks broken. Octavian's soldiers were able to capture the gates of Brutus camp before the
routing army could reach this defensive position. Thus, Brutus army could not reform making
the triumvirs victory complete. Brutus was able to retreat into the nearby hills with the
equivalent of only 4 legions. Seeing that surrender and capture were inevitable he committed
suicide the next day.
"3 BC Octavian, Antony and
Lepidus form the
second triumvirate
The Second Triumvirate is the name historians give to the ofcial political alliance of Octavian
(later known as Augustus), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony, formed on 26
November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which marked the end of
the Roman Republic. The Triumvirate existed for two fve-year terms, covering the period 43 BC
33 BC.
Unlike the earlier First Triumvirate, the Second Triumvirate was an ofcial, legally established
institution, whose overwhelming power in the Roman state was given full legal sanction and
whose imperium maius outranked that of all other magistrates, including the consuls.
36 3%
BC
Antony's Parthian
campaign ends in
failure and Antony
ends peaceful
With the aid of Mark Antony, Triumvir and lover of Egyptian Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII, the
son-in-law of Hyrcanus, Herod, returned to Judea and recaptured Jerusalem in 37 BC. Antony
then went on to attack the Parthian Empire itself, marching into Atropatene (present-day Iranian
Azerbaijan) with some 100,000 legionaries, aided by the Roman client kings in Armenia,
relations with
Octavian
Galatia, Cappadocia and sovereign Pontus. The campaign proved a disaster however, after a
Roman slipup at Phraaspa, capital of Atropatene, and thousands of Romans and auxiliaries
died during the retreat due to the cold winter. Antony lost more than a quarter of its strength in
the course of the campaign.
Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a
mock Roman Triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city
was a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration. For the fnale, the whole city was
summoned to hear a very important political statement. In 34 BC, surrounded by Cleopatra and
her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian.
3& BC In the battle of
Actium, Octavian
decisively defeats
Antony and Cleopatra
The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic, a
naval engagement between Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra
on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the city of Actium, in the Roman province of
Epirus vetus in Greece. Octavian's feet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while
Antony's feet was supported by the ships of Queen Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt.
Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He
adopted the title of Princeps ("frst citizen") and some years later was awarded the title of
Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in
later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but
historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifcs as the
end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.
30 BC
ENDING OF THE PLAY:
(may contain suicide)
'( SP()*ERS +ERE