Latin Online

Series Introduction
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Latin is probably the easiest of the older languages for speakers of English to learn, both
because of their earlier relationship and because of the long use of Latin as the language of
educational, ecclesiastical, legal and political affairs in western culture. Moreover, we use the
Latin alphabet, so that the language is read without difficulty. On the other hand, the sentence
structure and number of forms require a great deal of attention, since the words of sentences
are placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a pattern like that of the English
Subect!"erb!Obect sentence. #t is essential, then, to learn the basic inflections of nouns and
verbs.
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1. The Latin alphabet and pronunciation.
)he Latin alphabet was taken over from the *reek through Etruscan. )he order of the letters
is therefore much the same as in *reek, as is also true of most of their pronunciation. )he +,!
letter alphabet is as follows%
- . / 0 E 1 * 2 # 3 L M $ O 4 5 6 S ) " 7 8 9
English has maintained this order with a few modifications. #n Latin the letter # was used both
for its vocalic value and to represent the sound y as in yet. -n elongated form of the letter, :,
was later introduced. .ut this is generally pronounced today as in jam, while the letter 8
represents the consonantal value of #. Similarly, the Latin letter " was used to represent both
the vocalic value of ; as in hue, and the sound w as in wet. - rounded form, ;, was
introduced to represent the vowel, and a doubled form, <, was introduced to represent the
consonantal value. #t might also be noted that the third letter of the alphabet was pronounced
with its value in cat, rather than with its value in cent or in our pronunciation of Caesar.
)he chief difference in pronunciation of these letters has to do with the vowels. )he
consonants are pronounced like their principal pronunciations in English. <hether long or
short, the vowels are pronounced as in the languages of Europe. #t might be noted, however,
that when Latin was spoken in everyday use, it was pronounced in accordance with the
pronunciation of the native language in the country, so that the pronunciation in #taly differed
considerably from that in 1rance or *ermany, not to speak of England. .ut today it is
pronounced as we assume it was in the /lassical period of Latin, that is, at the beginning of
our era. #ts pronunciation is simple, if one remembers a few key words. Latin i and e are
pronounced as in English clich= Latin a is pronounced as in father= Latin o is pronounced as
in so, and u as in sue. <hen two vowels are found in the same syllable, each has its normal
value= the first syllable of /aesar was then pronounced with the a as in father and the e as in
clich, so that it was similar to our pronunciation of the pronoun I.
;nlike English, Latin has few silent letters. - line of verse may then be read with every letter
pronounced, such as the first line of "ergil>s Aeneid%
-rma virumque can?, )r?iae qui primus ab ?ris
># sing of the arms and the man, who first @cameA from the shores of )roy>
Or the first line of /easar>s Gallic Wars%
*allia est omnis divisa in partBs trBs
>*aul as a whole is divided into three parts>
2. The vocabulary.
English and Latin belong to the #ndo!European language family= their earlier versions
separated from each other some three thousand years ago. -nd until this century, much
;niversity instruction was carried on in Latin. Moreover, it was taught to many students from
the 2igh School years onward through college. ;niversity scholars often spoke to one another
in Latin, as do members of the "atican to this day. -s a result, English shares many of the
same words, especially in technical fields, although in modified form. $onetheless it is useful
to relate such words to their Latin counterparts.
Some words have undergone little change so that their roots are close to those of their Latin
equivalents, if spelled somewhat differently, for eCample, English spew, Latin spuere, English
stand, Latin stDre. .ut most of the common words that the two languages share by inheritance
are somewhat concealed, many of them because of a massive change of consonants in
*ermanic somewhat before our era. )he change was formulated by the great *erman scholar,
:akob *rimm, and is known as *rimm>s law, which is listed even in smaller dictionaries of
English. -t this time, p t ! were changed to sounds that today are represented by f th h.
-mong eCamples are% father, compare Latin pater= mother, compare Latin mater= horn,
compare Latin cornu. -nd the sounds represented as "h dh #h in #ndo!European were
changed to the sounds that today are represented by " d #. )hese were also changed in Latin,
where "h is represented by f, as in Latin frater, compare English "rother= similarly, dh is also
represented by f in Latin, as in foris, English door= and #h is represented by h among other
developments, as in Latin hanser, later anser, English #oose. -nd d # were changed to t ! '"
was rare in #ndo!European(. /ompare Latin edere, English eat= Latin gelidus, English cold.
#t is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have
undergone often conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and fi$e. Most of the
others are transparently related, in spite of the changes% Latin Enus, one= duo, two= trBs, three=
quattuor, four= quinque, five= seC, siC= septem, seven= octo, eight= novem, nine= decem, ten.
Since dictionaries often provide the Latin cognates of English entries, control over the Latin
vocabulary can be gained by noting them.
.y far the greatest number of similar words are found in technical language, where English
simply took over the Latin terms as industrial, political and technological affairs became more
compleC, especially in the last several centuries= ecclesiastical terms were taken over as
England was christianiFed. )he words were pronounced in accordance with the English
spellings, rather than with their pronunciation in Latin. Some eCamples from these specialties
are cited here.
)he industrial and technological spheres include such words as ar"itrate a#ent auction
calculate contract junction la"or premium propeller science specimen. )he political and
legal sphere includes such terms as affida$it alias ali"i di$orce ha"eas corpus injunction
su"poena. )he ecclesiastical sphere includes such words as altar confession doctrine infidel
repent sal$ation trinity. -nd other words belong to our every day vocabulary, such as
animal "onus inertia minimum recipe stimulus $acuum. )hanks to the great number of
such importations from Latin it is relatively simple to gain control of its vocabulary.
. The sentence structure of Latin.
-s is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Latin may differ considerably
from that of English. #n an earlier form of Latin, the verb was placed last in the sentence, as it
is in the first clause of the Aeneid. .ut its position in the first line of Gallic Wars is quite
different. )he different positions are possible because of Latin inflections. #n English we
generally have to place together verbal phrases like >is divided>= we can however place some
adverbs between them, as in >is often divided>. .ut we cannot put numerals or adectives after
the nouns they modify, as is done in partes tres. English has strict rules of placement= Latin on
the other hand can move elements around for stylistic purposes, so that instead of writing
omnis *allia, the order that /aesar used is quite acceptable, as is that of partes tres.
#n eCamining a Latin teCt, one should first identify the verb. #ts forms are identifiable through
their inflections. Similarly, the subect, if it is included in addition to the marker in the verb,
should be identified. /learly there is no such subect for can?, so that one translates it with the
subect indicated by its inflection. "erb forms ending in !? have a first person subect, in
contrast with the second person canis >you sing>, canit >he&she sings>. #t is useful, therefore, to
memoriFe the basic inflections of verbs. Similarly, the subect can be identified by its form.
*allia, like many nouns, has feminine gender, and its nominative form ends in !a.
-s illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Latin is provided by knowledge of its
inflections. <hile these are numerous, memoriFation of the basic inflections of nouns and
verbs is generally adequate.
!. The forms of Latin.
!.1 "ouns# ad$ectives and pronouns.
)hese three parts of speech are inflected for five cases, besides a case of address called the
vocative. )he cases are as follows%
"ominative, the case of the subect=
%enitive, the case indicating possession !! possessive, in grammars of English
&ative, the case of the indirect obect
'ccusative, the case of the direct obect !! obective, in grammars of English
'blative, the case indicating separation
/ase forms may also be determined by prepositions.
#n English, only the nominative, genitive&possessive and accusative&obective have been
maintained, and that only in pronouns% I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative.
$ouns simply have a nominative and a possessive, as in do# do#%s. -dectives are not
inflected.
Latin nouns are also inflected for !!
number, that is, sin(ular and plural.
three genders% masculine, feminine, and neuter.
five declensions.
4aradigms are given in the various lessons. 1or illustration here, forms of nouns are shown in
the first declension 'most of which are feminine like via >way>(, and in the second declension
'many of which are masculine such as numerus >number>(, and also the forms of the pronoun
ego >#>%
S(. Pl. S(. Pl. S(. Pl.
"om. via viae numerus numerG ego n?s
%en. viae viDrum numerG numer?rum meG nostrum
&at. viae viGs numer? numerGs mihi n?bis
'cc. viam viDs numerum numer?s mB nos
'bl. viD viGs numer? numerGs mB n?bis
)he vocative in the first declension is the same as the nominative= in the second declension it
ends in e, so that a slave, servus, would be called by saying serve.
!.2 )erbs.
Like nouns, verbs have many inflections%
)hey are inflected for active and passive voice.
)hey are inflected for indicative and subunctive mood.
)hey are inflected for three tenses% present, past or imperfect, and future. Of these
there are two sets% the simple present set and the perfect set. )he perfect forms indicate
a state or completion.
)he conugations are given below. 2ere only a sketch is provided for understanding of the
various forms and their relation to one another with first singular eCamples of the verb laud? >#
praise.>
'ctive voice Passive voice
Indicative Sub$unctive Indicative Sub$unctive
Present
laud? laudem laudor lauder
Imperfect
laudDbam laudDrem laudDbar laudDrer
*uture
laudDb? laudDbor
Perfect
laudDvG laudDverim laudDtus sum laudDtus sim
Past Perfect
laudDveram laudDvissem laudDtus eram laudDtus essem
*uture Perfect
laudDvero laudDtus ero
#n addition there are imperative forms, infinitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. )he
imperative forms are rare in written teCts, and are not illustrated here.
)he present infinitive active is laudDre. )he present participle active is laudans. )he present
infinitive passive is laudDrG. )he perfect participle passive is laudDtus.
.ecause four forms provide sufficient information to produce the others for a verb,
dictionaries and grammars list four principal parts. )hese are% the first person singular present
active, e.g. laud?= the first person singular perfect active, e.g. laudDvG= the perfect participle
passive, e.g. laudDtus= and the present infinitive active, e.g. laudDre. #t is especially important
to note these for verbs of the third conugation, because these are often irregular, e.g. ed? >#
eat>, BdG, Bsus, edere= faci? ># do>, fBcG, factus, facere= scrib? ># write>, scripsG, scriptus, scribere.
'0ictionaries and grammars may give the principal parts with the infinitive as second form=
they may also give the neuter form of the perfect participle passive, e.g. factum.(
!. The other parts of speech.
#n addition to these four parts of speech, Latin includes adverbs, conunctions, interections,
and prepositions. Since their functions are comparable to those of their English counterparts,
they will not be discussed here.
+. ,-amples of te-ts.
4roverbs or passages from literary figures are often cited, also in English works. - few will be
given here to illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntaC.
/aesar% "BnG, vGdG, vGcG.
># came, # saw, # conquered.> @three perfect formsA
1erB libenter homines id quod volunt credunt.
>$early always people believe willingly that which they wish.>
/icero% Salus populG suprema est leC.
>)he welfare of the people is the supreme law.>
Silent enim legBs inter arma.
>Laws indeed are silent in war.>
2orace% #ra furor brevis est.
>-nger is brief madness.>
#nteger vitae, scelerisque purus.
>.lameless in life, and free of sins.>
0ulce et decorum est pro patriD morG.
>#t is sweet and honorable to die for the fatherland.>
)erence% 2omo sum= humanG nil D mB alienum put?.
># am a man= # believe that nothing human is foreign to me.>
$ummumst iam dictum quod non dictum sit prius.
>$othing has yet been said that has not been said earlier.>
"irgil% Equ? nB credite, )eucrG,
5uidquid id est, time? 0ana?s et dona ferentGs.
>0o not trust in the horse, )roans,
<hatever it is, # fear the *reeks also @when theyA are bringing gifts.>
2?s successus alit= possunt, quia posse videntur.
>Success nourishes them= they can because they think they can.>
The Latin Lessons
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J. from Livy>s &istory of Rome , .ook J, Section J
+. from Livy>s &istory of Rome , .ook +, Section JK
,. from /aesar>s Gallic War , .ook L, Section J,
M. from /aesar>s Gallic War , .ook L, Sections JN!+K
N. from /aesar>s Gallic War , .ook L, Sections +J!++
L. from )acitus> Germania , Section JL
O. from Ennius> Annals , Sections PK!JKK
P. from -ugustine>s Confessions , .ook J, Section P
Q. from Einhard>s 'n Charlema#ne
JK. from "irgil>s Aeneid , Section Jff.
Lesson 1
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
)his selection is taken from Livy>s &istory of Rome, .ook #.J.O!JJ. #t describes the arrival of
-eneas and his troops in Latium after the fall of )roy. )he account is mythological,
presumably originated to provide the 6omans with a pedigree comparable to that of the
*reeks. #t is given here partly to relate the myth, and partly to provide a narrative account
parallel to the opening of "ergil>s Aeneid, the teCt for the tenth unit.
)he author, )itus Livius, referred to as Livy 'NQ ../. ! JO -.0.(, was born in 4atavium,
modern 4adua, to an aristocratic family. 2e was well educated in Latin and *reek, and also in
literature and rhetoric. <hile details of his life are scanty, it is assumed that he settled in
6ome about JO ../., when he began his history. 2e was a friend of Emperor -ugustus, and
apparently so situated that he was able to devote himself to his great historical work. -s may
be assumed from this selection, he was primarily concerned with glorifying his country, for
which he incorporated myths as well as facts. 2e was and is greatly admired for his control of
the language, which as in this selection often leads to intricate and lengthy sentences.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
)he selection is the latter part of the account of the landing. -eneas and his men are reported
to have sailed north from Sicily, with nothing in their possession but their ships and weapons.
)hey landed to obtain supplies. )he local king, Latinus, set out to drive them off, but as stated
here he first arranged a parley with -eneas.
/um instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter
primores ducemque advenarum evocasse ad conloquium.
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hen
instructae !! adective= nominative plural feminine of Rinstructus, instructa,
instructumS arranged, ready !! ready
acies !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Racies, acieiS line of battle !! lines of
battle
constitissent !! verb= ,rd person plural pluperfect subunctive of Rc?nstitu?,
c?nstituere, c?nstituG, c?nstitEtumS decide !! had dra/n up
priusquam !! adverb= RpriusquamS before !! before
signa !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rsignum, signiS sign !! si(nals
canerent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rcan?, canere, cecinG,
cantumS sing !! had sounded
processisse !! verb= perfect infinitive of Rpr?cBd?, procedere, processG, processumS
advance !! advanced
Latinum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RLatinus, LatiniS Latinus !!
Latinus
inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! amon(
primores !! adective used as substantive= accusative plural masculine of Rprimoris,
primoris, primoreS chieftain, leader !! his chieftains
ducemque !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RduC, ducisS leader T conunction
R!queS and !! and ... the leader
advenarum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Radvena, advenaeS stranger,
foreigner !! of the stran(ers
evocasse !! verb= perfect infinitive of RBvoc?, evocare, evocDvG, evocatumS call forth,
summon !! summoned
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
conloquium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rconloquium, conloquiS
conference !! a conference
4ercunctatum deinde qui mortales essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes
in agrum Laurentinum eCissent.
percunctatum !! deponent verb= ,rd person perfect passive indicative of RpercEnctor,
percunctDrG, percunctDtus sumS inquire with est understood !! he in0uired
deinde !! adverb= RdeindeS then !! then
qui !! interrogative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rquis, quis, quidS who,
what !! /hat
mortales !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rmortalis, mortalis, mortaleS
mortal !! men
essent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !!
they mi(ht be
unde !! adverb= RundeS from whence !! from /hich place
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or at least
quo !! adverb= RquoS what !! by /hich
casu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rcasus, casusS fall, misfortune, chance !!
chance
profecti !! deponent verb= nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive
of RproficGscor, proficiscG, profectus sumS set out !! had set out
domo !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rdomus, domiS house !! from home
quidve !! interrogative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rquis, quis, quidS who,
what T conunction R!veS or !! or /hat
quaerentes !! verb= nominative plural masculine of present participle of Rquaer?,
quaerere, quaesGvG, quaesGtumS look for, search !! see1in(
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
agrum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rager, agriS land !! into the lands
Laurentinum !! adective= accusative singular masculine of RLaurentinus, Laurentina,
LaurentinumS Laurentinus !! of Laurentum
exissent !! verb= ,rd person plural pluperfect subunctive of ReCe?, eCire, eCiG,
eCitumS go out, leave !! they had (one out to
4ostquam audierit multitudinem )roianos esse, ducem -eneam, filium -nchisae et "eneris,
cremata patria domo profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere.
postquam !! conunction= RpostquamS after !! after
audierit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect subunctive of Raudi?, audGre, audGvG,
audGtumS hear !! he heard
multitudinem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rmultitudo, multitudinisS
multitude !! people
Troianos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of R)roianus, )roiana, )roianumS
)roan !! Tro$ans
esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! /ere
ducem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RduC, ducisS leader !! leader
Aeneam !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R-eneas, -eneaeS -eneas !!
'eneas
filium !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rfilius, filiiS son !! son
Anchisae !! noun= genitive singular masculine of R-nchises, -nchisaeS -nchises !!
'nchises
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
Veneris !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R"enus, "enerisS "enus !! )enus
cremata !! verb= ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of Rcrem?,
cremDre, cremDvG, cremDtumS burn !! havin( been burnt
patria !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rpatria, patriaeS fatherland !!
fatherland
domo !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rdomus, domiS house !! home
profugos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rprofugus, profuga, profugumS
fugitive !! fu(itives
sedem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rsedes, sedisS seat, habitation !!
d/ellin( place
condendaeque !! verbal adective= dative singular feminine of Rcond?, condere,
condidG, conditumS found T conunction R!queS and !! and for foundin(
urbi !! noun= dative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! city
locum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! place
quaerere !! verb= infinitive of Rquaer?, quaerere, quaesGvG, quaesGtumS look for,
search !! to see1
Et nobilitatem admiratum gentis virique et animum vel bello vel paci paratum, deCtra data
fidem futurae amicitiae sanCisse.
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
nobilitatem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rnobilitas, nobilitatisS renown
!! reno/n
admiratum !! deponent verb= perfect participle passive accusative singular masculine
of RadmGror, admirDrG, admirDtus sumS admire !! admirin(
gentis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rgens, gentisS race, clan !! of the race
virique !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man T conunction R!queS
and !! and of the man
et !! conunction= RetS and !! as /ell as
animum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Ranimus, animiS soul, mind !! spirit
vel !! conunction= RvelS either ! or !! either
bello !! noun= dative singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! for /ar
vel !! conunction= RvelS either ! or !! or
paci !! noun= dative singular feminine of RpaC, pacisS peace !! for peace
paratum !! verb= accusative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of Rpar?,
parDre, parDvG, parDtumS prepare, obtain !! prepared
dextra !! noun= ablative singular feminine of RdeCtra, deCtraeS right hand !! ri(ht
hand
data !! verb= ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of Rd?, dare,
dedG, dDtumS give !! havin( been (iven
fidem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rfides, fideiS faith, pledge !! pled(e
futurae !! adective= future participle genitive singular feminine of Rsum, esse, fuGS #
am !! 2of3 future
amicitiae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Ramicitia, amicitiaeS friendship !!
of friendship
sanxisse !! verb= perfect infinitive of Rsanci?, sancGre, sDnCG, sDnctumS enact !! he
enacted
#nde foedus ictum inter duces, inter eCercitus salutationem factam.
inde !! adverb= RindeS from that !! then
foedus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rfoedus, foederisS treaty !! a treaty
ictum !! defective verb= ,rd person singular perfect passive indicative of RGcere, GcG,
ictumS strike with est understood !! /as made
inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! bet/een
duces !! noun= accusative plural masculine of RduC, ducisS leader !! the leaders
inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! bet/een
exercitus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of ReCercitus, eCcercitusS army !! the
armies
salutationem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rsalutatio, salutationisS
saluting !! salutin(
factam !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect passive indicative of Rfaci?, facere, fBcG,
factumS do, make !! /as carried out
-eneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio.
Aeneam !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R-eneas, -eneaeS -eneas !!
'eneas
apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! at 2Latinus43 house
Latinum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RLatinus, LatiniS Latinus !!
Latinus
fuisse !! verb= perfect infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! /as
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
hospitio !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rhospitium, hospitiiS hospitality !!
hospitality
#bi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum publico adiunCisse foedus filia -eneae in
matrimonium data.
ibi !! adverb= RibiS there, then !! thereupon
Latinum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RLatinus, LatiniS Latinus !!
Latinus
apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! in the presence of
penates !! noun= accusative plural masculine of R4enates, 4enatiumS household gods
!! household (ods
deos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rdeus, deiS god !! (ods
domesticum !! adective= accusative singular neuter of Rdomesticus, domestica,
domesticumS domestic !! domestic
publico !! adective= ablative singular neuter of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS public
!! in public
adiunxisse !! verb= perfect infinitive of Radiung?, adungere, adEnCG, adEnctumS
add !! added
foedus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rfoedus, foederisS treaty !! treaty
filia !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rfilia, filiaeS daughter !! dau(hter
Aeneae !! noun= dative singular masculine of R-eneas, -eneaeS -eneas !! to 'eneas
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
matrimonium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rmatrimonium, matrimoniS
marriage !! marria(e
data !! verb= ablative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of Rd?, dare,
dedG, dDtumS give !! havin( (iven
Ea res utique )roianis spem adfirmat tandem stabili certaque sede finiendi erroris.
ea !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative singular feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her,
this !! this
res !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! event
utique !! adverb= RutiqueS certainly !! definitely
Troianis !! adective used as substantive= dative plural masculine of R)roianus,
)roiana, )roianumS )roan !! for the Tro$ans
spem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rspes, speiS hope !! hope
adfirmat !! verb= ,rd person singular present indicative of RadfGrm?, adfirmDre,
adfirmDvG, adfirmDtumS confirm !! confirmed
tandem !! adverb= RtandemS finally !! finally
stabili !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rstabilis, stabilis, stabileS stable !!
stable
certaque !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rcertus, certa, certumS certain T
conunction R!queS and !! and secure
sede !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rsedes, sedisS seat, habitation !! home
finiendi !! verb= gerund'ive( genitive singular masculine of Rfini?, finGre, finGvG,
finGtumS finish, end !! ended
erroris !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rerror, errorisS wandering !! their
/anderin(
Oppidum condunt.
oppidum !! noun= accusative singular neuter Roppidum, oppidiS city !! a city
condunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present indicative of Rcond?, condere, condidG,
conditumS found !! they founded
-eneas a nomine uCoris Lavinium appellat.
Aeneas !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R-eneas, -eneaeS -eneas !!
'eneas
a !! preposition= RabS from, after !! after
nomine !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rnomen, nominisS name !! the name
uxoris !! noun= genitive singular feminine of RuCor, uCorisS wife !! of his /ife
Lavinium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of RLavinium, LaviniiS Lavinium !!
Lavinium
appellat !! verb= ,rd person singular present indicative of Rappell?, appellDre,
appellDvG, appellDtumS call !! called
Lesson Te-t
/um instructae acies constitissent, priusquam signa canerent, processisse Latinum inter
primores ducemque advenarum evocasse ad conloquium. 4ercunctatum deinde qui mortales
essent, unde aut quo casu profecti domo quidve quaerentes in agrum Laurentinum eCissent.
4ostquam audierit multitudinem )roianos esse, ducem -eneam, filium -nchisae et "eneris,
cremata patria domo profugos sedem condendaeque urbi locum quaerere. Et nobilitatem
admiratum gentis virique et animum vel bello vel paci paratum, deCtra data fidem futurae
amicitiae sanCisse. #nde foedus ictum inter duces, inter eCercitus salutationem factam.
-eneam apud Latinum fuisse in hospitio. #bi Latinum apud penates deos domesticum publico
adiunCisse foedus filia -eneae in matrimonium data. Ea res utique )roianis spem adfirmat
tandem stabili certaque sede finiendi erroris. Oppidum condunt. -eneas a nomine uCoris
Lavinium appellat.
Translation
<hen the arranged lines of battle had been drawn up, before the signals were sounded,
Latinus advanced among his chieftains and summoned the leader of the strangers to a
conference. 2e then asked what men they were, where they had come from, what misfortune
had caused them to leave their home, and what they were seeking in the land of Laurentinum.
-fter he heard that the people were )roans and their leader was -eneas, the son of -nchises
and "enus, and that their city had been burned, and driven from their home they were seeking
a dwelling place and a site where they might build a city, in admiration of both the renown of
the race and the spirit of the hero who was prepared either for war or for peace, he gave him
his right hand and enacted a pledge of future friendship. - treaty was then struck by the
leaders, and the armies saluted. -eneas received guest friendship with Latinus. -nd then
Latinus in the presence of his household gods added to the public treaty a domestic one by
giving his daughter in marriage to -eneas. )his event definitely confirmed the hope of the
)roans of having ended their wanderings in a stable and certain home. )hey founded a city.
-eneas called it Lavinium after the name of his wife.
%rammar
1. Latin# a Sub$ect5Ob$ect5)erb 2SO)3 Lan(ua(e.
)he basic word order of Latin is SO". )ypical sentences then have the verb in final position,
as in the sentence Oppidum condunt. .ecause personal subects are included in the verb form,
a separate subect may be lacking.
- fuller pattern is found in the following sentence% -eneas ab nomine uCoris Lavinium
appellat. )he sentence also includes an adverbial phrase placed, as frequently, before the
obect, which typically stands directly before the verb. Similar sentences are found at the
beginning of this passage.
2. 6odifications of the basic sentence pattern# /ith non5finite forms ma1in( up the verbs in clauses.
Like many writers in the /lassic Latin period, Livy introduced many modifications of the
basic sentence pattern. -s in this passage, he often used clauses with nominal forms of verbs,
such as infinitives, participles, gerunds and gerundives rather than finite verbs.
-mong them are clauses consisting of an infinitive with an accusative as subect, as in
processisse LatGnum >Latinus advanced>, 'Latinum( evocDsse >Latinus summoned>, LatGnum
adiunCisse >Latinus added>. -s in the translations here, these are best treated as finite clauses
in English. .ut many infinitives are used, like in English, as complements to finite verbs, e.g.
postquam audierit multitudinem )r?iDn?s esse >after he heard that the people were )roans>.
4articiples may also be used instead of finite verbs, as in #nde foedus ictum >)hen a treaty was
struck>. Such clauses may be viewed as simple sentences with a form of >be> as verb omitted.
)he passage contains many eCamples, such as percunctatum, profectG, quaerentBs and so on.
.ut a highly characteristic use of participles in Latin is found with both a noun and a
participle in the ablative case !! the so!called ablative absolute construction. )hese are
comparable to subordinate clauses= an eCample is deCtrD datD, literally >the right hand given>
but often best treated as a finite clause as in >he gave him his right hand>. )he later eCample,
filiD datD, literally >daughter given>, could be treated similarly, though here it is translated as a
participial clause.
*erundives are adectival and gerunds are nominals that may be inflected in the oblique cases.
)hey are characteriFed by an !nd! ending. -n eCample of a gerundive in the teCt is condendae
urbG >for founding a city>. -n eCample of a gerund is finiendG erroris >for ending of their
wandering>.
-s this teCt illustrates, classical Latin syntaC is highly styliFed. #t should be noted that it
contains few particles. )hese are used in many languages for indicating emphasiFed items. #n
Latin such emphasis is indicated by shifts in word order, and often with separation of
connected words. .esides shifts in word order, the inflection of nouns and of verbs is highly
important for conveying nuances of meaning in the language.
. "oun inflection.
Latin nouns are classed in five declensions that are determined by their endings. #n this unit
we will eCemplify the first declension, which has final !a in the stem form, e.g. patria
>fatherland>, and the second, most of which have final !us 'from 4roto!#ndo!European !os(, e.g.
filius >son>. Second declension nouns with bases ending in !r, e.g. vir >man>, may lack the final
ending. $euter nouns end in !um.
$ouns are inflected for gender, number, and case. )here are three genders% masculine,
feminine, and neuter. Most nouns of the first declension are feminine= those of the second are
masculine, e.g. filius >son>, or neuter, e.g. bellum >war>.
)here are two numbers% singular, and plural.
)here are five cases !! plus the vocative, a case of address for nouns to which it may apply,
such as proper nouns. #n declensions, the cases are listed as follows= the basic uses given here%
$ominative, the case of the subect
*enitive, the case indicating possession and relationship
0ative, the case of the indirect obect and to indicate direction
-ccusative, the case of the direct obect
-blative, the case indicating separation
1st declension 2nd declension
7ase S(. Pl. S(. Pl. S(. Pl. S(. Pl.
"om. patria patriae 8 filius filiG vir virG bellum bella
%en. patriae patriDrum 8 filiG fili?rum virG vir?rum bellG bell?rum
&at. patriae patriGs 8 fili? filiGs vir? virGs bell? bellGs
'cc. patriam patriDs 8 filium fili?s virum vir?s bellum bella
'bl. patriD patriGs 8 fili? filiGs vir? virGs bell? bellGs
*reek nouns of the first declension, e.g. -eneas and -nchises, have a final !s in the
nominative, but are regular in the other cases. Like other first declension nouns they have !a
in the vocative.
)he vocative of regular second declension nouns ends in !e, e.g. filie >oh son>= those nouns
ending in !r have no ending, e.g. vir >oh man>.
-dectives are inflected like nouns, but may be inflected for all three genders, e.g. m. certus, f.
certa, n. certum >certain>.
!. )erb inflection.
"erbs are classed in four conugations, in accordance with their stem vowels%
J. those with infinitive ending in !Dre belong to the first conugation=
+. those ending in !Bre belong to the second=
,. those ending in !ere belong to the third=
M. those ending in !Gre belong to the fourth.
"erbs are inflected for two voices 'active and passive(, siC tenses 'present, imperfect, future,
perfect, past perfect and future perfect(, and for two moods 'indicative and subunctive(. #n
addition there are two numbers 'singular and plural(, and three persons 'first, second, and
third(. Moreover, there is an imperative for second and third persons.
"erbs have nominal forms% three infinitives 'present, perfect, and future(, two participles
'present and future(, a gerund, gerundive, and a supine.
0ictionaries list verbs in their first person singular present indicative, or a comparable form if
the verb in question is inflected only in the passive. Moreover, dictionaries and grammars
provide four principal parts, from which all forms can be made. )hese are given below, with
eCamples from each of the four conugations.
7on$.
Pres.
Indic.

Pres.
Infin.

Perf.
Indic.

Perf. Part.
Passive
1 laud? >praise> laudDre laudDvG laudDtum
2 mone? >advise> monBre monuG monGtum
teg? >cover> tegere tBCG tectum
! audi? >hear> audGre audGvG audGtum
-lthough the teCts included in the ten units present historical and literary information, so that
verbs are chiefly in the third person, the siC present indicative forms are given here to provide
a basis for recogniFing all forms.
7on$u(ation
1 2 !
1 s(. laud? mone? teg? audi?
2 s(. laudDs monBs tegis audGs
s(. laudat monet tegit audit

1 pl. laudDmus monBmus tegimus audGmus
2 pl. laudDtis monBtis tegitis audGtis
pl. laudant monent tegunt audiunt
+. The phonolo(ical system.
)he phonological system of Latin is remarkably simple. #t consists of siCteen consonants and
five vowels, which may be long or short. #n printed teCts, length is not usually marked= when
it is, a macron is placed over the long vowels.
)he system is as follows%
Labials &entals Palato5velars
)oiceless9 p t k 'also spelled c and q(
)oiced9 b d g
*ricatives9 f s h
"asals9 m n U 'before k, g(
Semivo/els9 w 'v( 'often spelled i(

Li0uids9 l r

)o/els9 i u
e o
a
)he vowels have VcontinentalV values% i and e are pronounced as in clich= a as in father, o as
in note, u as in flute.
0iphthongs are pronounced as sequences of the two successive vowels, e.g. ae as in aisle, oe
as in soil, ei as in rein, au as in rout.
Latin has a stress accent. #n words of more than one syllable, the stress falls on the second to
last syllable if it is long, but if not, then on the third to last.
Lesson 2
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
)his selection is taken from .ook +, Section JK of Livy>s history. #t deals with an episode in
the struggle of the 6omans to maintain themselves. -eneas is assumed to have landed in
Latium shortly before ONK ../. #n the following +NK years the 6omans maintained
themselves, but had conflicts with other peoples, especially the Etruscans.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
)he Etruscans were at the gates of 6ome in NK,, and set out to enter the city over a bridge
across the )iber 6iver. )he 6omans retreated over it into the city and set out to destroy it.
<hile they were doing so, it was defended by three men. 2oratius /ocles asked the two
others to withdraw as well and then held off the Etruscans by himself until the bridge was
destroyed. 2e then plunged into the river and swam across in full armor. )he episode was
greatly celebrated. #t formed the topic of the poem on 2oratius in )homas .abingdon
Macaulay>s (ays of Ancient Rome of JPM+. '- passage after the sentence ending in pontis was
omitted, to avoid undue length of this selection.(
/um hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem eC agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt
praesidiis.
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hen
hostes !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rhostis, hostisS enemy !! enemies
adessent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Radsum, adesse, adfuGS
be present !! appeared
pro !! preposition= RproS for, before !! for
se !! refleCive pronoun= ablative of RsuiS self !! self
quisque !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquisque, quaeque,
quodqueS everyone !! each for himself
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
urbem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! into the city
ex !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! from
agris !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rager, agriS land !! the fields
demigrant !! verb= ,rd person plural present indicative of RdBmigr?, dBmigrDre,
dBmigrDvi, dBmigrDtumS withdraw !! /ithdre/
urbem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! urbs
ipsam !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Ripse, ipsa, ipsumS
self !! itself
saepiunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present indicative of Rsaepi?, saepGre, saepsG,
saeptumS surround !! they surrounded
praesidiis !! noun= dative plural neuter of Rpraesidium, praesidiiS guard !! /ith
(uards
-lia muris, alia )iberi obiecto videbantur tuta.
alia !! pronoun adective= nominative plural neuter of Ralius, alia, aliudS other, some
!! some parts
muris !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rmurus, muriS wall !! by /alls
alia !! pronoun adective= nominative plural neuter of Ralius, alia, aliudS other, some
!! other parts
Tiberi !! noun= ablative singular masculine of R)iber, )iberisS )iber !! by the Tiber
obiecto !! verb= ablative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of Robici?,
obicere, obiBcG, obiectumS oppose !! in front of them
videbantur !! verb= ,rd person imperfect passive of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG, vGsumS see
!! seemed
tuta !! adective= nominative plural neuter of Rtutus, tuta, tutumS safe !! secure
4ons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, 2oratius /ocles.
pons !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rpons, pontisS bridge !! the brid(e
sublicius !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rsublicius, sublicia,
subliciumS resting on piles !! restin( on piles
iter !! noun= accusative singular neuter Riter, itinerisS way !! /ay
paene !! adverb= RpaeneS almost !! almost
hostibus !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rhostis, hostisS enemy !! to the enemies
dedit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rd?, dare, dedG, dDtumS give !! provided
ni !! conunction= RniS if not, unless !! if there had not
unus !! number= nominative singular masculine of Runus, una, unumS one, alone !!
one
vir !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! man
fuisset !! verb= ,rd person singular past perfect subunctive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am
!! had been
Horatius !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R2oratius, 2oratiS 2oratius !!
:oratius
Cocles !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R/ocles, /oclitisS /ocles !! 7ocles
#d munimentum illo die fortuna urbis 6omanae habuit.
id !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
2on3 this
munimentum !! noun= accusative singular of Rmunimentum, munimentiS defence !!
defence
illo !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular masculine of Rille, illa, illudS he,
she, that !! on that
die !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rdies, dieiS day !! day
fortuna !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rfortuna, fortunaeS fortune !!
fortune
urbis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! city
Romanae !! adective= genitive singular feminine of R6omanus, 6omana, 6omanumS
6oman !! of .ome
habuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !!
depended
5ui positus forte in statione pontis. @)entences omitted at this point*A
qui !! relative pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! he
positus !! verb= nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of Rp?n?,
ponere, posuG, positumS place, situate !! placed himself
forte !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rfortis, fortis, forteS strong !! in a
mi(hty /ay
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! on
statione !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rstatio, stationisS station, guard !!
(uard
pontis !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rpons, pontisS bridge !! of the brid(e
/ircumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare,
nunc increpare omnes.
circumferens !! verb= present participle nominative singular masculine of
Rcircumfer?, circumferre, circumtElG, circumlDtumS carry around !! dartin(
inde !! adverb= RindeS from that !! then
truces !! adective= accusative plural masculine of RtruC, trucisS fierce !! fierce
minaciter !! adverb= RminaciterS threateningly !! threatenin(ly
oculos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Roculus, oculiS eye !! (lances
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! at
proceres !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rprocer, procerisS nobleman !!
chiefs
Etruscorum !! adective used as substantive= genitive plural masculine of REtruscus,
Etrusca, EtruscumS Etruscan !! of the ,truscans
nunc !! adverb= RnuncS now !! no/
singulos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rsingulus, singula, singulumS
single, individual !! as individuals
provocare !! verb= present infinitive of Rpr?voc?, provocDre, provocDvG, provocDtumS
challenge !! he challen(ed
nunc !! adverb= RnuncS now !! no/
increpare !! verb= present infinitive of Rincrep?, increpDre, increpuG, increpitumS
scold, rebuke !! he rebu1ed
omnes !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all of
them
Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire.
servitia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rservitium, servitiiS servitude !! as
servants
regum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of RreC, regisS king !! of 1in(s
superborum !! adective= genitive plural masculine of Rsuperbus, superba, superbumS
haughty !! hau(hty
suae !! possessive pronoun= genitive singular feminine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
their o/n
libertatis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rlibertas, libertatisS liberty !! of
...liberty
immemores !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rimmemor, immemorisS
heedless !! heedless
alienam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Ralienus, aliena, alienumS
foreign, unfitting !! of others
oppugnatum !! verb= perfect participle passive of RoppEgn?, oppugnDre, oppugnDvG,
oppugnDtumS overthrow !! to overthro/
venire !! verb= present infinitive of Rveni?, venGre, vBnG, ventumS come !! /ere
comin(
/unctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant
cunctati !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Rcunctor, cunctDri, cunctDtus
sumS hesitate with sunt !! hesitatin(
aliquamdiu !! adverb= RaliquamdiuS for a while !! for a /hile
sunt !! auCiliary verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am with
cunctati !! ...
dum !! conunction= RdumS while !! /hile
alius !! adective pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS
other, some !! one
alium !! adective pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS other,
some !! the other
ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! that
proelium !! noun= accusative singular neuter Rproelium, proeliiS battle !! battle
incipiant !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of Rincipi?, incipere, incBpG,
inceptumS begin !! they mi(ht be(in
circumspectant !! verb= ,rd person plural present indicative of Rcircumspect?,
circumspectDre, circumspectDvG, circumspectDtumS look around !! loo1ed
4udor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt.
pudor !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rpudor, pudorisS shame !! shame
deinde !! adverb= RdeindeS then !! then
commovit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rcommove?, commovBre, comm?vG,
comm?tumS move !! moved
aciem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Racies, acieiS line of battle !! line of
battle
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
clamore !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rclamor, clamorisS shout !! shout
sublato !! verb= ablative singular masculine of perfect participle of Rsuffer?, sufferre,
sustulG, sublDtumS take up, lift !! havin( been started
undique !! adverb= RundiqueS from every quarter !! from all sides
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! at
unum !! number= accusative singular masculine of Runus, una, unumS one, alone !! a
sin(le
hostem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rhostis, hostisS enemy !! enemy
tela !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rtelum, teliS weapon, spear !! their $avelins
coniciunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rc?nici?, conicere, coniBcG,
coniectumS throw !! they thre/
5uae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem
obtineret gradu.
quae !! relative pronoun= nominative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! these
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hile
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
obiecto !! verb= ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of Robici?,
obicere, obiBcG, obiectumS oppose !! opposed
cuncta !! adective= nominative plural neuter of Rcunctus, cuncta, cunctumS all !! all
scuto !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rscutum, scutiS shield !! shield
haesissent !! verb= ,rd person plural pluperfect subunctive of Rhaere?, haerBre,
haesG, haesErumS stick !! stuc1
neque !! adverb= RnequeS neither ... nor !! no
ille !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rille, illa, illudS he,
she, that !! he
minus !! adverb= RminusS less !! less
obstinatus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Robstinatus, obstinata,
obstinatumS obstinate !! obstinately
ingenti !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Ringens, ingentisS great !! stron(
pontem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rpons, pontisS bridge !! the brid(e
obtineret !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of Robtine?, obtinBre,
obtenuG, obtentumS hold !! he holds
gradu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rgradus, gradusS step !! position
#am impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor
6omanorum alacritate perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit.
iam !! adverb= RiamS already !! $ust as
impetu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rimpetus, impetusS attack, charge !!
by a char(e
conabantur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural imperfect passive of Rc?nor, conDrG,
conDtus sumS attempt, aim !! they tried
detrudere !! verb= infinitive of RdBtrEd?, dBtrEdere, dBtrEsG, dBtrEsumS dislodge !! to
dislod(e
virum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! the man
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hen
simul !! adverb= RsimulS at the same time !! at the same time
fragor !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rfragor, fragorisS crashing, noise !!
the crash
rupti !! verb= genitive singular masculine of perfect participle passive of Rrump?,
rumpere, rEpG, ruptusS break !! bro1en
pontis !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rpons, pontisS bridge !! the brid(e
simul !! adverb= RsimulS at the same time !! and simultaneously
clamor !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rclamor, clamorisS shout !! the
shoutin(
Romanorum !! adective used as substantive= genitive plural masculine of R6omanus,
6omana, 6omanumS 6oman !! of the .omans
alacritate !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Ralacritas, alacritatisS delight !! in
deli(ht
perfecti !! adective= genitive singular neuter of Rperfectus, perfecta, perfectumS
complete !! completed
operis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Ropus, operisS work !! at the ... /or1
sublatus !! verb= nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
Rsuffer?, sufferre, sustulG, sublDtumS take up, lift !! elated
pavore !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rpavor, pavorisS fear, dread !! /ith
dread
subito !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rsubitus, subita, subitumS sudden
!! sudden
impetum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rimpetus, impetusS attack, charge
!! their char(e
sustinuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rsustine?, sustinBre, sustinuG,
sustentumS hold back !! held bac1
)um /ocles V)iberine pater,V inquit, Vte sancte precor, haec arma et hunc militem propitio
flumine accipias.V
tum !! adverb= RtumS then !! then
Cocles !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R/ocles, /oclitisS /ocles !! 7ocles
Tiberine !! adective= vocative singular masculine of R)iberinus, )iberiniS )iberinus
!! Tiberinus
pater !! noun= vocative singular masculine of Rpater, patrisS father !! father
inquit !! defective verb= ,rd person singular present indicative of RinquamS say !!
said
te !! pronoun= accusative singular masculine of RtuS you !! you
sancte !! adective= vocative singular masculine of Rsanctus, sancta, sanctumS holy !!
holy one
precor !! deponent verb= Jst person singular present indicative of Rprecor, precDrG,
precDtus sumS pray !! I pray
haec !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this
!! these
arma !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rarma, armorumS arms !! armor
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
hunc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS
there, this !! this
militem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rmiles, militisS soldier !! soldier
propitio !! adective= ablative singular neuter of Rpropitius, propitia, propitiumS
propitious !! propitious
flumine !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rflumen, fluminisS river !! /ith stream
accipias !! verb= +nd person singular present subunctive of Raccipi?, accipere,
accBpG, acceptumS receive !! receive
#ta sic armatus in )iberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit
ita !! adverb= RitaS thus !! in this manner
sic !! adverb= RsicS so, thus !! so
armatus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rarmatus, armata, armatumS
armed !! armed
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! into
Tiberim !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R)iber, )iberisS )iber !! the Tiber
desiluit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of RdBsili?, dBsilGre, dBsiluG, dBsultusS
ump down !! he $umped do/n
multisque !! adective= dative plural neuter of Rmultus, multa, multumS many T
conunction R!queS and !! and /ith many
superincidentibus !! verb= ablative plural neuter of present participle of
Rsuperincid?, superincindereS fall down !! fallin( do/n
telis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rtelum, teliS weapon, spear !! spears
incolumis !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rincolumis, incolumis,
incolumeS unharmed !! unharmed
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
suos !! possessive pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
his o/n
tranavit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of RtrDn?, tranDre, tranDvGS swim across
!! he s/am across
rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam fidei.
rem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! act
ausus !! verb= nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of Raude?,
audBre, ausus sumS dare to do !! havin( dared to do
plus !! adective used as substantive= accusative singular neuter of RplusS more !!
more
famae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rfama, famaeS report, talk !! fame
habituram !! verb= accusative singular feminine of future participle active of Rhabe?,
habBre, habuG, habitumS have !! /hich /ould have
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! amon(
posteros !! adective used as substantive= accusative plural masculine of Rposteri,
posterae, posteraS future generations !! future (enerations
quam !! adverb= RquamS than !! than
fidei !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rfides, fideiS faith, pledge !! belief
Lesson Te-t
/um hostes adessent, pro se quisque in urbem eC agris demigrant, urbem ipsam saepiunt
praesidiis. -lia muris, alia )iberi obiecto videbantur tuta. 4ons sublicius iter paene hostibus
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, 2oratius /ocles. #d munimentum illo die fortuna urbis 6omanae
habuit. 5ui positus forte in statione pontis. @)entences omitted at this point*A /ircumferens
inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare
omnes. Servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire.
/unctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant 4udor
deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt. 5uae
cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti pontem obtineret
gradu. #am impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor
6omanorum alacritate perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. )um /ocles
V)iberine pater,V inquit, Vte sancte precor, haec arma et hunc militem propitio flumine
accipias.V #ta sic armatus in )iberim desiluit multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad
suos tranavit rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam fidei.
Translation
<hen the enemies appeared, the 6omans withdrew, everyone for himself, from the fields into
the city, and they surrounded the city itself with guards. Some parts seemed to be secure by
their walls, others by the )iber in front of them. )he bridge resting on piles almost provided a
way in to the enemies, if there had not been one man, 2oratius /ocles. 2e was the defense on
the day that the fortune of the city of 6ome depended. 2e by chance was placed on guard of
the bridge. ... )hen darting around fierce glances threateningly at the chiefs of the Etruscans,
he now challenged them individually, now rebuked all of them as servants of haughty kings
heedless of their own liberty who were coming to overthrow that of others. )hey hesitated for
a while !! one looked after the other that they might begin the battle. )hen they moved the line
of battle, and with a haughty shout they threw their spears from all sides at a single enemy.
<hen these all struck on his opposing shield, he no less obstinately held the bridge with great
dispatch. :ust as they tried to dislodge him by a charge, at the same time the crash of the
falling bridge and the shouting of the 6oman elated with delight at the completed work
checked the charge with sudden dread. )hen /ocles said% V1ather )iber, # pray you, oh holy
one, that you receive these arms and this soldier with a propitious stream.V #n the manner
armed as he was, he umped down into the )iber, and unharmed by the falling spears he swam
across to his own. 2e had dared to perform a deed that would have more favor than belief
among future generations.
%rammar
;. :istorical Present.
)he historical present, also known as the dramatic present, refers to use of the present tense
with past meaning. -s the alternate designation indicates, it may be found where the author
seeks to accentuate a statement. ;sed in older English literature, as by Shakespeare, it now is
pretty well restricted to popular narration, as when a narrator uses sequences like Van> then he
says....V #nstances are found in these selections, such as adfirmat, condunt, and appellat in the
first unit, adessent, demigrant, and saepiunt in the second= these forms in the first sentence of
the second selection were clearly used to reflect the dangerous situation for the 6omans.
#nfinitives may be used similarly, e.g. evocDre and quaerere in the first unit.
<. The sub$unctive.
.eside the indicative mood, which eCpresses certainty, subunctive mood forms are found for
the present, the preterite, the perfect, and the pluperfect, active and passive. -s a general
characteristic, the subunctive forms indicate uncertainty. #n keeping with this meaning, they
are used in many subordinate clauses introduced by conunctions and pronouns. - typical use
is found in the first sentence of this selection, cum hostBs adessent..., and also in the first
sentence of the initial unit, cum ... constitissent.... )he uncertainty is greater in the second
sentence of that unit, where a question is asked% quG mortalBs essent and at its conclusion
eCissent. - use without conunction is found in the prayer of 2oratius to the )iber% precor ...
accipiDs ># ask that you accept.> -s in this translation, subunctive forms may correspond to
English sentences that eCpress fact, but often they are best represented by modal auCiliaries.
#n the identification of verbal forms of these teCts, those in the indicative are not especially so
noted.
=. The third declension of nouns.
<hile nouns of the first and second declensions have bases ending in vowels and are
accordingly regular, those of the third conugation end in consonants or !i, with a possible
consequent modification of the base in some forms. -n eCample is the word for king, reC,
which has a base ending in !g= when the nominative ending !s is added, the !g! is devoiced,
and the two sounds are represented by !C. <hen the ending begins with a vowel, however, the
base is unmodified, as in the genitive regis. Other modifications of bases may be determined
from dictionary entries, which typically provide the genitive as well as the nominative.
$ouns in this declension may be masculine, feminine or neuter. Like the endings of the base,
the gender must be noted from the dictionary entries.
"om s( reC pons genus homo urbs
%en s( regis pontis generis hominis urbis
&at s( regG pontG generG hominG urbG
'cc s( regem pontem genus hominem urbem
'bl s( rege ponte genere homine urbe

"om pl regBs pontBs genera hominBs urbBs
%en pl regum pontum generum hominum urbium
&at pl regibus pontibus generibus hominibus urbibus
'cc pl regBs pontBs genera hominBs urbBs
'bl pl regibus pontibus generibus hominibus urbibus
>. The perfect forms of verbs.
)he perfect system of verbs is parallel to the present system. #t consists of the simple perfect,
the pluperfect or past perfect, and the future perfect, with indicative and subunctive forms
eCcept for the future perfect, and passive forms beside the active. #n general it implies past
time, often with the meaning of completed action.
-s the forms in these two units indicate, it is made in a variety of ways. #n the first
conugation, as well as the fourth, it is generally made with a !v! suffiC and further endings. #n
the second conugation, and also the fourth, the marker is often !u!. )he third conugation
verbs have a variety of markers, among them !s!. )he differences among verbs provide the
reason for learning the principal parts of verbs= these are generally included in dictionary
entries. ECamples are given here of the verbs cited in the section M of the grammar as well as
forms of d? and haere?. #nstead of the ending !erunt in the third plural, a short form !ere may
be found, both with long !e!.
1 s( laudDvG monuG tBCG audGvG dedG haesG
2 s( laudDvistG monuistG teCistG audivGstG dBdGstG haesistG
s( laudDvit monuit tBCit audGvit dBdit haesit

1 pl laudDvimus monuimus tBCimus audGvimus dBdimus haesimus
2 pl laudDvistis monuistis tBCistis audGvistis dBdistis haesistis
pl laudDvBrunt monuBrunt tBCBrunt audGvBrunt dBderunt haeserunt
1?. Prepositions.
Most prepositions govern the accusative case, as do ad and apud found in these units, as well
as ante >before>, contra >against>, inter >among>, per >through>, post >after>, trans >across>, and
many others. #n and sub >under>, however, govern the accusative case when indicating
direction, and the ablative when indicating place.
Lesson
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
#n .ook L of )he *allic <ar, :ulius /aesar 'JKK ! MM ../.( decided to describe the people of
*aul and of *ermania. 2e has given us a brief anthropological account of their customs and
activities. Only selections can be included here, but these indicate the differences between the
two peoples.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
)he people of *aul had obviously been influenced by the *reeks and 6omans, while the
people of *ermania have resisted such influences. )he account of the people of *ermania
consequently provides information on the conditions that applied in previous centuries,
possibly even in late #ndo!European times. On the other hand, the singling out of the classes
of 0ruids and 3nights, beside the common members of their society, shows a striking
resemblance to the castes of #ndian society, where the .rahmans or priests had the highest
status, followed by the 3shatriyas or warriors. .ut in contrast with the two further #ndian
castes of "aishyas and Shudras those not in these two *allic classes were lumped together,
and regarded much like the #ndian outcastes. #t is questionable, then, whether there is a
historic connection between the *allic class system and the #ndian caste system.
5uoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de *alliae *ermaniaeque
moribus et quo differant hae nationes inter sese proponere.
quoniam !! conunction= RquoniamS since !! since
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
hunc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS
there, this !! this
locum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! place
perventum !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect passive of Rperveni?, pervenGre,
pervBnG, perventumS arrive, reach with est !! has been reached
est !! auCiliary verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am with
perventum !! ...
non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
alienum !! adective= accusative singular neuter of Ralienus, aliena, alienumS foreign,
unfitting !! unfittin(
esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! be
videtur !! verb= ,rd person singular present passive of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG, vGsumS
see !! seem
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! about
Galliae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R*allia, *alliaeS *aul !! of %aul
Germaniaeque !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R*ermania, *ermaniaeS
*ermania T conunction R!queS and !! and of %ermania
moribus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rmos, morisS custom !! practices
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
quo !! interrogative pronoun= ablative singular neuter of Rquis, quis, quidS who, what
!! ho/
differant !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of Rdiffer?, differre,
distulG, dGlDtumS differ !! differ
hae !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative plural feminine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! these
nationes !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rnatio, nationisS nation !! nations
inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! amon(
sese !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! one another
proponere !! verb= infinitive of Rpr?p?n?, proponere, proposuG, propositumS point
out, set forth !! to point out
#n omni *allia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo.
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
omni !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all of
Gallia !! noun= ablative singular feminine of R*allia, *alliaeS *aul !! %aul
eorum !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her,
this !! those
hominum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !!
humans
qui !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /ho
aliquo !! pronoun adective= ablative singular masculine of Raliqui, aliqua, aliquodS
some, any !! some
sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! are
numero !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rnumerus, numeriS class, number,
repute !! esteem
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
honore !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rhonos, honorisS honor, distinction !!
distinction
genera !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! 1inds
sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! there are
duo !! number= Rduo, duae, duoS two !! t/o
$am plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio.
nam !! conunction= RnamS for !! for
plebes !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rplebs, plebisS common people !! the
common people
paene !! adverb= RpaeneS almost !! almost
servorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rservus, serviS slave !! of slaves
habetur !! verb= ,rd person singular present passive of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG,
habitumS have !! are re(arded
loco !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! in the position of#
as
quae !! relative pronoun= nominative singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /ho
nihil !! noun= RnihilS nothing !! nothin(
audet !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Raude?, audBre, ausus sumS dare to do !!
dares
per !! preposition= RperS through, by !! by
se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! themselves
nullo !! adective= ablative singular neuter of Rnullus, nulla, nullumS no, none !!
not ... any
adhibetur !! verb= ,rd person singular present passive of Radhibe?, adhibBre, adhibuG,
adhibitumS turn to, treat !! are ...ta1en as of
consilio !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rconsilium, consiliiS counsel !! account
4lerique, cum aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur,
sese in servitutem dicant nobilibus.
plerique !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rplerusque, pleraeque,
pleraqueS most, the maority !! most of them
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! since
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! either
aere !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Raes, aerisS metal, copper, money !! by debt
alieno !! adective= ablative singular neuter of Ralienus, aliena, alienumS foreign,
unfitting !! of another
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
magnitudine !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rmagnitudo, magnitudinisS siFe
!! by the si@e
tributorum !! noun= genitive plural neuter of Rtributum, tributiS specific payment,
tribute !! of their payments
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
iniuria !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Riniuria, inuriaeS wrong, harsh
treatment !! harsh treatment
potentiorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of comparative of Rpotens, potentisS
powerful !! the more po/erful
premuntur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of Rprem?, pemere, pressG,
pressumS press, oppress !! are oppressed
sese !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! themselves
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
servitutem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rservitus, servitutisS servitude,
slavery !! slavery
dicant !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of RdGc?, dGcere, dGCG, dictumS
say, state, declare !! declare
nobilibus !! adective= dative plural masculine of Rnobilis, nobilis, nobileS famous,
noble !! to the nobles
#n hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos.
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! over
hos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! those
eadem !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative plural neuter of Ridem, eadem, idemS
the same !! the same
omnia !! adective= nominative plural neuter of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! are
iura !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rius, iurisS right !! ri(hts
quae !! relative pronoun= nominative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! /hich
dominis !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rdominus, dominiS lord, master !!
masters 2have3
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! over
servos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rservus, serviS slave !! slaves
Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est druidum, alterum equitum.
sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! in fact
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! of
his !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative plural neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
these
duobus !! number= ablative plural neuter of Rduo, duae, duoS two !! t/o
generibus !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! classes
alterum !! pronoun adective= nominative singular neuter of Ralter, altera, alterumS
the one, the other !! the one
est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! consists of
druidum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rdruides, druidumS 0ruids !! &ruids
alterum !! pronoun adective= nominative singular neuter of Ralter, altera, alterumS
the one, the other !! the other
equitum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Reques, equitisS horseman, knight !!
1ni(hts
#lli rebus divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur.
illi !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rille, illa, illudS he,
she, that !! these
rebus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matters
divinis !! adective= dative plural feminine of Rdivinus, divina, divinumS divine,
sacred !! sacred
intersunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rintersum, interesse, interfuGS lie
between, concern !! are concerned /ith
sacrificia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rsacrificium, sacrificiS sacrifice !!
sacrifices
publica !! adective= accusative plural neuter of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS public
!! public
ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
privata !! adective= accusative plural neuter of Rprivatus, privata, privatumS private,
individual !! private
procurant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rpr?cEr?, pr?cErDre, pr?cErDvi,
pr?cErDtumS take care of !! they ta1e care of
religiones !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rreligio, religionisS religious
practice !! reli(ious matters
interpretantur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of Rinterpretor,
interpretDri, interpretDtus sumS interpret !! they interpret
-d hos magnus adulescentium numerus disciplinae causa concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud
eos honore.
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
hos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! these
magnus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS
great, large !! lar(e
adulescentium !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Radulescens, adulescentisS
young people !! the youn( people
numerus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rnumerus, numeriS class, number,
repute !! number
disciplinae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rdisciplina, disciplinaeS
discipline, education !! instruction
causa !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rcausa, causaeS cause, reason !! for the
sa1e of
concurrit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rconcurr?, concurrere, concurrG,
concursumS assemble, come together !! come to(ether
magnoque !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS
great, large T conunction R!queS and !! and ... (reat
hi !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! these
sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! are
apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! amon(
eos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! them
honore !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rhonos, honorisS honor, distinction !!
in ... honor
$am fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque constituunt, et, si quid admissum
facinus, si caedes facta, si de heriditate de finibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia
poenasque constituunt.
nam !! conunction= RnamS for !! for
fere !! adverb= RfereS almost !! almost
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concernin(
omnibus !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
controversiis !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rcontroversia, controversiaeS
controversy !! controversies
publicis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS
public !! public
privatisque !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rprivatus, privata, privatumS
private, individual T conunction R!queS and !! and private
constituunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rc?nstitu?, c?nstituere, c?nstituG,
c?nstitEtumS decide !! they decide
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
quid !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular neuter of Rquis, quis, quidS someone,
anything !! any
admissum !! verb= nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of Radmitt?,
admittere, admGsG, admGssumS let, go, commit !! has been committed
facinus !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rfacinus, facinorisS crime !! crime
si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
caedes !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rcaedes, caedisS murder !! murder
facta !! verb= nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of Rfaci?,
facere, fBcG, factumS do, make !! has been done
si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concernin(
heriditate !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rheriditas, heriditatisS heredity,
inheritance !! inheritance
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concernin(
finibus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rfinis, finisS border, limit !!
boundaries
controversia !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rcontroversia, controversiaeS
controversy !! controversy
est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! there is
idem !! pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Ridem, eadem, idemS the same !! all
the same
decernunt !! verb= ,rd person singular present of RdBcern?, decernere, decrBvG,
decrBtumS decide !! they decide
praemia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rpraemium, praemiiS reward !! re/ards
poenasque !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rpoena, poenaeS punishment,
penalty T conunction R!queS and !! and penalties
constituunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rc?nstitu?, c?nstituere, c?nstituG,
c?nstitEtumS decide !! they decide
Si qui aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt.
si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
qui !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rqui, qua'e(, quodS some,
any !! any 2one3
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
privatus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rprivatus, privata, privatumS
private, individual !! private
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
populus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rpopulus, populiS people !!
public
eorum !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her,
this !! their
decreto !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rdecretum, decretiS decision !! by ...
decree
non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
stetit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rst?, stDre, stBti, statumS stand, abide !!
does ... abide
sacrificiis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rsacrificium, sacrificiS sacrifice !!
from the sacrifices
interdicunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of RinterdGc?, interdicere, interdGCi,
interdictumS prohibit !! they ban 2him3
2aec poena apud eos est gravissima.
haec !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative singular feminine of Rhic, haec, hocS
there, this !! this
poena !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rpoena, poenaeS punishment, penalty
!! punishment
apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! amon(
eos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! them
est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! is
gravissima !! adective= nominative singular feminine of superlative of Rgravis,
gravis, graveS grave, serious !! severest
Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur.
magnum !! adective= accusative singular masculine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS
great, large !! lar(e
ibi !! adverb= RibiS there, then !! there
numerum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rnumerus, numeriS class, number,
repute !! number
versuum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rversus, versusS verse !! of verses
ediscere !! verb= infinitive of RBdisc?, Bdiscere, Bdidici, !S learn, memoriFe !! 2they3
memori@e
dicuntur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of RdGc?, dGcere, dGCG, dictumS
say, state, declare !! they say# it is said
#taque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent.
itaque !! adverb= RitaqueS and also !! also
annos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rannus, anniS year !! years
nonnulli !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rnonnullus, nonulla,
nonullumS some !! some
vicenos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rvicenus, viceniS twenty !!
t/enty
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
disciplina !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rdisciplina, disciplinaeS discipline,
education !! trainin(
permanent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rpermane?, permanBre, permansG,
permansumS stay, continue !! remain
$eque fas esse eCistimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque
rationibus *raecis litteris utantur.
neque !! adverb= RnequeS neither ... nor !! nor
fas !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rfas, !S right !! ri(ht
esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! to be
existimant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of ReCistim?, eCistimDre, eCistimDvG,
eCistimDtumS udge, consider !! do they consider
ea !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
these thin(s
litteris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rlittera, litteraeS letter !! to letters# to
/ritin(
mandare !! verb= infinitive of Rmando, mandDre, mandDvG, mandDtumS commit !! to
commit
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! because
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
reliquis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rreliquus, reliqua, reliquumS
remaining, rest !! remainin(
fere !! adverb= RfereS almost !! almost
rebus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matters
publicis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS
public !! public
privatisque !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rprivatus, privata, privatumS
private, individual T conunction R!queS and !! and private
rationibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rratio, rationisS account, affair !!
in . . .affairs
Graecis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of R*raecus, *raeca, *raecumS *reek
!! %ree1
litteris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rlittera, litteraeS letter !! letters
utantur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of REtor, EtG, Esus sumS use !!
they use
Lesson Te-t
5uoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur de *alliae *ermaniaeque
moribus et quo differant hae nationes inter sese proponere. #n omni *allia eorum hominum,
qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo. $am plebes paene servorum habetur
loco, quae nihil audet per se, nullo adhibetur consilio. 4lerique, cum aut aere alieno aut
magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum premuntur, sese in servitutem dicant
nobilibus. #n hos eadem omnia sunt iura, quae dominis in servos. Sed de his duobus generibus
alterum est druidum, alterum equitum. #lli rebus divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata
procurant, religiones interpretantur. -d hos magnus adulescentium numerus disciplinae causa
concurrit, magnoque hi sunt apud eos honore. $am fere de omnibus controversiis publicis
privatisque constituunt, et, si quid admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si de heriditate de
finibus controversia est, idem decernunt, praemia poenasque constituunt. Si qui aut privatus
aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt. 2aec poena apud eos est
gravissima. Magnum ibi numerum versuum ediscere dicuntur. #taque annos nonnulli vicenos
in disciplina permanent. $eque fas esse eCistimant ea litteris mandare, cum in reliquis fere
rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus *raecis litteris utantur.
Translation
Since # have come to this point, it does not seem inappropriate to set forth the customs of *aul
and of *ermania, and how these nations differ among each other. . . . #n all *aul there are two
classes of humans who are of definite account and honor. .ut the common people are
regarded almost at the level of slaves, who dare to do nothing by themselves and are taken as
of no account. -nd most, since they are either oppressed by debt or by a great amount of
tribute or by crimes of the more powerful, commit themselves in slavery to the nobles. )hey
have indeed among these all the rights as masters over slaves. Of these two classes the one
consists of 0ruids, the other of 3nights. )he former are concerned with divine worship= they
handle public and private sacrifices, and they interpret religious matters. - great number of
the youth gather around them for the sake of education, and they are held among these in
great honor. 1or they make decisions about almost all public and private controversies, and if
any crime has been committed, if a murder has been done, if there is controversy about
boundaries, they decide the same, they determine rewards and punishments. #f any one, either
private or public, does not abide by their decree, they ban him from sacrifices. )his
punishment is the most serious among them. ... #t is said that they memoriFe a great number of
verses 'in the 0ruidic schools(. -nd for that reason some remain twenty years in training. $or
do they think it proper to commit these to writing, while in almost all other things, in public
and private matters, they use *reek letters.
%rammar
11. &eponents.
0eponents are verbs that are passive in form but have active meaning. )he meaning is
typically one of state rather than vigorous action= the passive developed out of a stative
conugation in early #ndo!European, and deponents reflect this meaning rather than that of a
pure passive. #n this unit, the deponents interpretor >interpret> and utor >use> are found. )he
previous units included precor >ask> and profiscor >set out>. $one of these meanings indicates
action as do verbs like concurr? >run together> or constitu? >place>. 0eponents are labeled as
such in dictionaries.
12. The Passive.
-s in the English verb system, the passive indicates that the subect of the verb is affected by
rather than performing some action. #n English the passive consists of compound forms, such
as Vthey were invited by the organiFers,V in contrast with Vthe organiFers invited them.V
)he inflectional system of the passive is parallel to that of the active. ECamples of the present
indicative passive are given here for the verbs illustrating the four conugations in ;nit J.
Since the imperfect is treated in section JM, the third singular and third plural imperfect is
given here for the passive.
Present Indicative Passive
1 s( laudor moneor tegor audior
2 s( laudDris monBris tegeris audiBris
s( laudDtur monBtur tegitur audGtur

1 pl laudDmur monBmur tegimur audGmur
2 pl laudDminG monBmini tegimini audGminG
pl laudantur monentur teguntur audiuntur
Imperfect Indicative Passive in the third persons
s( laudDbDtur monBbDtur tegBbDtur audiBbDtur
pl laudDbantur monBbantur tegBbantur audiBbantur
)he perfect conugation forms are made with the past participle accompanied by forms of the
verb sum. )hey are accordingly easy to note and translate. )hird singular forms are given here
for the perfect and pluperfect of the four conugations.
Perfect
s( laudDtus est monitus est tectus est audGtus est
Pluperfect
s( laudDtus erat monitus erat tectus erat audGtus erat
1. The *ourth and *ifth &eclensions of "ouns.
)he fourth and fifth declensions include relatively few nouns. )he nominative in the fourth
ending in !us, like the second declension= but the u!vowel is basically long, which is the
ending also for neuters in the declension, e.g. cornu. )he nominative in the fifth declension
ends in !es= the declension includes few nouns, among them however the frequent dies >day>
and res >thing>.
*ourth &eclension *ifth declension
"om s( tribus >tribe> cornu >horn> diBs >day> rBs >thing>
%en s( tribEs cornEs dieG reG
&at s( tribuG cornu dieG reG
'cc s( tribum cornu diem rem
'bl s( tribE cornE diB rB

"om pl tribEs cornua diBs rBs
%en pl tribuum cornuum diBrum rBrum
&at pl tribubus cornibus diBbus rBbus
'cc pl tribEs cornua diBs rBs
'bl pl tribubus cornibus diBbus rBbus
1!. The Imperfect# Indicative# and Sub$unctive.
)he imperfect is made with a ba!suffiC in the indicative, and an re!suffiC in the subunctive.
Since the endings are identical throughout the four conugations, eCamples from only the first
and third will be given here.
*irst 7on$u(ation Third 7on$u(ation
Indicative Sub$unctive Indicative Sub$unctive
1 s( laudDbam laudDrem tegBbam tegerem
2 s( laudDbDs laudDrBs tegBbDs tegerBs
s( laudDbat laudDret tegBbat tegeret

1 pl laudDbDmus laudDrBmus tegBbDmus tegerBmus
2 pl laudDbDtis laudDrBtis tegBbDtis tegerBtis
pl laudDbant laudDrent tegBbant tegerent
1+. 7on$unctions.
-s in English, conunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. )hey are
straightforward leCical items, and the common ones are readily memoriFed. Lists of various
kinds of the common coordinating conunctions are given here.
/oordinating conunctions% et, !que, atque, >and>, ac, neque >and not>
0isunctive conunctions% aut, vel, !ve >or>
-dversative conunctions% at, autem, sed, tamen >but, nevertheless>
Of the conunctions introducing clauses, two have occurred% postquam >after> and cum
>when, since, because>.
Lesson M
<infred 4. Lehmann and :onathan Slocum
Members of the second class in #ndian society are designated 3shatriyas, or the powerful= in
contrast, they are referred to as Equites, horsemen or knights, in /eltic society. )he term may
well have been introduced from 6oman society, where it was used to designate the members
of the equestrian order that occupied the position between the Senate and the 4lebs or
common people. 2ere only sections of /aesar>s description can be included.
6eading and )eCtual -nalysis
#n giving further information about this class, /aesar discusses the religious practices of the
*auls, their gods, and family relationships. Of further interest is the tradition that they are all
descended from 0is, a term related to the word deus >god>, but referring to an underworld
deity. -s a result, they refer to periods of time by nights rather than days= we have a result of
this in our word fortnight, a shortening of fourteen nights for two weeks. 2ere, the military
and administrative practices are eCcerpted.
-lterum genus est equitum.
W alterum !! pronoun adective= nominative singular neuter of Ralter, altera, alterumS the
one, the other !! the other
W genus !! noun= nominative singular neuter Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! class
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! is 'that of the(
W equitum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Reques, equitisS horseman, knight !!
knights
2i, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit 'quod fere ante /aesaris adventum quotannis
accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas propulsarent(, omnes in bello
versantur.
W hi !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this
!! these
W cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! when
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! there is
W usus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rusus, ususS use, practice !! occasion
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and especially
W aliquod !! pronoun adective= nominative singular neuter of Raliqui, aliqua, aliquodS
some, any !! some
W bellum !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! war
W incidit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rincid?, incidere, incidG,!S fall in, occur !!
occurs
W quod !! relative pronoun= nominative singular neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! which
W fere !! adverb= RfereS almost !! almost
W ante !! preposition= RanteS before !! before
W /aesaris !! noun= genitive singular masculine of R/aesar, /aesarisS /aesar !! /aesar>s
W adventum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Radventus, adventusS arrival, coming
!! coming
W quotannis !! adverb= RquotannisS yearly !! every year
W accidere !! verb= infinitive of Raccid?, accidere, accidG, !S fall to, come, happen !! happen
W solebat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rs?le?, solBre, solitumS be accustomed
!! was accustomed to
W uti !! conunction= RutiS that, so that !! as
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! either
W ipsi !! pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Ripse, ipsa, ipsumS self !! they
themselves
W iniurias !! noun= accusative plural feminine Riniuria, inuriaeS wrong, harsh treatment !!
attacks
W inferrent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rinfer?, inferre, intulG,
inlDtumS introduce, produce !! would produce
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W illatas !! verb= accusative plural feminine of perfect participle passive of Rinfer?, inferre,
intulG, inlDtumS introduce, produce !! produced
W propulsarent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rpr?puls?, propulsDre,
propulsDtus, !S ward off, repulse !! would repulse
W omnes !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
W bello !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! war
W versantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of Rvers?, versDre, versDvG, versDtumS
turn often= pass. be involved !! are engaged
-tque eorum ut quisque est venere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos
clientesque habet.
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and indeed
W eorum !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
of them
W ut !! adverb= RutS as, where !! as
W quisque !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquisque, quaeque,
quodqueS everyone !! each
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! is
W venere !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rvenus, venerisS grace, esteem !! esteem
W copiisque !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rcopia, copiaeS abundance, wealth T
conunction R!queS and !! and wealth
W amplissimus !! adective= nominative singular masculine superlative of RampliusS great,
distinguished !! most distinguished
W ita !! adverb= RitaS thus !! accordingly
W plurimos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of superlative of Rmultus, multa, multumS
many !! the most
W circum !! preposition= RcircumS around !! around
W se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! himself
W ambactos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rambactus, ambactiS dependent !!
subordinates
W clientesque !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rcliens, clientisS retainer T
conunction R!queS and !! and retainers
W habet !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !! he
has
2anc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt.
W hanc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! )his
W unam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Runus, una, unumS one, alone !! the
one
W gratiam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rgratia, gratiaeS esteem, regard !!
esteem
W potentiamque !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rpotentia, potentiaeS power T
conunction R!queS and !! and power
W noverunt !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Rn?sc?, n?scere, n?vG, n?tumS be
acquainted with, get to know !! have come to know
$atio est omnis *allorum admodum dedita religionibus.
W natio !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rnatio, nationisS nation !! nation
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! is
W omnis !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! the
entire
W *allorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of R*alli, *allorumS the *auls !! of the
*auls
W admodum !! adverb= RadmodumS completely !! completely
W dedita !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rdeditus, dedita, deditumS devoted,
addicted !! devoted to
W religionibus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rreligio, religionisS religious practice !!
religious practices
-tque ob eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis quique in proeliis periculisque
versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, administrisque ad ea
sacrificia druidibus utuntur. @Section omitted at this point.A
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and indeed
W ob !! preposition= RobS because of !! for
W eam !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! this
W causam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rcausa, causaeS cause, reason !! reason
W qui !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! those who
W sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! are
W adfecti !! verb= nominative plural masculine of perfect participle passive of Radfici?,
adficere, adfBcG, adfectumS afflict !! afflicted
W gravioribus !! adective= ablative plural masculine of comparative of Rgravis, gravis,
graveS grave, serious !! with more serious
W morbis !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rmorbus, morbiS illness !! illnesses
W quique !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that T conunction R!queS and !! and those who
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
W proeliis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rproelium, proeliiS battle !! battles
W periculisque !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rpericulum, periculiS danger T conunction
R!queS and !! and in dangers
W versantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of Rvers?, versDre, versDvG, versDtumS
turn often= pass. be involved !! are involved
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! either
W pro !! preposition= RproS for, before !! as
W victimis !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rvictima, victimaeS sacrifice !! sacrifices
W homines !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !! people
W immolant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rimmol?, immolDre, immolDvG,
immolDtumS sacrifice, immolate !! sacrifice
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! they themselves
W immolaturos !! verb= accusative plural masculine of future participle of Rimmol?,
immolDre, immolDvG, immolDtumS sacrifice, immolate !! will be sacrificed
W vovent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rvoveo, vovBre, v?vG, v?tumS vow !! they
vow
W administrisque !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Radminister, administriS
administrator T conunction R!queS and !! and ...as administrators
W ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! for
W ea !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !! those
W sacrificia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rsacrificium, sacrificiS sacrifice !!
sacrifices
W druidibus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rdruides, druidumS 0ruids !! 0ruids
W utuntur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of REtor, EtG, Esus sumS use !! they
use
5uae civitates commodius suam rem publicam administrare eCistimantur, habent legibus
sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a finitimis rumore aut fama accepterit, uti ad magistratum
deferat neve cum quo alio communicet.
W quae !! relative pronoun= nominative plural feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! the ... that
W civitates !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rcivitas, civitatisS state !! states
W commodius !! adective= comparative accusative singular neuter of Rcommodus,
commoda, commodumS used adverbially X complete, advantageous !! more advantageously
W suam !! possessive pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
their
W rem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! affairs
W publicam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS
public !! public
W administrare !! verb= infinitive of Radministr?, administrDre, administrDvG,
administrDtumS administer, conduct !! to conduct
W eCistimantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of ReCistim?, eCistimDre,
eCistimDvG, eCistimDtumS udge, consider !! are considered
W habent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !! have
W legibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of RleC, legisS law !! by law
W sanctum !! verb= accusative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of Rsanci?,
sancGre, sDnCG, sDnctumS enact !! prescribed
W si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
W quis !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquis, quis, quidS someone,
anything !! anyone
W quid !! indefinite pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rquis, quis, quidS someone,
anything !! anything
W de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concerning
W re !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! affair
W publica !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS public !!
public
W a !! preposition= RabS from, after !! from
W finitimis !! adective used as substantive= ablative plural masculine of Rfinitimus,
finitima, finitimumS bordering, neighbor !! neighbors
W rumore !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rrumor, rumorisS murmur, rumor !! by
rumor
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W fama !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rfama, famaeS report, talk !! report
W accepterit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect subunctive of Raccept?, acceptDre,
acceptDvG, acceptDtumS receive !! might learn
W uti !! conunction= RutiS that, so that !! that
W ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
W magistratum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rmagistratus, magistratusS
magistrate !! a magistrate
W deferat !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of RdBfer?, deferre, detulG,
delDtumS report !! should report
W neve !! conunction= RneveS and not, nor !! and not
W cum !! preposition= RcumS with !! with
W quo !! indefinite pronoun= ablative singular masculine of Rquis, quis, quidS someone,
anything !! anyone
W alio !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS other, some !! else
W communicet !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of RcommEnic?,
commEnicDre, commEnicDvG, commEnicDtumS communicate !! share
5uod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad facinus impelli
et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est.
W quod !! conunction= RquodS that, because !! because
W saepe !! adverb= RsaepeS often !! often
W homines !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !! people
W temerarios !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rtemerarius, temeraria,
temerariumS rash, indiscreet !! indiscreet
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and also
W imperitos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rimperitus, imperita, imperitumS
ineCperienced !! ineCperienced
W falsis !! adective= ablative plural masculine of Rfalsus, falsa, falsumS false !! by false
W rumoribus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rrumor, rumorisS murmur, rumor !!
rumors
W terreri !! verb= passive infinitive of Rterre?, terrBre, terruG, territusS terrify, frighten !! are
frightened
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
W facinus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rfacinus, facinorisS crime !! crime
W impelli !! verb= passive infinitive of Rimpell?, impellere, impulG, impulsumS drive, move
!! be driven
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concerning
W summis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rsummus, summa, summumS highest
with rebus !! the general 'welfare(
W rebus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! welfare 'see above(
W consilium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rconsilium, consiliiS counsel with
capere !! to form plans, make decisions
W capere !! verb= infinitive of Rcapi?, capere, cBpG, captumS take, seiFe !! to make
W cognitum !! adective= accusative singular neuter of Rcognitus, cognita, cognitumS known
!! known
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! it is
Magistratus quae visa sunt occultant quaeque esse eC usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt.
W magistratus !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rmagistratus, magistratusS
magistrate !! )he magistrates
W quae !! relative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which, what,
that !! what
W visa !! verb= accusative plural neuter of participle perfect passive of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG,
vGsumS see !! seem proper
W sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! be
W occultant !! ,rd person plural present of Roccult?, occultDre, occultDvG, occultDtumS
conceal !! conceal
W quaeque !! relative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that T conunction R!queS and !! and what
W esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! be
W eC !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! of
W usu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rusus, ususS use, practice !! benefit
W iudicaverunt !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of RiEdic?, iEdicDre, iEdicDvG, iEdicDtumS
decide !! decide
W multitudini !! noun= dative singular feminine of Rmultitudo, multitudinisS multitude !! to
the common people
W produnt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rpr?d?, prodere, prodGdG, proditumS put
forth, make known !! make known
0e re publica nisi per concilium loqui non conceditur.
W de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! concerning
W re !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! affairs
W publica !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rpublicus, publica, publicumS public !!
public
W nisi !! conunction= RnisiS if not, unless !! unless
W per !! preposition= RperS through, by !! by means of
W concilium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rconcilium, conciliiS council, assembly
!! an assembly
W loqui !! deponent verb= infinitive of Rloquor, loquG, locutus sumS speak !! speak
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W conceditur !! verb= ,rd person singular present passive of RconcBd?, concedere, concessG,
concessumS grant, allow !! it is allowed
Lesson )eCt
-lterum genus est equitum. 2i, cum est usus atque aliquod bellum incidit 'quod fere ante
/aesaris adventum quotannis accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi iniurias inferrent aut illatas
propulsarent(, omnes in bello versantur. -tque eorum ut quisque est venere copiisque
amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habet. 2anc unam gratiam
potentiamque noverunt. $atio est omnis *allorum admodum dedita religionibus. -tque ob
eam causam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis quique in proeliis periculisque versantur, aut
pro victimis homines immolant aut se immolaturos vovent, administrisque ad ea sacrificia
druidibus utuntur. @Section omitted at this point.A 5uae civitates commodius suam rem
publicam administrare eCistimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a
finitimis rumore aut fama accepterit, uti ad magistratum deferat neve cum quo alio
communicet. 5uod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad
facinus impelli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est. Magistratus quae visa sunt
occultant quaeque esse eC usu iudicaverunt multitudini produnt. 0e re publica nisi per
concilium loqui non conceditur.
)ranslation
)he knights are the other class. <hen there is an occasion and especially when a war arises
'which would happen almost yearly before /aesar>s arrival, so that either they themselves
would carry out attacks or would repulse such(, these are all engaged in war. -nd as each is
most distinguished in esteem and by wealth, he accordingly has the most subordinates and
retainers about him. )hey have recogniFed this as the single basis of esteem and power.
)he entire nation of the *auls is greatly devoted to religious affairs. -nd for that reason
those who are afflicted with more serious illnesses and those who are involved in battles and
dangers either sacrifice people as victims or they vow that they themselves will be sacrificed=
and they make use of 0ruids as administrators for those sacrifices. @Section omitted at this
point.A
)he states that are considered to administer their public affairs more advantageously have it
prescribed by law that, if anyone might learn anything about public affairs from neighbors by
rumor or report, he should report it to a magistrate and not communicate with anyone else.
1or it is known that indiscreet and ineCperienced men are often frightened by false rumors,
and are driven to crime or to make decisions concerning the general welfare. Magistrates
conceal what seems best, and they decide what is of use and provide it for the common
people. #t is not allowed to speak about public matters eCcept by means of an assembly.
*rammar
JL. 6elative /lauses.
6elative clauses are introduced primarily by the relative pronouns, quG >who>, quae >who>, quod
>what>, and their inflected forms. - number of eCamples have occurred in the teCts here, such
as 'bellum( quod in the first sentence of this lesson. )he forms are as follows%
Singular 4lural
Masc 1em $eut Masc 1em $eut
$om quG quae quod Y quG quae quae
*en cEius cEius cEius Y qu?rum quDrum qu?rum
0at cuG cuG cuG Y quibus quibus quibus
-cc quem quam quod Y quos quDs quae
-bl qu? quD qu? Y quibus quibus quibus
-nother relative pronoun is quisquis >whoever>. #t is inflected like the interrogative pronoun
quis >who>, which will be introduced in Lesson N.
JO. -dectives and their /omparison.
-dectives are inflected like nouns. Many of them are inflected in accordance with the first
and second declensions, such as magnus, magna, magnum >great>. Others are inflected in
accordance with the third declension, such as acer, acris, acre >sharp>. )he declension of any
adective is noted in dictionaries.
-s in English there are three degrees of comparison% 4ositive, /omparative and Superlative.
)he /omparative is made by adding !ior, the Superlative by adding !issimus. -n eCample is
clarus, clarior, clarissimus >clear, clearer, clearest>. Many of the most common adectives are
irregular, such as their counterparts in English, like bonus, melior, optimus >good, better, best>.
-nother eCample is magnus, maior, maCimus >great, greater, greatest>. )hese too are noted in
dictionaries.
JP. More $ouns in the )hird 0eclension.
-s noted earlier, nouns in the third declension end in consonants, so that there may be
changes in form of the stem, especially in the nominative. ECamples are given here for some
of the sub!classes with the words pBs >foot>, pater >father>, sermo >speech>, finis >end>, noC
>night>.
Singular
$om pBs pater sermo finis noC
*en pedis patris sermonis finis noctis
0at pedG patrG sermonG finG noctG
-cc pedem patrem sermonem finem noctem
-bl pede patre sermone fine nocte
4lural
$om pedBs patrBs sermonBs finBs noctBs
*en pedum patrum sermonum finium noctium
0at pedibus patribus sermonibus finibus noctibus
-cc pedBs patrBs sermonBs finBs noctBs
-bl pedibus patribus sermonibus finibus noctibus
JQ. "erb 1orms of sum.
-s in English, forms of the verb esse >to be> are irregular. )hey are also common, used as
auCiliaries as well as straightforwardly. -ccordingly they should be noted. )he indicative
active forms are listed below.
4resent 4ast 1uture 4erfect 4luperfect 1uture 4erfect
J sg sum eram er? fuG fueram fuer?
+ sg es erDs eris fuistG fuerDs fueris
, sg est erat erit fuit fuerat fuerit
J pl sumus erDmus erimus fuimus fuerDmus fuerimus
+ pl estis erDtis eritis fuistis fuerDtis fueritis
, pl sunt erant erunt fuBrunt fuerant fuerint
+K. -dverbs.
-dverbs must be noted as independent leCical items. )hose that are based on adectives in the
first and second declensions end in !e, such as male >badly> from malus >bad>, bene >well> from
bonus >good>. )hose based on adectives of the third declension end in !ter, such as graviter
>heavily> from gravis >heavy>.
Like adectives, they may have comparative and superlative forms. )hose with forms from
regular inflections have endings in !ius for the comparative and !e for the superlative, for
eCample alte >highly>, altius >more highly> and altissime >most highly>. .ut some of the most
frequent have irregular forms, such as bene, melius, optime >well, better, best>, multum, magis,
maCime >much, more, most>. )hese must be noted in dictionaries.
Lesson +
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
-fter describing the civiliFation of the *auls, /aesar has a brief but highly interesting section
on the *ermani. <e may almost conclude from it that they had maintained the way of life we
assume for the late #ndo!European period. )heir gods are those of the culture of the steppes.
)hey are basically hunter!gatherers. <arfare makes up their principal activity. -nd in contrast
with the *auls they have no specific classes= this is in keeping with Meillet>s conclusion that
the #ndo!Europeans were basically democratic, and also individualistic.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
/aesar goes on to describe the large forests to the east, and some of the animals, such as the
elk and the ure!oCen, noting how the *ermans hunt them by having them fall in pits. )he
most interesting part of his account is that given here.
*ermani multum ab hac consuetudine differunt.
Germani !! adective used as substantive= nominative plural masculine of R*ermanus,
*ermana, *ermanumS *ermani !! The %ermani
multum !! adverb= RmultumS greatly !! (reatly
ab !! preposition= RabS from, after !! from
hac !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular feminine of Rhic, haec, hocS there,
this !! this
consuetudine !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rconsuetudo, consuetudinisS
custom, way of life !! /ay of life
differunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rdiffer?, differre, distulG, dGlDtumS
differ !! differ
$am neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacrificiis student.
nam !! conunction= RnamS for !! for
neque !! adverb= RnequeS neither ... nor !! neither
druides !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rdruides, druidumS 0ruids !! &ruids
habent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !!
do they have
qui !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /ho
rebus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matters
divinis !! adective= dative plural feminine of Rdivinus, divina, divinumS divine,
sacred !! divine
praesint !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of Rpraesum, praesse,
praefuGS have charge of, preside over !! preside over
neque !! adverb= RnequeS neither ... nor !! nor
sacrificiis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rsacrificium, sacrificiS sacrifice !!
sacrifices
student !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rstude?, studBre, studuGS give attention,
be devoted !! they are devoted to
0eorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et
"ulcanum et Lunam, reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt.
deorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rdeus, deiS god !! of the (ods
numero !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rnumerus, numeriS class, number,
repute !! amon( the number
eos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! those
solos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rsolus, sola, solumS alone !! only
ducunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of RdEc?, ducere, dECG, ductumS lead,
consider !! they consider
quos !! relative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /hom
cernunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rcern?, cernere, crBvG, certumS discern,
see !! they see
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
quorum !! relative pronoun= genitive plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /hose
aperte !! adverb= RaperteS openly !! openly
opibus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rops, opisS assistance, wealth, resources !!
assistance
iuvantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of Riuv?, iuvDre, iEvG, iEtumS
assist, help !! they are helped
Solem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of RSol, SolisS sun !! the sun
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
Vulcanum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R"ulcanus, "ulcaniS "ulcan, the
fire!god !! fire
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
Lunam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of RLuna, LunaeS Luna, the moon!god !!
the moon
reliquos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rreliquus, reliqua, reliquumS
remaining, rest !! the rest
ne !! adverb= RneS not !! not
fama !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rfama, famaeS report, talk !! by report
quidem !! adverb= RquidemS in fact, even !! even
acceperunt !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Raccipi?, accipere, accBpG,
acceptumS receive !! they have learned
"ita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit.
vita !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rvita, vitaeS life !! life
omnis !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !!
2Their3 /hole
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
venationibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rvenatio, venationisS hunting !!
huntin(
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and also
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
studiis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rstudium, studiiS application, study !!
application
rei !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! to ...affairs
militaris !! adective= genitive singular feminine of Rmilitaris, militaris, militareS
military !! military
consistit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rc?nsist?, c?nsistere, c?nstitG,
c?nstitumS stand still, consist in !! consists
-b parvulis labori ac duritiae student.
ab !! preposition= RabS from, after !! from
parvulis !! adective used as substantive= ablative plural masculine of Rparvulus,
parvula, parvulumS childhood !! childhood
labori !! noun= dative singular masculine of Rlabor, laborisS labor, effort !! e-ertion
ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
duritiae !! noun= dative singular feminine of Rduritia, duritiaeS hardship !! hardship
student !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rstude?, studBre, studuGS give attention,
be devoted !! they are devoted to
5ui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maCimam inter suos ferunt laudem.
qui !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! 2those3 /ho
diutissime !! adverb= superlative of RdiuS long !! lon(est
impuberes !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rimpubes, impuberisS
youthful, chaste !! as vir(ins
permanserunt !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Rpermane?, permanBre, permansG,
permansumS stay, continue !! have stayed
maximam !! adective= accusative singular feminine superlative of Rmagnus, magna,
magnumS great, large !! (reatest
inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! amon(
suos !! possessive pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
their fello/s
ferunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rfer?, ferre, tulG, lDtumS bear, carry !!
maintain
laudem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rlaus, laudisS praise !! praise
2oc ali staturam, ali vires nervosque confirmari putant.
hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this
!! by this
ali !! indefinite pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS other,
some !! on the one hand
staturam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rstatura, staturaeS stature, height !!
hei(ht
ali !! indefinite pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS other,
some !! on the other hand
vires !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rvis, visS power, strength !! stren(th
nervosque !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rnervus, nerviS muscle T
conunction R!queS and !! and muscles
confirmari !! verb= infinitive passive of Rc?nfGrm?, c?nfGrmDre, c?nfGrmDvG,
c?nfGrmDtumS make firm, strengthen !! are stren(thened
putant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rput?, putDre, putDvG, putDtumS think !!
thin1
#ntra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus.
intra !! preposition= RintraS within, during !! before
annum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rannus, anniS year !! year
vero !! adverb= RveroS truly, but !! truly
vicesimum !! adective= accusative singular masculine of Rvicesimus, vicesima,
vicesimumS twentieth !! t/entieth
feminae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rfemina, feminaeS woman !! of a
/oman
notitiam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rnotitia, notitiaeS familiarity,
carnal knowledge !! carnal 1no/led(e
habuisse !! verb= perfect infinitive of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !! to
have had
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! amon(
turpissimis !! adective= ablative plural feminine superlative of Rturpis, turpis,
turpeS shameful, disgraceful !! dis(raceful
habent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !!
consider
rebus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! thin(s
/uius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis
renonum tegimentis utuntur magna corporis parte nuda.
cuius !! relative pronoun= genitive singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! of /hich
rei !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matter
nulla !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rnullus, nulla, nullumS no, none
!! no
est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! there is
occultatio !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Roccultatio, occultationisS
secrecy !! secrecy
quod !! conunction= RquodS that, because !! because
et !! conunction= RetS and !! both
promiscue !! adverb= RpromiscueS promiscuous !! promiscuously
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
fluminibus !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rflumen, fluminisS river !! the rivers
perluntur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of Rperlu?, perluere, perluG,
perlEtumS wash, bathe !! they bathe
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
pellibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rpellis, pellisS skin, hide !! hides
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
parvis !! adective= ablative plural neuter of Rparvus, parva, parvumS small !! small
renonum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rreno, renonisS deer!skin !! of deer5
s1ins
tegimentis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rtegumen, teguminisS clothing,
covering !! clothin(
utuntur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of REtor, EtG, Esus sumS use !!
they /ear
magna !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS great,
large !! /ith a lar(e
corporis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rcorpus, corporisS body !! of the body
parte !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rpars, partisS part !! part
nuda !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rnudus, nuda, nudumS bare, naked !!
bare
-griculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne consistit.
agriculturae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Ragricultura, agriculturaeS
agriculture !! a(riculture
non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
student !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rstude?, studBre, studuGS give attention,
be devoted !! they are devoted to
maiorque !! adective= nominative singular feminine comparative of Rmagnus, magna,
magnumS great, large T conunction R!queS and !! and the (reater
pars !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rpars, partisS part !! part
eorum !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her,
this !! of their
victus !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rvictus, victusS sustenance, food !!
food
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
lacte !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rlac, lactisS milk !! mil1
caseo !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rcaseus, caseiS cheese !! cheese
carne !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rcaro, carnisS meat !! 2and3 meat
consistit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rc?nsist?, c?nsistere, c?nstitG,
c?nstitumS stand still, consist in !! consists of
$eque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios.
neque !! adverb= RnequeS neither ... nor !! nor
quisquam !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquisquis, quaeque,
quicquidS whoever, whatever !! anyone
agri !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rager, agriS land !! of land
modum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rmodus, modiS kind !! amount
certum !! adective= accusative singular masculine of Rcertus, certa, certumS certain !!
fi-ed
aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
fines !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rfinis, finisS border, limit !!
boundaries
habet !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !!
has
proprios !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rproprius, propria, propriumS
proper, own !! 2his3 o/n
Sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una
coierunt, quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt.
sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
magistratus !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rmagistratus, magistratusS
magistrate !! ma(istrates
ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
principes !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rprinceps, principisS chief !!
chiefs
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
annos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rannus, anniS year !! years
singulos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rsingulus, singula, singulumS
single, individual !! separate
gentibus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rgens, gentisS race, clan !! to tribes
cognationibusque !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rcognatio, cognationisS blood!
relations, kindred T conunction R!queS and !! and to clans
hominum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !! of
persons
qui !! relative pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /ho
una !! adverb= RunaS at the same place, together !! to(ether
coierunt !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Rcoeo, coGre, coivG, coitumS come
together, be assembled !! have assembled
quantum !! adverb= RquantumS as much !! as much
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
quo !! interrogative pronoun= ablative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS which,
what !! /hatever
loco !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! place
visum !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect passive of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG, vGsumS see
with est !! seems best
est !! auCiliary verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am with visum
!! ...
agri !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rager, agriS land !! land
attribuunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rattribu?, attribuere, attribuG,
attribEtumS assign !! assi(n
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
anno !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rannus, anniS year !! year
post !! adverb= RpostS after !! after
alio !! adverb= RalioS somewhere else !! to another place
transire !! verb= present infinitive of RtrDnse?, transGre, transGvG, transitumS go over
!! to (o
cogunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rc?g?, c?gere, coBgi, c?actumS collect,
compel !! they compel
Eius rei multas adferunt causas%
eius !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive singular feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! for this
rei !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matter
multas !! adective= accusative plural feminine of Rmultus, multa, multumS many !!
many
adferunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Radfer?, adferre, attulG, adlDtumS bring,
convey !! state
causas !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rcausa, causaeS cause, reason !!
reasons
ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent=
ne !! conunction= RneS so that not !! so that not
adsidua !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Radsiduus, adsidua, adsiduumS
constant, continued !! by continued
consuetudine !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rconsuetudo, consuetudinisS
custom, way of life !! custom
capti !! verb= perfect participle passive of Rcapi?, capere, cBpG, captumS take, seiFe !!
induced
studium !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rstudium, studiiS application, study !!
pursuit
belli !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! /ar
gerendi !! verb= gerund'ive( genitive singular neuter of Rger?, gerere, gessG, gestumS
bear, carry out, wear !! of carryin( out
agricultura !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Ragricultura, agriculturaeS
agriculture !! for a(riculture
commutent !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of RcommEt?, commEtDre,
commEtDvi, commEtDtumS change, eCchange !! e-chan(e
ne latos fines parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus eCpellant=
ne !! conunction= RneS so that not !! so that not
latos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rlatus, lata, latumS broad !!
e-tensive
fines !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rfinis, finisS border, limit !! lands
parare !! verb= present infinitive of Rpar?, parDre, parDvG, parDtumS prepare, obtain !!
to obtain
studeant !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of Rstude?, studBre, studuGS
give attention, be devoted !! they mi(ht become devoted to
potentioresque !! adective used as substantive= nominative plural masculine
comparative of Rpotens, potentisS powerful T conunction R!queS and !! and the
more po/erful
humiliores !! adective= accusative plural masculine comparative of Rhumilis,
humilis, humileS low, small !! the lo/er
possessionibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rpossessio, possessionisS
possession !! from their possessions
expellant !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of ReCpell?, eCpellere,
eCpulG, eCpulsumS drive out !! drive
ne accuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedificent=
ne !! conunction= RneS so that not !! so that not
accuratius !! adverb= comparative of RaccurateS carefully !! more carefully
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! for
frigora !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rfrigus, frigorisS cold !! cold
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and also
aestus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Raestus, aestusS heat !! heat
vitandos !! verb= verbal adective of Rvit?, vitDre, vitDvG, vitDtusS avoid, evade !!
avoidin(
aedificent !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of Raedific?, aedificDre,
aedificDvG, aedificDtumS build !! they mi(ht build
ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua eC re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur.
ne !! conunction= RneS so that not !! so that not
qua !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular feminine of Rqui, qua'e(, quodS some,
any !! some
oriatur !! deponent verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of Rorior, orGrG,
ortus sumS arise !! mi(ht arise
pecuniae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rpecunia, pecuniaeS money !! for
money
cupiditas !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rcupiditas, cupiditatisS desire !!
desire
qua !! relative pronoun= ablative singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! /hich
ex !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! from
re !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! matter
factiones !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rfactio, factionisS faction !!
factions
dissensionesque !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rdissensio, dissensionisS
dissension T conunction R!queS and !! and dissensions
nascuntur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of RnDscor, nDscG, nDtus sumS
be produced, arise !! /ould arise
ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari
videat.
ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! so that
animi !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Ranimus, animiS soul, mind !! of spirit
aequitate !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Raequitas, aequitatisS uniformity,
calmness !! in calmness
plebem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rplebs, plebisS common people !!
the common people
contineant !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of Rcontine?, continBre,
continuG, contentumS connect, maintain !! they mi(ht maintain
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hen
suas !! possessive pronoun= accusative plural feminine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
his o/n
quisque !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquisque, quaeque,
quodqueS everyone !! someone
opes !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rops, opisS assistance, wealth, resources
!! means
cum !! preposition= RcumS with !! /ith
potentissimis !! adective= dative plural masculine superlative of Rpotens, potentisS
powerful !! the most po/erful
aequari !! deponent verb= passive infinitive of Raequ?, aequDre, aequDvG, aequDtusS
to make equal, smoothe !! be e0ual to
videat !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG,
vGsumS see !! see
Lesson Te-t
*ermani multum ab hac consuetudine differunt. $am neque druides habent, qui rebus divinis
praesint, neque sacrificiis student. 0eorum numero eos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum
aperte opibus iuvantur, Solem et "ulcanum et Lunam, reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt.
"ita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit. -b parvulis labori ac duritiae
student. 5ui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maCimam inter suos ferunt laudem. 2oc ali
staturam, ali vires nervosque confirmari putant. #ntra annum vero vicesimum feminae notitiam
habuisse in turpissimis habent rebus. /uius rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in
fluminibus perluntur et pellibus aut parvis renonum tegimentis utuntur magna corporis parte
nuda. -griculturae non student, maiorque pars eorum victus in lacte, caseo, carne consistit.
$eque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios. Sed magistratus ac principes in
annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierunt, quantum et quo loco
visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt. Eius rei multas adferunt causas%
ne adsidua consuetudine capti studium belli gerendi agricultura commutent= ne latos fines
parare studeant, potentioresque humiliores possessionibus eCpellant= ne accuratius ad frigora
atque aestus vitandos aedificent= ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua eC re factiones
dissensionesque nascuntur. ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, cum suas quisque opes cum
potentissimis aequari videat.
Translation
)he *ermani differ a great deal from this way of life. )hey have no 0ruids who preside over
their divine affairs= nor are they devoted to sacrifices. )hey consider in the number of their
gods only those whom they see and by whose assistance they are openly helped, the Sun and
the 1ire!god and the Moon= they have not even heard of the rest by report. )heir whole life
consists of hunting and of the pursuit of military affairs. 1rom youth they are devoted to work
and hardship. )hose who remain celibate longest enoy the greatest praise among their
fellows. Some think that height, others that strength and sinews are strengthened by this. )hey
truly consider it among the most disgraceful matters to have had intercourse with a woman
before their twentieth year. )here is no secrecy in the matter for they bathe promiscuously in
the rivers and they wear skins or small coverings of deer skins with a large part of their body
nude.
)hey do not practice agriculture= the greater part of their food consists of milk, cheese, and
meat. $or does anyone have a definite amount of land or fiCed boundaries. .ut the
magistrates and chiefs every year assign to the tribes and to related people who have grouped
together, as much land and in whatever place seems best. -nd in the neCt year they compel
them to move. )hey adduce many reasons for this matter% so that they would not change their
Feal for warfare to agriculture, tempted by continuous association= so that they would not
desire to acquire broad territories, and the more powerful might eCpel the weaker= so that they
would not build more carefully against cold and heat= so that a desire for money would not
arise, from which factions and dissentions might be produced= so that they might keep the
common people in calmness of spirit, with each seeing his own means as equal to those of the
most powerful.
%rammar
21. Personal and .efle-ive Pronouns.
-s we have noted, and as is clear from the teCts in the first five lessons, few particles are used
in Latin. On the other hand, pronouns are used to indicate relationships between words,
clauses and sentences. )he pronouns concerned are chiefly those labeled descriptive and
relative, since historical teCts use few personal pronouns, in part because the item in question
is provided by the verb form. $onetheless it is necessary to be aware of them, and accordingly
they are given here.
)he first and second pronouns are also used as refleCives. )he third person pronoun is
refleCive, and is used for all three genders in the plural as well as the singular. )he dative
accordingly may mean >to himself, to herself, to itself, to themselves.>
1st Person 2nd Person rd Person
Sin(ular Plural Sin(ular Plural
"om ego >#> n?s >we> tE >thou> v?s >you>
%en meG nostrum, nostrG tui vestrum, vestrG suG
&at mihi n?bis tibG v?bis sibG
'cc mB n?s tB v?s sB, sBsB
'bl mB n?bis tB v?bis sB, sBsB
)he adectival forms of these pronouns, known as possessives, are inflected in all cases and
genders. )hey are% meus, mea, meum >my>, tuus, tua, tuum >thy>, suus, sua, suum >his, her, its,
their>, noster, nostra, nostrum >our>, vester, vestra, vestrum >your>.
22. &escriptive Pronouns.
)hese pronouns, which are also referred to as determinative or determiners or even
demonstrative, are among the most frequent. )hey may be translated with forms of >this> or
with personal pronouns like >he> or with other elements like >the same>. )he genitive and dative
forms are the same for all three genders, eCcept for the genitive plural where the feminine has
!a! rather than !o!.
is 4he# she# this4
Sin(ular Plural
6asc *em "eut 6asc *em "eut
"om is ea id iG eae ea
%en Bius Bius Bius e?rum eDrum e?rum
&at eG eG eG iGs iGs iGs
'cc eum eam id e?s eDs ea
'bl e? eD e? iGs iGs iGs

idem 4the same4
"om Gdem eadem idem idem eaedem eadem
%en Biusdem Biusdem Biusdem e?rumdem eDrumdem e?rumdem
&at eGdem eGdem eGdem Gsdem Gsdem Gsdem
'cc eundem eandem idem e?sdem eDsdem eadem
'bl e?dem eDdem e?dem Gsdem Gsdem Gsdem

hic 4this4
"om hic haec hoc hG hae haec
%en hEius hEius hEius h?rum hDrum h?rum
&at huGc huGc huGc hGs hGs hGs
'cc hunc hanc hoc h?s hDs haec
'bl h?c hDc h?c hGs hGs hGs

ille 4that# such4
"om ille illa illud illG illae illa
%en illGus illGus illGus ill?rum illDrum ill?rum
&at illG illG illG illGs illGs illGs
'cc illum illam illud ill?s illDs illa
'bl ill? illD ill? illGs illGs illGs
2. The Intensive Pronoun ipse 4self4.
Sin(ular Plural
6asc *em "eut 6asc *em "eut
"om ipse ipsa ipsum ipsG ipsae ipsa
%en ipsGus ipsGus ipsGus ips?rum ipsDrum ips?rum
&at ipsG ipsG ipsG ipsGs ipsGs ipsGs
'cc ipsum ipsam ipsum ips?s ipsDs ipsa
'bl ips? ipsD ips? ipsGs ipsGs ipsGs
2!. The .elative Pronoun 0uA 4/ho4.
Sin(ular Plural
6asc *em "eut 6asc *em "eut
"om quG quae quod quG quae quae
%en cEius cEius cEius qu?rum quDrum qu?rum
&at cuG cuG cuG quibus quibus quibus
'cc quem quam quod qu?s quDs quae
'bl qu? quD qu? quibus quibus quibus
#ndefinite relatives are quicumque >whoever> and quisquis >whoever>, quidquid >whatever>. )he
first element of quicumque may be declined like the simple relative pronoun. )he elements of
quisquis may be declined like the interrogative pronoun, as demonstrated by the form
quidquid= but other forms rarely occur.
2+. The Interro(ative and Indefinite Pronouns.
)he interrogative pronoun when used as a noun is quis >whoZ>= when used as an adective it is
qui, as in qui homo ><hich manZ>= it is inflected like the relative pronoun.
Sin(ular Plural
6asc *em "eut 6asc *em "eut
"om quis quis quid quG quae quae
%en cEius cEius cEius qu?rum quDrum qu?rum
&at cuG cuG cuG quibus quibus quibus
'cc quem quem quid qu?s quDs quae
'bl qu? quD qu? quibus quibus quibus
5uis is also used as indefinite pronoun, noun, and adective. <hen used as an adective, the
nominative forms are qui, quae and quod= when used as a noun, the neuter is quid.
Lesson L
<infred 4. Lehmann and :onathan Slocum
-bout a hundred and fifty years after /aesar wrote his *allic <ar, the historian )acitus
produced a treatise on the *ermani. <e know less about /ornelius )acitus than we do about
:ulius /aesar. 2e was apparently born around NN -.0. and died around J+K -.0. 2e enoyed a
fine career in various government positions. -mong his works, in addition to a history of his
time known as 2istoriae and his -nnales on the period from the death of -ugustus /aesar in
JM -.0. to LP -.0., is a work entitled 0e Moribus et 4opulis *ermaniae >/oncerning the
customs and peoples of *ermania>, or more simply *ermania. <hile some authors in
/lassical times, among them 2erodotus, Livy and /aesar, included brief accounts of other
peoples in their writings, )acitus> *ermania is the only anthropological account of a people
that we have from the period.
6eading and )eCtual -nalysis
#n his description of the public and private life of the *erman peoples, )acitus gives us a
much more comprehensive picture than did /aesar. On the other hand, their way of life seems
much the same as it was in /aesar>s day. -t one point )acitus does indicate that they have
taken on some customs from outside, as in the brief statement iam et pecuniam accipere
docuimus >we have brought them also to accept money>, but, as the eCcerpt given here shows,
their habitations and clothing remained much the same.
$ullas *ermanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas
sedes.
W nullas !! adective= accusative plural feminine of Rnullus, nulla, nullumS no, none !! no
W *ermanorum !! adective used as substantive= genitive plural masculine of R*ermanus,
*ermana, *ermanumS *ermani !! of the *ermani
W populis !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rpopulus, populiS people !! by the peoples
W urbes !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! cities
W habitari !! verb= passive infinitive of Rhabit?, habitDre, habitDvG, habitDtumS inhabit !! are
inhabited
W satis !! adverb= RsatisS adequately, sufficiently !! quite
W notum !! verb= nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of Rn?sc?,
n?scere, n?vG, n?tumS be acquainted with, get to know !! known
W est !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! it is
W ne !! conunction= RneS so that not !! that ... not
W pati !! deponent verb= infinitive passive of Rpatior, patG, passus sumS suffer, endure !!
they permit
W quidem !! adverb= RquidemS in fact, even !! even
W inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! among
W se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! themselves
W iunctas !! adective= accusative plural feminine of Riunctus, iuncta, iunctumS oined,
united !! connected
W sedes !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rsedes, sedisS seat, habitation !! habitations
/olunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit.
W colunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rcol?, colere, coluG, cultumS dwell in,
cultivate !! )hey live
W discreti !! verb= nominative plural masculine perfect participle passive of Rdiscern?,
discernere, discrBvG, discrBtumS separate, divide !! separately
W ac !! conunction= RacS and !! as well as
W diversi !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rdiversus, diversa, diversumS
contrary, diverse !! diversely
W ut !! adverb= RutS as, where !! where
W fons !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rfons, fontisS spring !! a spring
W ut !! adverb= RutS as, where !! where
W campus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rcampus, campiS plain, open field !!
an open field
W ut !! adverb= RutS as, where !! where
W nemus !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rnemus, nemorisS grove !! a grove
W placuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rplace?, placBre, placuG, placitumS please !!
as they please
"icos locant non in nostrum morem coneCis et cohaerentibus aedificiis.
W vicos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rvicus, viciS village !! villages
W locant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rloc?, locDre, locDvG, locDtusS place, arrange
!! they arrange
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in accordance with
W nostrum !! possessive pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Rnoster, nostra,
nostrumS our !! our
W morem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rmos, morisS custom !! custom
W coneCis !! adective= ablative plural neuter of RconeCus, coneCa, coneCumS adoining !!
adoining
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W cohaerentibus !! ablative plural neuter of Rcohaerens, cohaerentisS continuous, adoining
!! continuous
W aedificiis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Raedificium, aedificiiS building !! buildings
Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat, sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia
aedificandi.
W suam !! possessive pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !!
his
W quisque !! indefinite pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rquisque, quaeque,
quodqueS everyone !! everyone
W domum !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rdomus, domiS house !! house
W spatio !! noun= dative singular neuter of Rspatium, spatiiS space !! space
W circumdat !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rcircumd?, circumdare, circumdedG,
circumdDtumS surround !! surrounds
W sive !! conunction= RsiveS or if, whether ... or !! whether
W adversus !! adverb= RadversusS opposite to, against !! against
W casus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rcasus, casusS fall, misfortune, chance !!
haFard
W ignis !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rignis, ignisS fire !! of fire
W remedium !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rremedium, remediiS remedy,
assistance !! as a remedy
W sive !! conunction= RsiveS or if, whether ... or !! or
W inscientia !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rinscientia, inscientiaeS ignorance !!
through ignorance
W aedificandi !! verb= genitive of gerund'ive( of Raedific?, aedificDre, aedificDvG,
aedificDtumS build !! of construction
$e caementorum quidem apud illos aut tegularum usus.
W ne !! adverb= RneS not !! not
W caementorum !! noun= genitive plural neuter of Rcaementum, caementiS quarry!stone !!
of quarry!stones
W quidem !! adverb= RquidemS in fact, even !! even
W apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! among
W illos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rille, illa, illudS he, she,
that !! them
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W tegularum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rtegula, tegulaeS tile !! of tiles
W usus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rusus, ususS use, practice !! use
Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem.
W materia !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rmateria, materiaeS material !! material
W ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! for
W omnia !! adective used as substantive= accusative plural neuter of Romnis, omnis, omneS
all !! everything
W utuntur !! deponent verb= ,rd person plural present of REtor, EtG, Esus sumS use !! they
use
W informi !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rinformis, informis, informeS
unshapely, hideous !! unshapely
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W citra !! preposition= RcitraS on this side of, without !! without
W speciem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rspecies, specieiS appearance !!
pleasing appearance
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W delectationem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rdelectatio, delectationisS
pleasure, delight !! beauty
5uaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta
colorum imitetur.
W quaedam !! indefinite pronoun= nominative plural neuter of Rquidam, quaedam,
quoddamS a certain, some !! some
W loca !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rlocus, lociS place !! places
W diligentius !! adverb= comparative of RdiligenterS industriously !! very industriously
W illinunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rillin?, illere, illBvG, illitumS spread over !!
they spread, smear
W terra !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rterra, terraeS earth, land !! with earth
W ita !! adverb= RitaS thus !! so
W pura !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rpurus, pura, purumS pure !! pure
W ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and also
W splendente !! verb= ablative singular feminine of present participle of Rsplendeo,
splendere, !, !S shine, be bright !! shiny
W ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! that
W picturam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rpictura, picturaeS painting !! a
painting
W ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and also
W liniamenta !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rliniamentum, liniamentiS line, designs !!
designs
W colorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rcolor, colorisS color !! of colors
W imitetur !! deponent verb= ,rd person singular subunctive present of Rimitor, imitDre,
imitDtumS imitate, resemble !! they resemble
Solent et subterraneos specus aperire eosque multo insuper fimo onerant suffugium hiemis et
receptaculum frugibus.
W solent !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rs?le?, solBre, solitumS be accustomed !!
)hey are accustomed
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! also
W subterraneos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rsubterraneus, subterraneiS
underground !! underground
W specus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rspecus, specusS cave, pit !! pits
W aperire !! verb= infinitive of Raperi?, aperGre, aperuG, apertumS open !! to open
W eosque !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
T conunction R!queS and !! and them
W multo !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rmultus, multa, multumS many !! with
much
W insuper !! adverb= RinsuperS above, on top !! on top
W fimo !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rfimus, fimiS dung !! dung
W onerant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Roner?, onerDre, onerDvG, onerDtumS load,
burden !! they cover
W suffugium !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rsuffugium, suffugiiS refuge, shelter !!
as a shelter
W hiemis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rhiems, hiemisS winter !! from the winter
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W receptaculum !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rreceptaculum, receptaculiS
receptacle, storage place !! storage place
W frugibus !! noun= dative plural feminine of RfruC, frugisS fruit, produce !! for fruit
5uia rigorem frigorum eius modi loci molliunt, et si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur.
W quia !! conunction= RquiaS because !! because
W rigorem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rrigor, rigorisS rigor !! rigor
W frigorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rfrigus, frigorisS cold !! of the cold
W eius !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive singular masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
of that
W modi !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rmodus, modiS kind !! kind
W loci !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! places
W molliunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rmolli?, mollGre, mollGvG, mollGtumS
moderate, soften !! moderate
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
W quando !! adverb= RquandoS ever, at some time !! at some time
W hostis !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rhostis, hostisS enemy !! an enemy
W advenit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Radveni?, advenGre, advenG, adventumS
arrive, appear !! arrived
W aperta !! adective= nominative plural neuter of Rapertus, aperta, apertumS open !! the
open things
W populatur !! deponent verb= ,rd person singular present passive of Rpopulor, populDri,
populatus sumS devastate, plunder !! he would plunder
-bdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt.
W abdita !! adective used as substantive= nominative plural neuter of Rabditus, abdita,
abditumS hidden place !! the hidden places
W autem !! conunction= RautemS but !! but
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W defossa !! participle used as substantive= nominative plural neuter of perfect participle
passive of RdBfodi?, defossere, def?dG, defossumS dig deep, hide !! the caves
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! either
W ignorantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of RGgn?r?, Ggn?rDre, Ggn?rDvi,
Ggn?rDtumS ignore, be unknown !! remain unknown
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W eo ipso !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular neuter of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this T
pronoun Ripse, ipsa, ipsumS self !! by that very reason
W fallunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rfall?, fallere, fefellG, falsumS deceive, elude
!! they elude
W quod !! relative pronoun= nominative singular neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! what
W quaerenda !! verbal adective= nominative plural neuter of Rquaer?, quaerere, quaesGvG,
quaesGtumS look for, search !! to be sought
W sunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! they are
)egumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina consertum.
W tegumen !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rtegumen, teguminisS clothing, covering
!! )he covering
W omnibus !! adective= dative plural masculine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! for all
W sagum !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rsagum, sagiS rough mantle !! 'is( a rough
mantle
W fibula !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rfibula, fibulaeS brooch !! with a brooch
W aut !! conunction= RautS or !! or
W si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
W desit !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of Rdesum, deesse, defuGS be
lacking !! is unavailable
W spina !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rspina, spinaeS thorn !! a thorn
W consertum !! verb= nominative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of Rc?nser?,
c?nserere, c?nseruG, c?nsertumS connect !! held together
/etera intecti totos dies iuCta focum atque ignem agunt.
W cetera !! adverb= RceteraS otherwise !! Otherwise
W intecti !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Rintectus, intecta, intectumS
uncovered !! naked
W totos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rtotus, tota, totumS entire !! entire
W dies !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rdies, dieiS day !! days
W iuCta !! preposition= RiuCtaS near !! near
W focum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rfocus, fociS fire!place, hearth !! the
hearth
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
W ignem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rignis, ignisS fire !! the fire
W agunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rag?, agere, BgG, DctumS move, conduct !! they
spend
Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur, non fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac 4arthi, sed stricta et
singulos artus eCprimente.
W locupletissimi !! adective= nominative plural masculine of superlative of Rlocuples,
locupletisS rich in lands, wealthy !! )he wealthy
W reste !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rrestis, restisS undergarment !! by an
undergarment
W distinguuntur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of RdGstingu?, dGstinguere,
dGstinCG, dGstinctumS divide, distinguish !! are distinguished
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W fluitante !! verb= ablative singular feminine of present participle of Rfluit?, fluitDre,
fluitDvG, !S flow !! flowing
W sicut !! adverb= RsicutS as, like !! like
W Sarmatae !! noun= nominative plural masculine of RSarmatae, SarmatarumS Sarmatians !!
the Sarmatians
W ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
W 4arthi !! noun= nominative plural masculine of R4arthi, 4arthorumS 4arthians !! 4arthians
W sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
W stricta !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rstrictus, stricta, strictumS drawn
together, tight !! tight
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W singulos !! adective= accusative plural masculine of Rsingulus, singula, singulumS single,
individual !! the individual
W artus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rartus, artusS oints, limbs !! limbs
W eCprimente !! verb= ablative singular feminine of present participle of ReCprim?,
eCprimere, eCpressG, eCpressumS eCpress !! revealing
*erunt et ferarum pelles, proCimi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores eCquisitius, ut quibus nullus
per commercia cultus.
W gerunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rger?, gerere, gessG, gestumS bear, carry out,
wear !! )hey wear
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! also
W ferarum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rfera, feraeS wild beast !! of wild animals
W pelles !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rpellis, pellisS skin, hide !! hides
W proCimi !! adective= nominative plural masculine of RproCimus, proCima, proCimumS
neCt to !! 'those( neCt to
W ripae !! noun= dative singular feminine of Rripa, ripaeS river!bank !! the river 'X 6hine
and 0anube(
W neglegenter !! adverb= RneglegenterS carelessly !! with no discrimination
W ulteriores !! adective used as substantive= nominative plural masculine of Rulterior,
ulteriorisS farther, remote !! those more remote
W eCquisitius !! adverb= comparative of ReCquisitus, eCquisita, eCquisitumS eCquisitely !!
more eCquisitely
W ut !! adverb= RutS as, where !! seeing that
W quibus !! relative pronoun= dative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! for them
W nullus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rnullus, nulla, nullumS no, none !!
'there is( no
W per !! preposition= RperS through, by !! through
W commercia !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rcommercium, commerciS commerce
!! through commerce
W cultus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rcultus, cultusS care, culture !!
refinement
Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum, quas eCterior
Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit.
W eligunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of RBlig?, Blegere, elBgG, elBctumS choose, select
!! they select
W feras !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rfera, feraeS wild beast !! 'the hides of( wild
beasts
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W detracta !! verb= perfect participle passive of RdBtrah?, detrahere, dBtraCG, detractumS take
off, remove !! removed
W velamina !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rvelamen, velaminisS cover, clothing !!
clothing
W spargunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rsparg?, spargere, sparsG, sparsumS strew,
sprinkle !! they distribute
W maculis !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rmacula, maculaeS spot !! with spots
W pellibusque !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rpellis, pellisS skin, hide T conunction
R!queS and !! and with hides
W beluarum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rbelua, beluaeS wild animal, monster !! of
wild animals
W quas !! relative pronoun= accusative plural feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! which
W eCterior !! adective= nominative singular masculine of ReCterior, eCteriorisS outer !! the
outer
W Oceanus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of ROceanus, OceaniS ocean !! ocean
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
W ignotum !! adective= nominative singular neuter of Rignotus, ignota, ignotumS unknown
!! an unknown
W mare !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rmare, marisS sea !! sea
W gignit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of RgGgn?, genere, genuG, genitumS generate,
produce !! produces
$ec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur
eosque purpura variant.
W nec !! adverb= RnecS neither ... nor !! not
W alius !! adective pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Ralius, alia, aliudS other,
some !! different
W feminis !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rfemina, feminaeS woman !! for the women
W quam !! adverb= RquamS than !! than
W viris !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! for the men
W habitus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rhabitus, habitusS clothing, dress !!
clothing
W nisi !! conunction= RnisiS if not, unless !! eCcept
W quod !! conunction= RquodS that, because !! that
W feminae !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rfemina, feminaeS woman !! the women
W saepius !! adverb= comparative of RsaepeS often !! more often
W lineis !! adective= dative plural masculine of Rlineus, linea, lineumS flaCen !! by flaCen
W amictibus !! noun= dative plural masculine of Ramictus, amictusS outer garment !! outer
garments
W velantur !! verb= ,rd person plural present passive of RvBl?, velDre, velDvG, velDtumS
cover !! are covered
W eosque !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
T conunction R!queS and !! and those
W purpura !! ablative singular feminine of Rpurpura, purpuraeS purple, purple cloth !! with
purple cloth
W variant !! verb, ,rd person plural present of Rvari?, variDre, variDvG, variDtumS variegate
!! they variegate
4artemque vestitus superioris in manicas non eCtendunt= nudae brachia ac lacertos= sed et
proCima pars pectoris patet.
W partemque !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rpars, partisS part T conunction R!
queS and !! -nd ...part
W vestitus !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rvestitus, vestitusS clothing !! of their ...
clothing
W superioris !! adective= genitive singular masculine comparative of Rsuperus, supera,
superumS higher, gods !! upper
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! into
W manicas !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rmanicae, manicarumS long sleeves !!
sleeves
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W eCtendunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of ReCtend?, eCtendere, eCtendG, eCtBnsumS
eCtend !! they eCtend
W nudae !! adective= nominative plural feminine of Rnudus, nuda, nudumS bare, naked !!
'are( bare
W brachia !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rbrachium, brachiS lower arm !! 'their(
lower arms
W ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
W lacertos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rlacertus, lacertiS upper arm !! 'their(
upper arms
W sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but, in fact
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! also
W proCima !! adective= nominative singular feminine superlative of RpropeS near !! nearest
W pars !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rpars, partisS part !! part
W pectoris !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rpectus, pectorisS breast !! of their breast
W patet !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rpate?, patBre, patuG, !S lie open, be eCposed
!! lies open
Lesson )eCt
$ullas *ermanorum populis urbes habitari satis notum est, ne pati quidem inter se iunctas
sedes. /olunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. "icos locant non in
nostrum morem coneCis et cohaerentibus aedificiis. Suam quisque domum spatio circumdat,
sive adversus casus ignis remedium sive inscientia aedificandi. $e caementorum quidem apud
illos aut tegularum usus. Materia ad omnia utuntur informi et citra speciem aut delectationem.
5uaedam loca diligentius illinunt terra ita pura ac splendente, ut picturam ac liniamenta
colorum imitetur. Solent et subterraneos specus aperire eosque multo insuper fimo onerant
suffugium hiemis et receptaculum frugibus. 5uia rigorem frigorum eius modi loci molliunt, et
si quando hostis advenit, aperta populatur. -bdita autem et defossa aut ignorantur aut eo ipso
fallunt, quod quaerenda sunt. )egumen omnibus sagum fibula aut, si desit, spina consertum.
/etera intecti totos dies iuCta focum atque ignem agunt. Locupletissimi reste distinguuntur,
non fluitante, sicut Sarmatae ac 4arthi, sed stricta et singulos artus eCprimente. *erunt et
ferarum pelles, proCimi ripae neglegenter, ulteriores eCquisitius, ut quibus nullus per
commercia cultus. Eligunt feras et detracta velamina spargunt maculis pellibusque beluarum,
quas eCterior Oceanus atque ignotum mare gignit. $ec alius feminis quam viris habitus, nisi
quod feminae saepius lineis amictibus velantur eosque purpura variant. 4artemque vestitus
superioris in manicas non eCtendunt= nudae brachia ac lacertos= sed et proCima pars pectoris
patet.
)ranslation
#t is well known that cities are not inhabited by the peoples of the *ermani, indeed that
connected habitations are not permitted among them. )hey live separately and independently,
where a spring, an open field or a wood has pleased them. )hey do not arrange their villages
according to our custom, with adoining and continuous buildings. Each surrounds his house
with an open space, whether as a remedy against the occurrence of fire, or because of
ignorance of construction. )here is not even use of quarry!stones or tiles among them. 1or all
things they use unshapely materials, without pleasant appearance or beauty. Some places they
smear so carefully with such pure and shiny earth that they resemble a painting and designs of
colors. -nd they also dig underground pits and cover them with much dung on top, for a
shelter from the winter and a storage place for fruits. .ecause those places moderate the
rigorous cold= and when an enemy appears, he would plunder only the open things. 1or the
hidden places and the caves remain unknown or they elude them because they would have to
be sought out.
)he clothing for all is a rough mantle held together with a brooch or if that is lacking by a
thorn. Otherwise they are unclothed= they spend entire days in this way near the hearth and
fire. Only the richest are distinguished by an undergarment, not flowing, like those of the
Sarmatians and 4arthians, but tight and revealing all the limbs. )hey also wear hides of wild
animals, those along the river not discriminating among them, but those more remote also
more eCquisitely. .ecause there is no culture through commerce thereI )hey select the hides
and spread the removed coverings with spots and hides of wild animals that the outer ocean
and an unknown sea produce.
)he clothing of the women does not differ from that of the men, eCcept that they often are
covered with flaCen outer garments and those they variegate with purple cloth. -nd they do
not eCtend part of their upper clothing to their arms. )heir lower and upper arms are bare. #n
fact, the nearest part of their breast also lies open.
*rammar
+L. )he importance of verb forms.
-s we have noted, verbs are highly important for understanding and translating Latin. )hey
often include the subect of a sentence. )hey also vary in form, so that they indicate the
writer>s intention, whether factual, hypothetical, or the like.
.esides active and passive voices and indicative and subunctive moods, verbs in general
have two systems, those based on the present tense and representing time of action, those
based on the perfect tense and representing aspect as well as time of action. )he twofold set
may be determined from the lists of principal parts of verbs, as we may illustrate with an
eCample of the patterns found in dictionaries%
d?n? ># give>, d?nDvG ># have given>, d?nDtum >given>, d?nDre >to give>.
1rom the first and last of these principal parts, one determines the forms of the present
system= from the second one determines the forms of the perfect system. )he third form is the
perfect participle passive, which is used in making some of the passive forms, and it is often
used as an adective.
)here are four conugations, based on differing stems. )he verbs of the first conugation have
stems ending in long !D!, such as d?n?, donDre >give>= those of the second conugation have
stems ending in long !B!, such as habe?, habBre >have>= those of the third conugation have
stems ending in short !e!, such as teg?, tegere >cover>= those of the fourth conugation have
stems ending in long !G!, such as audi?, audGre >hear>. )o provide an overview of the numerous
forms for any verb, we will give all forms of a verb of the first conugation, because they are
the most regular. <e assume that with these lists you will be able to recogniFe any verb form,
not that you will memoriFe them unless you so choose. Many of the forms are unlikely to
occur in the narrative teCts included here, such as the imperatives= these may however occur
in poetry, especially drama. .ut they are most likely to occur in everyday conversation.
+O. )he 4resent )ense forms of the first conugation verb d?n?, and the first singular forms of
the three other conugations.
Jst conugation
-ctive "oice 4assive "oice
#ndicative Subunctive #ndicative Subunctive
J sg d?n? d?nem d?nor d?ner
+ sg d?nDs d?nBs d?nDris d?nBris
, sg d?nat d?net d?nDtur d?nBtur
J pl d?nDmus d?nBmus d?nDmur d?nBmur
+ pl d?nDtis d?nBtis d?nDminG d?nBminG
, pl d?nant d?nent d?nantur d?nentur

+nd conugation
J sg habe? habeam habeor habear

,rd conugation
J sg teg? tegam tegor tegar

Mth conugation
J sg audi? audiam audior audiar
+P. )he #mperfect )ense forms of the first conugation verb d?n?, and the first singular forms
of the three other conugations.
Jst conugation
-ctive "oice 4assive "oice
#ndicative Subunctive #ndicative Subunctive
J sg d?nDbam d?nDrem d?nDbar d?nDrer
+ sg d?nDbDs d?nDrBs d?nDbDris d?nDrBtis
, sg d?nDbat d?nDret d?nDbDtur d?nDrBtur
J pl d?nDbDmus d?nDrBmus d?nDbDmur d?nDrBmus
+ pl d?nDbDtis d?nDrBtis d?nDbDminG d?nDrBmini
, pl d?nDbant d?nDrent d?nDbantur d?nDrentur

+nd conugation
J sg habBbam habBrem habBbar habBrer

,rd conugation
J sg tegBbam tegerem tegBbar tegerer

Mth conugation
J sg audiBbam audGrem audiBbar audGrer
+Q. )he 1orms of the 1uture. $ote that there is no subunctive.
Jst conugation
-ctive "oice 4assive "oice
J sg d?nDb? d?nDbor
+ sg d?nDbis d?nDberis
, sg d?nDbit d?nDbitur
J pl d?nDbimus d?nDbimur
+ pl d?nDbitis d?nDbiminG
, pl d?nDbunt d?nDbuntur

+nd conugation
J sg habBb? habBbor

,rd conugation
J sg tegam tegar

Mth conugation
J sg audiam audiar
,K. )he forms of the #mperative, the 4resent #nfinitive, and the 4resent and 1uture 4articiples.
#mperative
Jst conugation
-ctive "oice 4assive "oice
+ sg pres d?nD d?nDre
+ pl pres d?nDte d?nDminG
+ sg fut d?nDt? d?nDtor
+ pl fut d?nDt?te d?nantor

+nd conugation
+ sg pres habB habBre
+ pl pres habBte habBminG
+ sg fut habBt? habBtor
+ pl fut habBt?te habentor

,rd conugation
+ sg pres tege tegere
+ pl pres tegite tegiminG
+ sg fut tegit? tegitor
+ pl fut tegit?te teguntor

Mth conugation
+ sg pres audG audGre
+ pl pres audGte audGminG
+ sg fut audGt? audGtor
+ pl fut audGt?te audiuntor

#nfinitive
Jst conugation
pres d?nDre d?nDri

+nd conugation
pres habBre habBrG

,rd conugation
pres tegere tegG

Mth conugation
pres audGre audGrG

4articiple
Jst conugation
pres d?nDns
fut d?nDtErus

+nd conugation
pres habBns
fut habitErus

,rd conugation
pres tegBns
fut tBctErus

Mth conugation
pres audiBns
fut audGtErus
Lesson <
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Ennius, +,Q!JLQ ./, was born in southern #taly, at 6udiae, twenty miles from .rundisium.
.esides Latin he spoke *reek and Oscan. 2aving oined the 6oman army, he was brought to
6ome and settled there for the rest of his life. 2e supported himself by teaching *reek, as
well as through his writing. 2e had contacts with other literary figures of his day, though it is
unclear whether 4lautus was among them. -mong his works were tragedies, poems and most
important, the Annals, which, like the 2omeric poems, is composed in dactylic heCameters.
.eginning with its background at )roy, the Annals covered the history of 6ome until shortly
before the time of the death of Ennius.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
)his selection is taken from the Annals of Ennius. )he teCt was Vedited and translatedV by E.
2. <armington in his four volumes of 6emains of Old Latin #, page ,K '/ambridge% 2arvard
;niversity 4ress, JQLJ, Loeb /lassical Library $o.+QM(. #t is of interest for its account of the
naming of 6ome, the contest between the two brothers, 6omulus and 6emus, and the account
of the augury, as well as for an eCample of archaic Latin. <armington has modified the
spelling, so that it is in keeping with the conventions of classical Latin. )here are, then, few
differences in this teCt from the written language several centuries later. )he Annals have
come down to us in fragments, which <armington has assembled= among these, this selection
is relatively lengthy.
/urantes magna cum cura tum cupientes
6egni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque=
..........in monte..........
curantes !! verb= nominative plural masculine of present participle of RcEr?, cErDre,
cErDvG, cErDtumS care !! carin(
magna !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS great,
large !! (reat
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /ith
cura !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rcura, curaeS care !! care
tum !! adverb= RtumS then !! then
cupientes !! verb= nominative plural masculine of present participle of Rcupi?,
cupere, cupGvG, cupGtumS desire !! desirin(
regni !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rregnum, regniS kingship, supreme power
!! supreme po/er
dant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rd?, dare, dedG, dDtumS give !! they (ive
operam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Ropera, operaeS work, service,
attention !! attention
simul !! adverb= RsimulS at the same time !! simultaneously
auspicio !! noun= dative singular neuter of Rauspicium, auspiciiS divination by the
flight of birds !! to the omen from the birds
augurioque !! noun= dative singular masculine of Raugurium, auguriiS interpretation
of omens, augury T conunction R!queS and !! and to their interpretation
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! on
monte !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rmons, montisS mountain !! a
mountain
6emus auspicio se devovet atque secundam
solus avem servat. -t 6omulus pulcher in alto
quaerit -ventino, servat genus altivolentum.
Remus !! nominative singular masculine of R6emus, 6emiS 6emus !! .emus
auspicio !! noun= dative singular neuter of Rauspicium, auspiciiS divination by the
flight of birds !! to the omen from the birds
se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! himself
devovet !! verb= ,rd person singular present, of RdBvove?, dBvovBre, dBv?vG,
dBv?tumS devote !! devotes
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
secundam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Rsecundus, secunda,
secundumS second, favorable !! favorable
solus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rsolus, sola, solumS alone !! by
himself
avem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Ravis, avisS bird !! bird
servat !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rserv?, servDre, servDvG, servDtumS
guard, keep, watch !! /atches
at !! adverb= RatS and !! but
Romulus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R6omulus, 6omuliS 6omulus !!
.omulus
pulcher !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rpulcher, pulchra, pulchrumS
beautiful, eCcellent !! handsome
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! on
alto !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Raltus, alta, altumS high, deep !! hi(h
quaerit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rquaer?, quaerere, quaesGvG,
quaesGtumS look for, search !! searches
Aventino !! noun= ablative singular masculine of R-ventinus, -ventiniS -ventine !!
'ventine
servat !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rserv?, servDre, servDvG, servDtumS
guard, keep, watch !! /atches
genus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! class
altivolentum !! adective= genitive plural neuter of Raltivolans, altivolantisS high
flying !! hi(h flyin(
/ertabant urbem 6omam 6emoramve vocarent.
certabant !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect of Rcert?, certDre, certDvG, certDtumS
fight, contend !! they /ere contendin(
urbem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! the city
Romam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of R6oma, 6omaeS 6ome !! .ome
Remoramve !! noun= accusative singular feminine of R6emora, 6emoraeS 6emora T
conunction R!veS or !! or .emora
vocarent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rvoc?, vocDre, vocDvG,
vocDtumS call !! 2/hether3 they /ould call
Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator%
omnibus !! adective= dative plural masculine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! amon(
all
cura !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rcura, curaeS care !! 2there /as3
concern
viris !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! the men
uter !! pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Ruter, utra, utrumS which of two !!
/hich of the t/o
esset !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !!
/ould be
induperator !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rinduperator, induperatorisS
commander in chief, emperor !! commander
eCspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum
volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras
quam moC emittat pictis e faucibus currus.
exspectant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of ReCspect?, eCspectDre, eCspectDvG,
eCspectDtumS wait for !! they /ait
veluti !! adverb= RvelutiS as, like !! as
consul !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rconsul, consulisS consul !! the
consul
quom !! conunction= RquomS when !! /hen
mittere !! verb= infinitive of Rmitt?, mittere, mGsG, missumS send, give !! to (ive
signum !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rsignum, signiS sign !! the si(nal
volt !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish, determine !!
decides
omnes !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
avidi !! adective= nominative plural masculine of Ravidus, avida, avidumS eager !!
ea(erly
spectant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rspect?, spectDre, spectDvG, spectDtumS
look, gaFe !! (a@e
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! at
carceris !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rcarcer, carcerisS prison, starting!
place in a race!course !! of the startin(5place
oras !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rora, oraeS mouth, boundary, coast !! the
front
quam !! relative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /hich
mox !! adverb= RmoCS soon !! soon
emittat !! verb= ,rd person singular present subunctive of RBmitt?, Bmittere, BmGsG,
BmGssumS send out !! he /ill send
pictis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rpictus, picta, pictumS painted !!
painted
e !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! from
faucibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rfauces, faucisS throat, entrance !!
the...entrance
currus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rcurrus, currusS chariot !! the
chariots
sic eCspectabat populus atque ora tenebat,
rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni.
sic !! adverb= RsicS so, thus !! so
exspectabat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of ReCspect?, eCspectDre,
eCspectDvG, eCspectDtumS wait for !! /aited
populus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rpopulus, populiS people !! the
people
atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
ora !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rora, oraeS mouth, boundary, coast !! their
ton(ues
tenebat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rtene?, tenBre, tenuG, !S hold,
control, understand !! held
rebus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! by the event
utri !! pronoun= dative singular masculine of Ruter, utra, utrumS which of two !! to
/hich
magni !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS great, large !!
of (reat
victoria !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rvictoria, victoriaeS victory !! the
victory
sit !! auCiliary verb= ,rd person singular perfect subunctive passive of Rsum, esse,
fuGS # am with data !! mi(ht be
data !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect subunctive passive of Rd?, dare, dedG,
dDtumS give !! (iven
regni !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rregnum, regniS kingship, supreme power
!! authority
#nterea sol albus recessit in infera noctis.
interea !! adverb= RintereaS in the meantime !! In the meantime
sol !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rsol, solisS sun !! the... sun
albus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Ralbus, alba, albumS white !!
/hite
recessit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of RrecBd?, rBcedere, rBcessG, rBcessumS
retire, withdraw !! had /ithdra/n
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! to
infera !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rinferus, inferiS lower part !! depths
noctis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of RnoC, noctisS night !! of ni(ht
ECin candida se radiis dedit icta foras luC.
eCin !! adverb= ReCinS after that, then !! then
candida !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rcandidus, candida, candidumS
clear !! clear
se !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! itself
radiis !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rradius, radiiS rod, beam !! /ith beams
dedit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rd?, dare, dedG, dDtumS give !! (ave
icta !! defective verb= nominative singular feminine of perfect participle passive of
RGcere, GcG, ictumS strike !! struc1
foras !! adverb= RforasS forth, out !! out
lux !! noun= nominative singular feminine of RluC, lucisS light !! li(ht
et simul eC alto longe pulcherruma praepes
laeva volavit avis, simul aureus eCoritur sol.
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
simul !! adverb= RsimulS at the same time !! at the same time
ex !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! from
alto !! adective used as substantive= ablative singular neuter of Raltus, alta, altumS
high, deep !! heaven
longe !! adverb= RlongeS by far !! by far
pulcherruma !! adective= nominative singular feminine superlative of Rpulcher,
pulchra, pulchrumS beautiful, eCcellent !! the most e-cellent
praepes !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rpraepes, praepetisS of good
omen, favorable !! favorable
laeva !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rlaevus, laeva, laevumS left !! left
volavit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rvol?, volDre, volDvG, volDtumS fly !!
fle/
avis !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Ravis, avisS bird !! bird
simul !! adverb= RsimulS at the same time !! at the same time
aureus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Raureus, aurea, aureumS golden
!! the (olden
exoritur !! deponent verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of ReCorior, eCorGrG, eCortus
sumS arise, appear !! arose
sol !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rsol, solisS sun !! sun
/edunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta
avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant.
cedunt !! verb= ,rd person plural present of RcBd?, cedere, cessG, cessumS go from,
depart !! come do/n
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! from
caelo !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rcaelum, caeliS sky, heavens !! the s1y
ter !! number= RterS three !! three
quattuor !! number= RquattuorS four !! four
corpora !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rcorpus, corporisS body !! bodies
sancta !! adective= nominative plural neuter of Rsanctus, sancta, sanctumS holy !!
holy
avium !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Ravis, avisS bird !! of birds
praepetibus !! adective= dative plural masculine of Rpraepes, praepetisS of good
omen, favorable !! to propitious
sese !! refleCive pronoun= accusative of RsuiS self !! themselves
pulchrisque !! adective= dative plural masculine of Rpulcher, pulchra, pulchrumS
beautiful, eCcellent T conunction R!queS and !! and beautiful
locis !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! places
dant !! verb= ,rd person plural present of Rd?, dare, dedG, dDtumS give !! arran(e
/onspicit inde sibi data 6omulus esse propritim
auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.
conspicit !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rc?nspici?, conspicere, conspBCG,
conspectumS perceive !! perceives
inde !! adverb= RindeS from that !! *rom that
sibi !! refleCive pronoun= dative of RsuiS self !! to him
data !! verb= nominative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of Rd?, dare, dedG,
dDtumS give !! /ere (iven
Romulus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of R6omulus, 6omuliS 6omulus !!
.omulus
esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! to be
propritim !! adverb= RpropritimS as one>s own !! as his o/n
auspicio !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rauspicium, auspiciiS divination by the
flight of birds !! by the auspices
regni !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rregnum, regniS kingship, supreme power
!! of supreme po/er
stabilita !! verb= accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of Rstabili?,
stabilGre, stabilGvG, stabilGtusS establish, confirm !! confirmed
scamna !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rscamnum, scamniS bench, seat !! the
throne
solumque !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rsolum, soliS foundation T
conunction R!queS and !! and the land
Lesson Te-t
/urantes magna cum cura tum cupientes
6egni dant operam simul auspicio augurioque=
..........in monte..........
6emus auspicio se devovet atque secundam
solus avem servat. -t 6omulus pulcher in alto
quaerit -ventino, servat genus altivolentum.
/ertabant urbem 6omam 6emoramve vocarent.
Omnibus cura viris uter esset induperator%
eCspectant, veluti consul quom mittere signum
volt, omnes avidi spectant ad carceris oras
quam moC emittat pictis e faucibus currus.
sic eCspectabat populus atque ora tenebat,
rebus utri magni victoria sit data regni.
#nterea sol albus recessit in infera noctis.
ECin candida se radiis dedit icta foras luC.
et simul eC alto longe pulcherruma praepes
laeva volavit avis, simul aureus eCoritur sol.
/edunt de caelo ter quattuor corpora sancta
avium, praepetibus sese pulchrisque locis dant.
/onspicit inde sibi data 6omulus esse propritim
auspicio regni stabilita scamna solumque.
Translation
)hen with very great care and desiring the supreme power, they turn their attention at the
same time to watching and to divination by the flight of birds ... on a hill. 6emus devotes
himself to the auspices and by himself looks for a favorable bird. .ut handsome 6omulus
searches on high -ventine, and looks for the high!flying kind. )hey contested whether they
would call the city 6ome or 6emora. )here is anCiety among all the men to see which of the
two would be supreme chief. )hey are eCpectant, as when the consul will give the signal, and
all look eagerly at the boundaries of the area to see how soon he will send out the chariots
from the painted aws. So the people wait and hold their tongues, looking forward to see to
which of the two the victory for the great power would be given by the events. #n the
meantime the white sun has gone down to the depths of night. )hen the clear light thrust out
with its rays= and at the same time from far on high a most beautiful prophet of a bird flew at
the left, at the same time as the gold sun rose. )hree or four holy birds fly down from the
heavens, and establish themselves on places that are auspicious and beautiful. 1rom that
6omulus sees that the established seat and throne of supreme power have been given to him
as his own.
%rammar
1. The Perfect System.
)he perfect system is comparable in tenses and moods to the present system. #ts basic
meaning is a state as a result of completed action. #n many ways the difference is comparable
to that in English. )he past or imperfect simply indicates a situation or an action in past time=
the perfect however has the additional connotation of completed action. <e can say% V# went
to town yesterdayV but not V# have gone to town yesterdayV. )he specification provided by the
adverb VyesterdayV does not permit a verbal form that indicates a state. -t times, then, the
Latin perfect may be translated with a present tense form.
2. The Perfect Tense forms of the first con$u(ation verb dono and the first sin(ular forms of the three
other con$u(ations.
1st con$u(ation
'ctive )oice Passive )oice
Indicative Sub$unctive Indicative Sub$unctive
1 s( d?nDvG d?nDverim d?nDtus sum d?nDtus sim
2 s( d?nDvistG d?nDveris d?nDtus es d?nDtus sGs
s( d?nDvit d?nDverit d?nDtus est d?nDtus sit
1 pl d?nDvimus d?nDverGmus d?nDtG sumus d?nDtG sGmus
2 pl d?nDvistis d?naverGtis d?nDtG estis d?nDtG sGtis
pl d?nDvBrunt d?nDverint d?nDtG sunt d?nDtG sint

2nd con$u(ation
1 s( habuG habuerim habitus sum habitus sim

rd con$u(ation
1 s( tBCG tBCerim tBctus sum tBctus sim

!th con$u(ation
1 s( audGvG audGverim audGtus sum audGtus sim
. The Pluperfect Tense forms of the first con$u(ation verb dBnB# and the first sin(ular forms of the three
other con$u(ations.
1st con$u(ation
'ctive )oice Passive )oice
Indicative Sub$unctive Indicative Sub$unctive
1 s( d?nDveram d?nDvissem d?nDtus eram d?nDtus essem
2 s( d?nDverDs d?nDvissBs d?nDtus erDs d?nDtus essBs
s( d?nDverat d?nDvisset d?nDtus erat d?nDtus esset
1 pl d?nDverDmus d?nDvissBmus d?nDtG erDmus d?nDtG essBmus
2 pl d?nDverDtis d?nDvissBtis d?nDtG erDtis d?nDtG essBtis
pl d?nDverant d?nDvissent d?nDtG erant d?nDtG essent

2nd con$u(ation
1 s( habueram habuissem habitus eram habitus essem

rd con$u(ation
1 s( tBCeram tBCissem tBctus eram tBctus essem

!th con$u(ation
1 s( audGveram audGvissem audGtus eram audGtus essem
$... )he full form for the Mth conugation, -ctive voice, #ndicative mood, 4luperfect tense is
eCemplified above by audiveram= however, according to Leumann et al., "ol. #., p. NQP, the
!v! has often been omitted since the time of 4lautus. )herefore, 4luperfect forms such as
audieram may be observed in later teCts, like the one in our Lesson JK.
!. The *uture Perfect Tense forms of the first con$u(ation verb dono# and the first sin(ular forms of the
three other con$u(ations.
1st con$u(ation
'ctive )oice Passive )oice
1 s( d?nDver? d?nDtus er?
2 s( d?nDveris d?nDtus eris
s( d?nDverit d?nDtus erit
1 pl d?nDverimus d?nDtG erimus
2 pl d?nDveritis d?nDtG eritis
pl d?nDverint d?nDtG erunt

2nd con$u(ation
1 s( habuer? habitus er?

rd con$u(ation
1 s( tBCer? tBctus er?

!th con$u(ation
1 s( audGver? audGtus er?
+. The forms of the Perfect Infinitive and Participle# /ith a brief statement on irre(ular con$u(ations.
Infinitive Participle
1st con$u(ation
perf d?nDvisse d?nDtus

2nd con$u(ation
perf habuisse habitus

rd con$u(ation
perf tBCisse tBctus

!th con$u(ation
perf audGvisse audGtus
)hese forms have been given to provide an overview of the conugations. - few statements
provide information on additional patterns.
-s we have noted, deponent verbs have the forms of the passive.
Some common verbs have irregular forms. )hese are given in dictionaries= as
eCamples, a few are given here with their principal parts.
o d?, dedG, datum, dare >give>
o e?, iG, itum, Gre >go>
o fer?, tulG, lDtum ferre >bear>
o fi?, factus, fierG >become>
o possum, potuG, posse >be able>
o vol?, voluG, velle >wish>
)he inflections are best determined from grammars.
Lesson P
<infred 4. Lehmann and :onathan Slocum
St. -ugustine !! -urelius -ugustinus !! was born in $orth -frica at )agaste in $umidia on
$ovember J,, ,NM -.0. 2e was trained to be a rhetorician. <hile his mother was a /hristian,
he did not adopt /hristianity until ,PO. #n ,QN he became .ishop of 2ippo, and lived there
until his death. <ith -mbrose, :erome, and *regory the *reat he is considered one of the four
great 1athers of the /hurch. -mong his other notable works are 0e 0octrina /hristiana and
the /ity of *od.
6eading and )eCtual -nalysis
)his section is a part of .ook #, Section P of the /onfessions. #n .ook #, St. -ugustine
describes his childhood. )his section is remarkable for its account of his learning to talk. 1ew
authors reach back into their infancy as St. -ugustine does. Somewhat earlier in .ook #, he
notes that as an infant he was unable to communicate effectively. 2e would toss about his
limbs and utter sounds that corresponded to his wishes, but others were unable to understand
him. )he selection may also illustrate how he depicted his personal feelings throughout his
autobiography, an ability for which he has been greatly admired. )he language is comparable
with that of the great period of /lassical Latin, though written four centuries later. )his
selection provides an eCample of conversational Latin, in contrast with the language of the
previous teCts.
$on enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram.
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W enim !! conunction= RenimS for, indeed !! for
W eram !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! was
W infans !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rinfans, infantisS infant !! an infant
W qui !! relative pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! that
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W farer !! deponent verb= Jst person singular imperfect subunctive of Rfor, fDrG, fDtus sumS
talk !! could talk
W sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
W iam !! adverb= RiamS already !! already
W puer !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rpuer, pueriS boy !! boy
W loquens !! deponent verb= nominative singular masculine of present participle of Rloquor,
loquG, locutus sumS speak !! speaking
W eram !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! # was
Et memini hoc, et unde loqui didiceram, post adverti.
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W memini !! defective verb= Jst person singular perfect of RmeminiS remember !! #
remember
W hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
this
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W unde !! adverb= RundeS from whence !! how
W loqui !! deponent verb= infinitive of Rloquor, loquG, locutus sumS speak !! to speak
W didiceram !! verb= Jst person singular pluperfect of Rdisc?, discere, didicG, !S learn !! #
learned
W post !! adverb= RpostS after !! afterwards
W adverti !! verb= Jst person singular perfect of Radvert?, advertere, advertG, adversumS turn
to, note !! # noted
$on enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba certo aliquo ordine doctrinae
sicut paulo post litteras.
W non !! adverb= RnonS not !! not
W enim !! conunction= RenimS for, indeed !! for
W docebant !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect of Rdoce?, docBre, docuG, doctumS teach !!
did...teach
W me !! pronoun= accusative singular of RegoS # !! me
W maiores !! adective= nominative plural masculine of comparative of Rmagnus, magna,
magnumS great, large !! older
W homines !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !! people
W praebentes !! verb= nominative plural masculine present participle of Rpraebe?, praebBre,
praebuG, praebitusS offer, provide !! by providing
W mihi !! pronoun= dative singular of RegoS # !! me
W verba !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rverbum, verbiS word !! words
W certo !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rcertus, certa, certumS certain !! in a
certain
W aliquo !! pronoun adective= ablative singular masculine of Raliqui, aliqua, aliquodS
some, any !! given
W ordine !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rordo, ordinisS order !! order
W doctrinae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rdoctrina, doctrinaeS teaching !! of
teaching
W sicut !! adverb= RsicutS as, like !! as
W paulo !! adverb= RpauloS little !! a little
W post !! adverb= RpostS after !! later
W litteras !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rlittera, litteraeS letter !! 'they did( the
letters
Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi, deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis
membrorum motibus edere vellem sensa cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur.
W sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
W ego !! pronoun= nominative singular of RegoS # !! #
W ipse !! pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Ripse, ipsa, ipsumS self !! myself
W mente !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rmens, mentisS mind !! with the mind
W quem !! relative pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! that
W dedisti !! verb= +nd person singular perfect of Rd?, dare, dedG, dDtumS give !! thou hast
given
W mihi !! pronoun= dative singular of RegoS # !! me
W deus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rdeus, deiS god !! *od
W meus !! pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rmeus, mea, meumS my !! my
W cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! with
W gemitibus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rgemitus, gemitusS sign, groan !! groans
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W vocibus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of RvoC, vocisS voice !! voices
W variis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rvarius, varia, variumS various !! various
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W variis !! adective= ablative plural masculine of Rvarius, varia, variumS various !! with
various
W membrorum !! noun= genitive plural neuter of Rmembrum, membriS member !! of my
members
W motibus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rmotus, motusS movement !! movements
W edere !! verb= infinitive of RBd?, Bdere, BdidG, BditumS give out !! to eCpress
W vellem !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect subunctive of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish,
determine !! # might wish
W sensa !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rsensa, sensorumS ideas !! the ideas
W cordis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rcor, cordisS heart !! heart
W mei !! pronoun= genitive singular neuter of Rmeus, mea, meumS my !! of my
W ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! that
W voluntati !! noun= dative singular feminine of Rvoluntas, voluntatisS will, desire !! my
desire
W pareretur !! verb= ,rd person singular subunctive imperfect passive of RpDre?, parBre,
pDruG, !S comply !! were in accordance with
$ec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam omnibus.
W nec !! adverb= RnecS neither ... nor !! neither
W valerem !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect subunctive of Rvale?, valBre, valuG, !S be
able !! # was not able 'to eCpress(
W quae !! relative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which, what,
that !! that
W volebam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish, determine !! #
wanted
W omnia !! adective= accusative plural neuter of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all the things
W nec !! adverb= RnecS neither ... nor !! nor
W quibus !! relative pronoun= ablative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which, what,
that !! with 'the eCpressions(
W volebam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish, determine !! #
wished
W omnibus !! adective= ablative plural neuter of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
4ensabam memoria.
W pensabam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of RpBns?, pBnsDre, pBnsDvG, pBnsDtusS
weigh, ponder !! # pondered
W memoria !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rmemoria, memoriaeS memory,
remembrance !! in remembrance
/um ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant,
videbam et tenebam hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere.
W cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! when
W ipsi !! pronoun= nominative plural masculine of Ripse, ipsa, ipsumS self !! they
W appellabant !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect of Rappell?, appellDre, appellDvG,
appellDtumS call !! designated
W rem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! thing
W aliquam !! pronoun adective= accusative singular feminine of Raliqui, aliqua, aliquodS
some, any !! any
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! when
W secundum !! preposition= RsecundumS following !! after
W eam !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! that
W vocem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of RvoC, vocisS voice !! sound
W corpus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rcorpus, corporisS body !! 'their( body
W ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! to
W aliquid !! indefinite pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Raliquis, aliquis, aliquidS
anyone !! something
W movebant !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect of Rmove?, movBre, m?vi, m?tusS move !!
they moved
W videbam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rvide?, vidBre, vGdG, vGsumS see !! #
observed
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W tenebam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rtene?, tenBre, tenuG, !S hold, control,
understand !! # understood
W hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
this
W ab !! preposition= RabS from, after !! by
W eis !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
them
W vocari !! verb= passive infinitive of Rvoc?, vocDre, vocDvG, vocDtumS call !! named
W rem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! thing
W illam !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rille, illa, illudS he, she,
that !! that
W quod !! conunction= RquodS that, because !! in that
W sonabant !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect of Rson?, sonDre, sonuG, sonitusS pronounce
!! they pronounced 'it(
W cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! when
W eam !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this
!! it
W vellent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish,
determine !! they wanted
W ostendere !! verb= infinitive of Rostend?, ostendere, ostendG, ostentumS show, point out !!
to point out
2oc autem eos velle, eC motu corporis aperiebatur, tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium
gentium.
W hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
this
W autem !! conunction= RautemS but !! but
W eos !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !!
they
W velle !! verb= infinitive of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish, determine !! 'they( wished 'to
indicate(
W eC !! preposition= ReCS out of, from !! from
W motu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rmotus, motusS movement !! the movement
W corporis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rcorpus, corporisS body !! of their body
W aperiebatur !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect passive of Raperi?, aperGre, aperuG,
apertumS open !! it was disclosed
W tamquam !! adverb= RtamquamS ust as, as if !! as if it were
W verbis !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rverbum, verbiS word !! by the ... words
W naturalibus !! adective= ablative plural neuter of Rnaturalis, naturalis, naturaleS natural !!
natural
W omnium !! adective= genitive plural feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! of all
W gentium !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rgens, gentisS race, clan !! peoples
5uae fiunt vultu et nutu oculorum ceterorumque membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante
affectionem animi in petendis, habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus.
W quae !! relative pronoun= nominative plural neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! which
W fiunt !! defective verb= ,rd person plural present of Rfio, fierGS be made !! are made
W vultu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rvultus, vultusS eCpression, face !! by facial
eCpression
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W nutu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rnutus, nutusS nod, eCpression !! by the cast
W oculorum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Roculus, oculiS eye !! of the eyes
W ceterorumque !! adective= genitive plural neuter of Rceteri, ceterae, ceteraS other T
conunction R!queS and !! and of other
W membrorum !! noun= genitive plural neuter of Rmembrum, membriS member !! members
W actu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Ractus, actusS gesture, eCpression !! by the
action
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W sonitu !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rsonitus, sonitusS sound !! by the sound
W vocis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of RvoC, vocisS voice !! of the voice
W indicante !! verb= ablative singular masculine of present participle of Rindic?, indicDre,
indicDvG, indicDtumS indicate !! indicating
W affectionem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Raffectio, affectionisS affection !!
the feelings
W animi !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Ranimus, animiS soul, mind !! of the mind
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
W petendis !! verbal adective= ablative plural feminine of Rpet?, petere, petGvG, petGtumS
seek !! seeking
W habendis !! verb= ablative plural feminine of present participle of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG,
habitumS have !! possessing
W reiciendis !! verb= ablative plural feminine of present participle of RrBici?, rBicere, rBBcG,
rBectumS push back, reect !! reecting
W fugiendisve !! verb= ablative plural feminine of present participle of Rfugi?, fEgGS flee,
avoid T conunction R!veS or !! avoiding
W rebus !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! things
#ta verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro audita quarum rerum signa essent
paulatim colligebam.
W ita !! adverb= RitaS thus !! in this way
W verba !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rverbum, verbiS word !! words
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! in
W variis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rvarius, varia, variumS various !! various
W sententiis !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rsententia, sententiaeS sentence !! sentences
W locis !! noun= dative plural masculine of Rlocus, lociS place !! places
W suis !! adective= dative plural masculine of Rsuus, sua, suumS own !! in their proper
W posita !! verb= accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of Rp?n?, ponere,
posuG, positumS place, situate !! put
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W crebro !! adverb= RcrebroS frequently, often !! often
W audita !! verb= accusative plural neuter of perfect participle passive of Raudi?, audGre,
audGvG, audGtumS hear !! heard
W quarum !! relative pronoun= genitive plural feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! of which
W rerum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rres, reiS thing, matter !! things
W signa !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rsignum, signiS sign !! signs
W essent !! verb= ,rd person plural imperfect subunctive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! they
were
W paulatim !! adverb= RpaulatimS gradually !! gradually
W colligebam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rcollig?, collBgG, colligere,
collBctumS collect !! # collected
Edomito in eis signis ore, per haec enuntiabam.
W edomito !! verb= ablative singular neuter of perfect participle passive of RBdom?,
edomDre, edomuG, BdomitumS conquer, subdue !! conquered
W in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! to
W eis !! demonstrative pronoun= dative plural neuter of Ris, ea, idS him, her, this !! those
W signis !! noun= dative plural neuter of Rsignum, signiS sign !! signs
W ore !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Ros, orisS mouth !! mouth
W per !! preposition= RperS through, by !! by means of
W haec !! demonstrative pronoun= accusative plural neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
them
W enuntiabam !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of RBnEnti?, BnEtiDre, BnuntiDvG,
BnuntiDtumS speak, eCpress !! # eCpressed myself
Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.
W sic !! adverb= RsicS so, thus !! So
W cum !! preposition= RcumS with !! with
W his !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative plural masculine of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !!
those
W inter !! preposition= RinterS between, among !! among
W quos !! relative pronoun= accusative plural masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! whom
W eram !! verb= Jst person singular imperfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! # was
W voluntatum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rvoluntas, voluntatisS will, desire !! of
the desires
W enuntiandarum !! verbal adective= genitive plural feminine of RBnEnti?, BnEtiDre,
BnuntiDvG, BnuntiDtumS speak, eCpress !! to be eCpressed 'by me(
W signa !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rsignum, signiS sign !! signs
W communicavi !! verb= Jst person singular perfect of RcommEnic?, commEnicDre,
commEnicDvG, commEnicDtumS communicate !! # communicated
Lesson )eCt
$on enim eram infans, qui non farer, sed iam puer loquens eram. Et memini hoc, et unde
loqui didiceram, post adverti. $on enim docebant me maiores homines, praebentes mihi verba
certo aliquo ordine doctrinae sicut paulo post litteras. Sed ego ipse mente, quem dedisti mihi,
deus meus, cum gemitibus et vocibus variis et variis membrorum motibus edere vellem sensa
cordis mei, ut voluntati pareretur. $ec valerem quae volebam omnia nec quibus volebam
omnibus. 4ensabam memoria. /um ipsi appellabant rem aliquam et cum secundum eam
vocem corpus ad aliquid movebant, videbam et tenebam hoc ab eis vocari rem illam, quod
sonabant, cum eam vellent ostendere. 2oc autem eos velle, eC motu corporis aperiebatur,
tamquam verbis naturalibus omnium gentium. 5uae fiunt vultu et nutu oculorum
ceterorumque membrorum actu et sonitu vocis indicante affectionem animi in petendis,
habendis, reiciendis fugiendisve rebus. #ta verba in variis sententiis locis suis posita et crebro
audita quarum rerum signa essent paulatim colligebam. Edomito in eis signis ore, per haec
enuntiabam. Sic cum his, inter quos eram, voluntatum enuntiandarum signa communicavi.
)ranslation
1or # was no longer an infant that could not speak, but was already a speaking boy. -nd #
remember this well and later noted how # first learned to speak. )he older people did not teach
me by providing words to me in a certain given order of instruction, as they did the letters
later. .ut by the mind that )hou, my *od, gave me, # on my own with grunts, varieties of
voices and various motions of my body tried to eCpress the ideas of my heart, that were in
accordance with my desires. .ut # neither could eCpress everything # wanted to, nor with all
the eCpressions # wanted. )hen # pondered when remembering. <hen they designated a thing,
and when after that they moved their body toward something, # observed it and understood
that this was the thing named by them in that they pronounced it when they wanted to point it
out. -nd that they meant this or that thing was discovered by me through the motion of their
body, as by the natural words 'language( of all peoples. )hese are made by facial eCpression
and by the cast of the eyes, by the acts of other members, and by the sound of the voice
indicating the feelings of the mind, whether in desiring, enoying, reecting or avoiding
anything. -nd in this way # gradually collected the words in various sentences that were put in
their proper places and often heard for the things of which they were the signs. -nd when my
mouth was conquered for these signs, # eCpressed my wishes by means of them. #n this way, #
communicated with those with whom # was, the signs of the desires # wished to eCpress.
*rammar
,L. )he 0eclension of Substantives.
#n earlier lessons, beginning with *rammar Selection ,, we have given eCamples of the
declension of nouns. -s we noted in the grammar selections on verbs, recognition of inflected
forms is especially important for understanding Latin, since it includes few particles and
much of the information for interpreting sentences is found in inflections. .y way of
summary, as well as information on the inflection of adectives, an overall picture of
substantival inflection will be given here. Since adectives are inflected in general like nouns,
though most of them in two or three genders, they may serve to provide eCamples of the
inflection of substantives in general.
,O. Substantives with #nflections of the 1irst and Second 0eclensions.
- large number of adectives are listed in dictionaries with endings in !us, e.g. magnus >large>.
)hese have their inflected forms in the masculine and neuter genders according to the second
declension, in the feminine gender according to the first. )he paradigm of magnus provides an
eCample.
Singular 4lural
Masc 1em $eut Masc 1em $eut
$om magnus magna magnum magnG
magnae magna
*en magnG magnae magnG magn?rum
magnDrum magn?rum
0at magn? magnae magn? magnGs
magnGs magnGs
-cc magnum magnam magnum magn?s
magnDs magna
-bl magn? magnD magn? magnGs
magnGs magnGs
Most second declension nouns with stems ending in !ro! reduce the ending to !r, rather than
!rus. -mong them are common nouns like puer >boy> and vir >man>. -part from these forms in
the nominative, they have the regular inflections, e.g. genitives puerG and virG, etc. #n the same
way, parallel adectives are listed in dictionaries with endings in !er, e.g. deCter >right>,
genitive deCterG= ruber >red>, by contrast, has the genitive rubrG.
4ronominal adectives ending in !us have their genitive and dative singulars inflected like
pronouns, that is with !Gus and !G in the three genitives singular, e.g. solus >alone>, gen.sg.
solGus, gen.sg. solG. Other eCamples are% totus >whole>, alGus >other>, nullus >none>, totus >whole>,
unus >one>. Similarly, those ending in !er, such as uter >which of two>, gen. utrGus, dat. utrG, as
well as alter >the other> and neuter >neither>.
,P. Substantives with #nflections of the )hird 0eclension.
Like nouns of the third declension, adectives in this declension have stems ending in
consonants rather than in !a and !u! R !o!. -ccordingly the nominative may differ in form of
stem from the other cases, e.g. acer >sharp> but oblique cases with stem acr!= some adectives
are regular, on the other hand, e.g. celer >swift>, celer!. )he stems may be determined from
dictionary entries.
Moreover, many adectives of the third declension are inflected in only two genders, e.g.
masc. gravis, nt. grave >heavy>. )he comparatives have bases ending in !r, which is replaced by
!s in the neuter nom. and acc., e.g. melior, nt. melius, gen. melioris >better>.
Some adectives of the declension are inflected only in one gender= among these the present
particles, such as donans, gen. donantis >giving>. -fter their stem has been determined, the
inflections of these two groups are like those of the adectives inflected in the three genders.
Singular 4lural
Masc 1em $eut Masc 1em $eut
$om acer acris acre acrBs acrBs acria
*en acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium
0at acrG acrG acrG acribus acribus acribus
-cc acrem acrem acre acrGs acrGs acria
-bl acrG acrG acrG acribus acribus acribus
.y way of summary, and review of eCamples in previous grammar sections, eCamples are
given here of third declension nouns in the nominative and genitive singular with stems
ending in various consonants.
W Stems ending in obstruents%
masc. princeps, principis >chief>= miles, militis >soldier>= pBs, pedis >foot>= reC, regis >king=
neut. caput, capitis >head>= cor, cordis >heart>.
W Stems ending in resonants%
masc. pater, patris >father>= victor, victoris >victor>= consul, consulis >consul= neut. ebur,
eboris >ivory>= tuber, tuberis >swelling>.
W Stems ending in nasals%
masc. sermo, sermonis >speech>= fem. virgo, virginis >virgin>= neut. nomen, nominis >name>.
W Stems ending in !s, most of which are neuters%
genus, generis >race>= corpus, corporis >body>= masc. fl?s, fl?ris >flower>= fem. tellus, telluris
>earth>.
W Stems ending in !i, most of which are masculine or feminine%
)he nominative ends in !is, like the genitive, e.g. finis >end, gen. finis= and the genitive
plural ends in !ium, e.g. finium. $euters may have no ending, e.g. animal >animal, animalis,
gen.pl. animalium. Similarly, adectives of the third declension have their genitive plural
ending in !ium, as in the paradigm of acer above.
)he third declension also includes irregular nouns. -mong these are vGs >force, acc.sg. vim,
nom.pl. vGres= b?s >cow> gen.sg. bovis, nom.pl. boves= #uppiter >:upiter>, gen.sg. #ovis.
)he inflection of nouns in the fourth and fifth declensions has been given in *rammar
Selection J,. )hese declensions have no adectives.
)he chief purpose for a reading knowledge of noting the declensions is to determine the form
given in dictionaries. #t is given with additional forms that illustrate the rest of the declined
forms.
,Q. /omparison of -dectives.
-s in English, there are three degrees of comparison% 4ositive, /omparative and Superlative.
-dectives are listed in dictionaries in their 4ositive form, e.g. gravis >heavy>. )he
/omparative has two endings, in accordance with such adectives in the third declension, e.g.
masc. and fem. gravior, neut. gravius >heavier>. )he superlative is made with the !issimus
ending, and inflected in accordance with adectives in the first and second declensions.
#n /lassical Latin the construction of the /omparative with a Standard has that indicated by
quam >than>, e.g. gravior quam aquD >heavier than water>. )he Standard is often in the ablative
case, which in the first declension has a long !a ending. #n older Latin, and occasionally in
/lassical Latin, the Standard is placed before the /omparative form and has the ablative case,
e.g. aquD gravior.
MK. 1ormation of -dverbs.
Many adverbs are listed in dictionaries, and accordingly defined there. <hen adverbs are
made from adectives that are inflected according to the first and second declensions, they
have an !e ending, e.g. alte >highly>. Other endings are !'i(ter, as in graviter >heavily>, !tim as in
privatim >privatively>, !um as in multum >much>. Some adverbs have changes in the stem, such
as bene >well> beside bonus >good>.
/omparative and Superlative forms may be illustrated by those of alte, i.e. altius >more
highly>, altissime >most highly>. -s in English, these forms may be irregular for common
adverbs, e.g. bene, melius, optime >good, better, best>= male, peius, pessime >bad, worse, worst=
multum, plus, plurimum >much, more, most>.
Lesson >
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Einhard, author of the biography of /harlemagne, was closely involved with the church. .orn
about OOK and died on JM March PMK, he was singled out for his capabilities by his abbot,
.augulf, and sent to the school in the palace of /harlemagne. )he head of the school was
-lcuin, who was also an adviser to /harlemagne. #n this way Einhard became a member of
the court, and upon the entry of -lcuin to a monastery he became his successor in the school.
2e remained close to /harlemagne until his death in PJM, and then continued as adviser to the
following rulers until he, too, entered a monastery around P+K. <hile his "ita 3aroli Magni is
his most highly regarded work, other writings of his have survived, among them many letters.
.eadin( and Te-tual 'nalysis
)his selection is from the second part of Einhard>s brief biography, which deals with the
personal qualities of the emperor. #n the first part he described /harlemagne>s military and
diplomatic undertakings. )hese were highly successful, leading to the eCpansion and
establishment of the 1rankish state. <hile the first part is of interest for the history of the
period, the second provides interesting information about /harlemagne>s capabilities and
more general activities, such as his support of the indigenous language. -mong other
contributions, he devised 1rankish names for the months, such as Uuintarmanoth for :anuary,
'starmanoth for -pril, and so on. 2e also identified twelve winds in place of the earlier four,
and gave them names as well. )he work ends with a lengthy account of his will.
Erat eloquentia copiosus et eCuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime eCprimere.
erat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! :e /as
eloquentia !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Reloquentia, eloquentiaeS
eloquence !! in elo0uence
copiosus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rcopiosus, copiosa,
copiosumS rich !! outstandin(
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
exuberans !! defective verb= nominative singular masculine of present participle of
ReCEber?, eCEberDre, !, !S be abundant !! superb
poteratque !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rpossum, posse, potuGS be able
T conunction R!queS and !! and could
quicquid !! indefinite pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rquisquis, quaeque,
quicquidS whoever, whatever !! /hatever
vellet !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of Rvol?, velle, voluGS wish,
determine !! he /ished
apertissime !! adective= nominative singular masculine of superlative of Rapertus,
aperta, apertumS open !! very clearly
exprimere !! verb= infinitive of ReCprim?, eCprimere, eCpressG, eCpressumS eCpress !!
e-press
$ec patrio tantum sermone contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit.
nec !! adverb= RnecS neither ... nor !! 'nd not
patrio !! adective= ablative singular masculine of Rpatrius, patria, patriumS paternal
!! /ith ...native
tantum !! adverb= RtantumS only !! only
sermone !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rsermo, sermonisS language !!
lan(ua(e
contentus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rcontentus, contenta,
contentumS content !! satisfied
etiam !! adverb= RetiamS also, even !! also
peregrinis !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rperegrinus, peregriniS foreign !!
forei(n
linguis !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rlingua, linguaeS tongue, language !!
lan(ua(es
ediscendis !! ablative plural feminine of gerund'ive( of RBdisc?, Bdiscere, Bdidici, !S
learn, memoriFe !! in learnin(
operam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Ropera, operaeS work, service,
attention !! effort
impendit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rimpend?, impendere, impendG,
impBnsumS eCpend, devote !! e-pended
#n quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria lingua orare sit solitus, *raecam vero
melius intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat.
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! 'mon(
quibus !! relative pronoun= dative plural feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! /hich
Latinam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of RLatinus, Latina, LatinumS
Latin !! Latin
ita !! adverb= RitaS thus !! so 2/ell3
didicit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rdisc?, discere, didicG, !S learn !!
1ne/
ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! so that
aeque !! adverb= RaequeS equally !! to the same e-tent
illa !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular feminine of Rille, illa, illudS he, she,
that !! it
ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
patria !! adective= ablative singular feminine of Rpatrius, patria, patriumS paternal !!
2his3 native
lingua !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rlingua, linguaeS tongue, language !!
lan(ua(e
orare !! verb= infinitive of R?r?, ?rDre, ?rDvG, ?rDtumS speak !! to spea1
sit !! verb= ,rd person singular subunctive present of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! he /as
solitus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rsolitus, solita, solitumS
accustomed !! accustomed
Graecam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of R*raecus, *raeca, *raecumS
*reek !! %ree1
vero !! adverb= RveroS truly, but !! but
melius !! adverb= RmeliusS better !! better
intellegere !! verb= infinitive of Rintelleg?, intellegere, intellBCG, intellBctumS
understand !! understand
quam !! conunction= RquamS than !! than
pronuntiare !! verb= infinitive of Rpronunti?, pronuntiDre, pronuntiDvG,
pronuntiDtumS pronounce !! spea1
poterat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rpossum, posse, potuGS be able !!
he could
-deo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam dicaculus appareret.
adeo !! adverb= RadeoS so, so much !! so
quidem !! adverb= RquidemS in fact, even !! in fact
facundus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rfacundus, facunda,
facundumS fluent, eloquent !! elo0uent
erat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! :e /as
ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! that
etiam !! adverb= RetiamS also, even !! rather
dicaculus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rdicaculus, dicacula,
dicaculumS effusive !! effusive
appareret !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of RappDre?, apparBre,
apparuG, !S be visible, seem !! seemed
-rtes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis adficiebat
honoribus.
artes !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rars, artisS skill, art !! arts
liberales !! adective= accusative plural feminine of Rliberalis, liberalis, liberaleS
liberal !! 2the3 liberal
studiosissime !! adverb= superlative of Rstudiosus, studiosa, studiosumS eager,
studious !! very studiously
coluit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rcol?, colere, coluG, cultumS dwell in,
cultivate !! :e cultivated
earumque !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive plural feminine of Ris, ea, idS him, her,
this T conunction R!queS and !! and ... of them
doctores !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rdoctor, doctorisS teacher !! the
instructors
plurimum !! adverb= RplurimumS very much, especially !! especially
veneratus !! deponent verb= perfect participle passive of Rveneror, venerDrG,
venerDtus sumS honor, venerate !! veneratin(
magnis !! adective= ablative plural masculine of Rmagnus, magna, magnumS great,
large !! /ith (reat
adficiebat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Radfici?, adficere, adfBcG,
adfectumS afflict !! he treated
honoribus !! noun= ablative plural masculine of Rhonos, honorisS honor, distinction !!
honors
#n discenda grammatica 4etrum 4isanum diaconem senem audivit.
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! *or the purpose of
discenda !! verbal adective= ablative singular feminine of Rdisc?, discere, didicG, !S
learn !! learnin(
grammatica !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rgrammatica, grammaticaeS
grammar !! (rammar
etrum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R4etrus, 4etriS 4eter !! Peter
isanum !! adective= accusative singular masculine of R4isanus, 4isana, 4isanumS
4isan !! of Pisa
diaconem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rdiaco, diaconisS deacon !!
deacon
senem !! adective= accusative singular masculine of RseneC, senisS aged !! the a(ed
audivit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Raudi?, audGre, audGvG, audGtumS hear
!! he /as tau(ht by
#n ceteris disciplinis -lbinum cognomento -lcoinum, item diaconem, de .rittania SaConici
generis hominem, virum undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit, apud quem et
rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et
laboris impertivit.
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! In
ceteris !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Rceteri, ceterae, ceteraS other !! the
other
disciplinis !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rdisciplina, disciplinaeS discipline,
education !! disciplines
Albinum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R-lbinus, -lbiniS -lbinus !!
'lbinus
cognomento !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rcognomentum, cognomentiS
surname !! /ith the surname
Alcoinum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of R-lcuinus, -lcuiniS -lcuin !!
'lcuin
item !! adverb= RitemS also !! also
diaconem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rdiaco, diaconisS deacon !! a
deacon
de !! preposition= RdeS from, about !! from
!rittania !! noun= ablative singular feminine of R.rittania, .rittaniaeS .ritain !!
Critain
Saxonici !! adective= genitive singular neuter of RSaConicus, SaConiciS SaCon !! of
Sa-on
generis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! race
hominem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rhomo, hominisS man, human !! a
human
virum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! man
undecumque !! adverb= RundecumqueS from every side !! in all respects
doctissimum !! adective= accusative singular masculine superlative of Rdoctus,
docta, doctumS learned !! the most learned
praeceptorem !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rpraeceptor, praeceptorisS
teacher !! as teacher
habuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rhabe?, habBre, habuG, habitumS have !!
he had
apud !! preposition= RapudS among, with !! /ith
quem !! relative pronoun= accusative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who,
which, what, that !! /hom
et !! conunction= RetS and !! both
rethoricae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rrhetorica, rhetoricaeS rhetoric !!
rhetoric
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
dialecticae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rdialectica, dialecticaeS logic !!
lo(ic
praecipue !! adverb= RpraecipueS chiefly !! chiefly
tamen !! conunction= RtamenS nevertheless, but !! ho/ever
astronomiae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of Rastronomia, astronomiaeS
astronomy !! astronomy
ediscendae !! verb= genitive singular feminine gerund'ive( of RBdisc?, Bdiscere,
Bdidici, !S learn, memoriFe !! for learnin(
plurimum !! adective used as substantive= accusative singular neuter superlative of
Rmultus, multa, multumS many !! a (reat deal
et !! conunction= RetS and !! both
temporis !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rtempus, temporisS time !! of time
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
laboris !! noun= genitive singular masculine of Rlabor, laborisS labor, effort !! of
effort
impertivit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rimperti?, impertGre, impertGvG,
impertGtusS devote !! devoted
0iscebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum curiosissime rimabatur.
discebat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rdisc?, discere, didicG, !S learn !!
:e learned
artem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rars, artisS skill, art !! the art
computandi !! verb= genitive of gerund'ive( of Rcomput?, computDre, computDvG,
computDtumS compute !! of computin(
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
intentione !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rintentio, intentionisS effort !!
effort
sagaci !! adective= ablative singular feminine of RsagaC, sagacisS keen, sagacious !!
/ith ... 1een
siderum !! noun= genitive plural neuter of Rsidus, siderisS constellation, heavenly
body !! of the heavenly bodies
cursum !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rcursus, cursusS course !! the course
curiosissime !! adverb= superlative of Rcuriosus, curiosa, curiosumS diligent !! most
dili(ently
rimabatur !! deponent verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rrimor, rimDri, rimDtus
sumS search, eCplore !! he e-plored
)emptabat et scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub cervicalibus circumferre
solebat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litteris effigiendis adsuesceret.
temptabat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rtempt?, temptDre, temptDvG,
temptDtumS attempt !! :e tried
et !! conunction= RetS and !! also
scribere !! verb= infinitive of RscrGb?, scribere, scrGpsG, scriptumS write !! to /rite
tabulasque !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rtabula, tabulaeS tablet T
conunction R!queS and !! and ...tablets
et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
codicellos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rcodicelli, codicellorumS
notebook !! noteboo1s
ad !! preposition= RadS to, towards !! for
hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= ablative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this
!! this 2purpose3
in !! preposition= RinS in, on !! 2to have3 in
lecto !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rlectus, lectiS bed !! bed
sub !! preposition= RsubS under !! under
cervicalibus !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rcervical, cervicalisS pillow !! the
pillo/s
circumferre !! verb= infinitive of Rcircumfer?, circumferre, circumtElG,
circumlDtumS carry around !! to carry around
solebat !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect of Rs?le?, solBre, solitumS be
accustomed !! he /as accustomed
ut !! conunction= RutS that, so that !! so that
cum !! conunction= RcumS since, when !! /hen
vacuum !! adective= nominative singular neuter of Rvacuus, vacua, vacuumS empty,
free !! free
tempus !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rtempus, temporisS time !! time
esset !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !!
there mi(ht be
manum !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rmanus, manusS hand !! 2his3 hand
litteris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rlittera, litteraeS letter !! letters
effigiendis !! verb= ablative plural feminine of gerund'ive( of Reffing?, effingere,
effinCG, effGctumS form !! at formin(
adsuesceret !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of RadsuBsc?,
adsuescere, adsuescBvG, adsuescBtumS accustom !! he tried
Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.
sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
parum !! adverb= RparumS too little !! very little
successit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of RsuccBd?, succedere, successG,
sucessumS enter, succeed !! had ... success
labor !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rlabor, laborisS labor, effort !! 2his3
effort
praeposterus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rpraeposterus,
praepostera, praeposterumS unseasonable !! at the /ron( time
ac !! conunction= RacS and !! and
sero !! adverb= RseroS too late !! too late
inchoatus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rincohatus, incohata,
incohatumS begun !! be(un
Lesson Te-t
Erat eloquentia copiosus et eCuberans poteratque quicquid vellet apertissime eCprimere. $ec
patrio tantum sermone contentus, etiam peregrinis linguis ediscendis operam impendit. #n
quibus Latinam ita didicit, ut aeque illa ac patria lingua orare sit solitus, *raecam vero melius
intellegere quam pronuntiare poterat. -deo quidem facundus erat, ut etiam dicaculus
appareret. -rtes liberales studiosissime coluit, earumque doctores plurimum veneratus magnis
adficiebat honoribus. #n discenda grammatica 4etrum 4isanum diaconem senem audivit. #n
ceteris disciplinis -lbinum cognomento -lcoinum, item diaconem, de .rittania SaConici
generis hominem, virum undecumque doctissimum praeceptorem habuit, apud quem et
rethoricae et dialecticae, praecipue tamen astronomiae ediscendae plurimum et temporis et
laboris impertivit. 0iscebat artem computandi et intentione sagaci siderum cursum
curiosissime rimabatur. )emptabat et scribere tabulasque et codicellos ad hoc in lecto sub
cervicalibus circumferre solebat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litteris effigiendis
adsuesceret. Sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac sero inchoatus.
Translation
2e was outstanding in eloquence and could eCpress eCcellently whatever he wished. -nd not
satisfied with ust his paternal language, he also eCpended effort in learning foreign
languages. -mong these he knew Latin so well that he could speak it with the same control as
his native language. .ut *reek he could understand better than speak. 2e was in fact so
eloquent in speech that at times he seemed effusive. 2e cultivated the liberal arts very
studiously, and in the instruction of these he treated his teachers with great honor. #n learning
grammar he was taught by the aged deacon, 4eter the 4isan. #n the other disciplines he had as
teacher -lbinus, with the surname -lcuin, also a deacon, a SaCon from .ritain, a very learned
man in all respects. <ith him he devoted effort and time to learn rhetoric and logic, but
chiefly astronomy. 2e learned the art of computing and with keen effort he eCplored the
course of the heavenly bodies. 2e also tried to write, and was accustomed to carry about
tablets and notebooks to have under his pillow for this purpose, so that when there might be
time he could apply his hand to writing letters. .ut he had very little success since his work
was at the wrong time and begun too late.
%rammar
!1. Simple Sentences.
#n the basic word order of Latin the verb stands last in the sentence, as was noted in *rammar
section J. - fuller eCample than that given there is%
-enBas D nomine uCoris Lavinium appellat.
-eneas calls it Lavinia from the name of his wife.
#f, as here, a subect is included, it typically stands initially. -dverbial eCpressions and obects
follow it. )he same order is found in coordinate sentences, as in this sentence from Lesson N%
-griculturae n?n student, maiorque pars e?rum victus in lacte, case?, carne consistit.
)hey do not practice agriculture, and the maor part of their food consists of milk, cheese and
meat.
<e have also noted that the eCtensive inflection of nouns and verbs enables authors to modify
the basic order, as for indicating emphasis on specific words= the final placement of laudem in
the neCt eCample provides an illustration.
!2. 7omple- Sentences.
-s modifiers of a basic sentence, relative clauses may precede them, as in the following
eCample from Lesson N%
5uG diutissime impuberBs permanserunt, maCimum inter su?s ferunt laudem.
)hose who remain chaste longest have the greatest praise among them.
<hen modifying specific nouns, on the other hand, relative clauses may follow, e.g.
$am neque druidBs habent, quG rebus divinGs praesint.
1or they do not have 0ruids who preside over religious matters.
Subordinate clauses introduced by conunctions also may follow the basic clause, e.g.
/Eius reG nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluntur.
$othing of this matter is hidden, because they bathe promiscuously in rivers.
!. The Dse of Infinitives.
#nfinitives may stand as complements to verbs, as in English, as in this eCample from lesson
L%
Solent et subterrane?s specEs aperire.
)hey are also accustomed to open up underground caves.
#n such uses, they may correspond to subordinate clauses, as in this eCample from Lesson P%
2oc autem eos velle, eC motu corporis aperiabatur.
.ut that they wished this was apparent from the motion of their body.
- favorite construction in Latin is made by using accusatives as subects of infinitives, in the
so!called accusative with infinitive construction, e.g. Lesson N%
2?c alG staturam, alG vires nerv?sque confirmDrG putant.
Some think that height, others that sinews are strengthened by this.
!!. Dses of Participles.
4articiples are used as substantives, chiefly as adectives. Since the perfect passive forms
consist of the perfect participle passive with forms of esse >be>, such participles may be used
alone, in view of the fact that forms of esse are often elided, as in this eCample from Lesson J%
#nde foedus ictum inter ducBs.
)hen a treaty was struck by the leaders.
4articiples are also used frequently with nouns as abbreviations of subordinate clauses in the
ablative absolute construction, as in the following eCamples from Lesson J%
crematD patriD
their fatherland had been burned
deCtrD datD
'right hand given( 2e gave him his right hand.
!+. Len(thy Sentences.
Sentences may be long and compleC, especially in the writings of the historians. /aesar writes
more succinctly. 1or understanding the compleC sentences, one must simply identify
individual clauses and interpret them in turn, as in the following eCample from Lesson J%
4ostquam audierit multitudinem )r?iDn?s esse, ducem -eneam, filium -nchisae et "eneris,
crematD patriD dom? profug?s sedem condendaeque urbG locum quaerere.
-fter the initial clause, 4ostquam audierit, there is a construction of the accusative with
infinitive% multitudinem )r?iDn?s esse. )his is followed by a clause in which the verb is
lacking, and that in turn by an appositive clause% ducem -eneam, filium ... )he neCt two
words make up an ablative absolute construction% crematD patriD. )hese are followed by two
clauses in which the verbs are participles. -nd finally there is another infinitive clause
introduced by the verb audierit.
-s edited in Lesson J, this is treated here as a complete sentence= but strictly speaking it is
actually a subordinate clause introduced by postquam, that stands before the basic clause%
fidem ... sanCisse >he enacted a pledge>. )hat in turn includes a number of subordinate clauses
or their variants. Once again, the key to understanding such compleC sentences is provided by
the inflections.
Lesson JK
<infred 4. Lehmann and :onathan Slocum
)he great epic poet, "irgil !! "irgilius Maro !! was born on October JN, OK ../. in /isalpine
*aul, where his father reputedly had a small estate. 2e received an eCcellent education, after
which he returned to the estate and began his writings. .esides the -eneid, these include the
Eclogues and the *eorgica. 2e later became an intimate of the court of the Emperor, /aesar
-ugustus, and thanks to his patronage was able to enoy a life of leisure. -mong other friends,
he was highly respected by 2orace. 2e died on September ++, JQ ../. in .rundisium, in the
company of the Emperor on their return to #taly from -thens.
)he -eneid was the last of his great works. <ith its glorification of the founders of 6ome, it
reflects his attachment to the 6oman court. <ritten in heCameters, it is patterned after the
2omeric epics. )hese begin with a word characteriFing them !! the #liad with the word for
wrath, the Odyssey with the word for man. "irgil innovated by giving two words as indicating
the central content of the epic !! arms and the man. Milton followed him in this respect,
beginning 4aradise Lost with the line% Of man>s first disobedience and the fruit of that
forbidden tree... )he -eneid was widely read throughout the Middle -ges and later. #n earlier
times, every educated person could recite its beginning verses. )here are numerous
translations into verse and prose !! among those into verse, one by :ohn 0ryden published in
JLQO, and another by <illiam Morris published in JPON. )here are also numerous editions and
commentaries.
6eading and )eCtual -nalysis
)he -eneid builds on the tradition of the founding of 6ome as depicted by Livy in the teCts of
the first two lessons of L-)OL, especially the first. -scribing the early era to one of the
)roan heroes, it provides a similar function as that of the 2omeric epics for the *reeks in
proposing a long and illustrious history of the 6omans. )he first siC books with their climaC
in the stay of -eneas with 0ido and then his departure from her foreshadow the conflict
between 6ome and /arthage. )he siCth book includes the visit of -eneas to 2ades, where he
sees 0ido, but she disdains him after her suicide. )he book is said to have greatly influenced
0ante in his production of )he 0ivine /omedy. )he second siC books deal with the landing in
Latium and the conquest of #taly by -eneas, which was accomplished in twenty days. .ut as
with Livy, the gap between the arrival of -eneas in #taly, presumably in the twelfth century,
and the actual founding of 6ome by 6omulus, presumably in the eighth, is passed over.
-eneas himself was killed in a battle= his body was not found, and by one tradition it was
assumed that he was carried up to heaven.
-rma virumque cano, )roae qui primus ab oris
#taliam fato profugus Laviniaque venit
Litora !! multum ille et terris actatus et alto
"i superum, saevae memorem :unonis ob iram,
Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem
#nferretque deos Latio !! genus unde Latinum
-lbanique patres atque altae moenia 6omae.
W arma !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rarma, armorumS arms !! arms
W virumque !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man T conunction R!queS
and !! and a man
W cano !! verb= Jst person singular present of Rcan?, canere, cecinG, cantumS sing !! # sing
about
W )roae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R)roa, )roaeS )roy !! of )roy
W qui !! relative pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! who
W primus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rprimus, prima, primumS first !! as
the first
W ab !! preposition= RabS from, after !! from
W oris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rora, oraeS mouth, boundary, coast !! the coasts
W #taliam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of R#talia, #taliaeS #taly !! to #taly
W fato !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rfatum, fatiS utterance, fate !! by fate
W profugus !! adective= nominative singular masculine of Rprofugus, profuga, profugumS
fugitive !! in flight
W Laviniaque !! adective= accusative plural neuter of RLavinius, Lavinia, LaviniumS
Lavinian T conunction R!queS and !! and to the Lavinian
W venit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rveni?, venGre, vBnG, ventumS come !! came
W litora !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rlitus, litorisS shore !! shores
W multum !! adverb= RmultumS greatly !! very much
W ille !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative singular masculine of Rille, illa, illudS he, she,
that !! he
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! both
W terris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rterra, terraeS earth, land !! on land
W actatus !! verb= nominative singular masculine of perfect passive participle of Ract?,
actDre, actDvG, actDtumS throw !! tossed about
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W alto !! adective used as substantive= ablative singular neuter of Raltus, alta, altumS high,
deep !! on sea
W vi !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rvis, visS power, strength !! by the power
W superum !! noun= genitive masculine plural of Rsuperus, supera, superumS higher, gods !!
of the gods
W saevae !! adective= genitive singular feminine of Rsaevus, saeva, saevumS fierce, cruel !!
of fierce
W memorem !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Rmemor, memorisS mindful,
remembering !! relentless
W :unonis !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R:uno, :unonisS :uno !! of :uno
W ob !! preposition= RobS because of !! because of
W iram !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rira, iraeS anger !! anger
W multa !! adective= accusative plural neuter of Rmultus, multa, multumS many !! many
things
W quoque !! adverb= RquoqueS also !! also
W et !! conunction= RetS and !! and
W bello !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! in battle
W passus !! deponent verb= nominative singular masculine of perfect participle passive of
Rpatior, patG, passus sumS suffer, endure !! he suffered
W dum !! conunction= RdumS while !! while
W conderet !! verb= ,rd person singular subunctive imperfect of Rcond?, condere, condidG,
conditumS found !! he founded
W urbem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! the city
W inferretque !! verb= ,rd person singular subunctive imperfect of Rinfer?, inferre, intulG,
inlDtumS introduce, produce T conunction R!queS and !! and brought in
W deos !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rdeus, deiS god !! the gods
W Latio !! noun= dative singular neuter of RLatium, LatiiS Latium !! to Latium
W genus !! noun= accusative singular neuter of Rgenus, generisS kind, class !! the race
W unde !! adverb= RundeS from whence !! from which place
W Latinum !! adective= accusative singular neuter of RLatinus, Latina, LatinumS Latin !!
Latin
W -lbanique !! adective= nominative plural masculine of R-lbanus, -lbana, -lbanumS
-lban T conunction R!queS and !! and the -lban
W patres !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rpater, patrisS father !! fathers
W atque !! conunction= RatqueS and !! and
W altae !! adective= genitive singular feminine of Raltus, alta, altumS high, deep !! of lofty
W moenia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rmoenia, moeniumS walls !! the walls
W 6omae !! noun= genitive singular feminine of R6oma, 6omaeS 6ome !! 6ome
Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso
5uidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus
#nsignem pietate virum, tot adire labores
#mpulerit. )antaene animis caelestibus iraeZ
W Musa !! noun= vocative singular feminine of RMusa, MusaeS Muse !! Oh Muse,
W mihi !! pronoun= dative singular of RegoS # !! me
W causas !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rcausa, causaeS cause, reason !! the reasons
W memora !! verb= +nd person singular imperative of Rmemor?, memorDre, memorDvG,
memorDtusS relate, tell !! tell
W quo !! interrogative pronoun= ablative singular neuter of Rqui, quae, quodS which, what !!
for what
W numine !! noun= ablative singular neuter of Rnumen, numinisS authority !! authority
W laeso !! verb= perfect participle passive of Rlaed?, laedere, laesG, laesumS strike, offend !!
offended
W quidve !! interrogative pronoun= accusative singular neuter of Rquis, quis, quidS who,
what T conunction R!veS or !! or ... what
W dolens !! verb= nominative singular feminine of present participle of Rdole?, dolBre, doluG,
dolitumS suffer, be angry !! angry
W regina !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rregina, reginaeS queen !! queen
W deum !! noun= genitive plural masculine of Rdeus, deiS god !! of the gods
W tot !! adective number= RtotS so much, so many !! so many
W volvere !! verb= infinitive of Rvolv?, volvere, volvG, volEtumS pass through, undergo !! to
undergo
W casus !! noun= accusative plural masculine of Rcasus, casusS fall, misfortune, chance !!
misfortunes
W insignem !! adective= accusative singular masculine of Rinsignis, insignis, insigneS
distinguished !! distinguished
W pietate !! noun= ablative singular feminine of Rpietas, pietatisS piety !! for piety
W virum !! noun= accusative singular masculine of Rvir, viriS man !! a man
W tot !! adective number= RtotS so much, so many !! so many
W adire !! verb= infinitive of Rade?, adGre, adiG, adGtumS approach, encounter !! to encounter
W labores !! noun= accusative plural feminine of Rlabor, laborisS labor, effort !! hardships
W impulerit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rimpell?, impellere, impulG, impulsumS
drive, move !! drove
W tantaene !! adective= nominative plural feminine of Rtantus, tanta, tantumS such T
interrogative adverb R!neS ... !! -re such
W animis !! noun= dative plural masculine of Ranimus, animiS soul, mind !! minds
W caelestibus !! adective= dative plural feminine of Rcaelestis, caelestis, caelesteS celestial
!! in the celestial
W irae !! noun= nominative plural feminine of Rira, iraeS anger !! angers
;rbs antiqua fuit ')yrii tenuere coloni(
3arthago, #taliam contra )iberinaque longe
Ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli.
W urbs !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rurbs, urbisS city !! city
W antiqua !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rantiquus, antiqua, antiquumS
ancient !! an ancient
W fuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! )here was
W )yrii !! adective= nominative plural masculine of R)yrius, )yria, )yriumS )yrian !!
)yrian
W tenuere !! verb= ,rd person plural perfect of Rtene?, tenBre, tenuG, !S hold, control,
understand !! controlled
W coloni !! noun= nominative plural masculine of Rcolonus, coloniS farmer, settler !! settlers
W 3arthago !! noun= nominative singular feminine of R3arthago, 3arthaginisS /arthage !!
/arthage
W #taliam !! noun= accusative singular feminine of R#talia, #taliaeS #taly !! #taly
W contra !! preposition= RcontraS opposite, facing !! opposite
W )iberinaque !! adective= accusative plural neuter of R)iberinus, )iberina, )iberinumS of
)iber T conunction R!queS and !! and the )iberine
W longe !! adverb= RlongeS by far !! and far from
W ostia !! noun= accusative plural neuter of Rostium, ostiiS mouth, entrance !! the mouths
W dives !! adective= nominative singular feminine of Rdives, divitisS rich !! rich in
W opum !! noun= genitive plural feminine of Rops, opisS assistance, wealth, resources !!
wealth
W studiisque !! noun= ablative plural neuter of Rstudium, studiiS application, study T
conunction R!queS and !! and the ... pursuits
W asperrima !! adective= nominative singular feminine superlative of Rasper, aspera,
asperumS rough, harsh !! harshest
W belli !! noun= genitive singular neuter of Rbellum, belliS war !! of war
quam :uno fertur terris magis omnibus unam
posthabita coluisse Samo% hic illius arma,
hic currus fuit= hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,
si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.
W quam !! relative pronoun= accusative singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! #t
W :uno !! noun= nominative singular feminine of R:uno, :unonisS :uno !! :uno
W fertur !! verb= ,rd person singular present passive of Rfer?, ferre, tulG, lDtumS bear, carry
!! is said
W terris !! noun= ablative plural feminine of Rterra, terraeS earth, land !! lands
W magis !! adverb= RmagisS more !! more than
W omnibus !! adective= ablative plural feminine of Romnis, omnis, omneS all !! all
W unam !! adective= accusative singular feminine of Runus, una, unumS one, alone !! alone
W posthabita !! verb= ablative singular feminine of perfect passive participle of Rposthabe?,
posthabBre, posthabuG, posthabitumS place after, esteem less !! was esteemed less
W coluisse !! verb= infinitive perfect of Rcol?, colere, coluG, cultumS dwell in, cultivate !! to
have cherished
W Samo !! noun= ablative singular feminine of RSamos, SamiS Samus !! even Samus
W hic !! adverb= Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !! there were
W illius !! demonstrative pronoun= genitive singular feminine of Rille, illa, illudS he, she,
that !! her
W arma !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rarma, armorumS arms !! arms
W hic !! adverb= Rhic, haec, hocS there, this !! there
W currus !! noun= nominative singular masculine of Rcurrus, currusS chariot !! her chariot
W fuit !! verb= ,rd person singular perfect of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! was
W hoc !! demonstrative pronoun= nominative singular neuter of Rhic, haec, hocS there, this
!! this
W regnum !! noun= nominative singular neuter of Rregnum, regniS kingship, supreme power
!! the leading kingdom
W dea !! noun= nominative singular feminine of Rdea, deaeS goddess !! the goddess
W gentibus !! noun= dative plural feminine of Rgens, gentisS race, clan !! among the peoples
W esse !! verb= infinitive of Rsum, esse, fuGS # am !! to be
W si !! conunction= RsiS if !! if
W qua !! indefinite pronoun= ablative singular feminine of Rquis, quis, quidS someone,
anything !! by some way
W fata !! noun= nominative plural neuter of Rfatum, fatiS utterance, fate !! the fates
W sinant !! verb= ,rd person plural present subunctive of Rsin?, sinere, sGvGS permit, allow
!! would permit it
W iam !! adverb= RiamS already !! already
W tum !! adverb= RtumS then !! then
W tenditque !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rtend?, tenere, tenuG, tentumS stretch,
pursue T conunction R!queS and !! she both pursued
W fovetque !! verb= ,rd person singular present of Rfove?, fovBre, f?vG, f?tumS warm, favor
T conunction R!queS and !! and favored it
4rogeniem sed enim )roiano a sanguine duci
audierat )yrias olim quae verteret arces.
W progeniem !! noun= accusative singular feminine of Rprogenies, !S offspring, race !! a
race
W sed !! conunction= RsedS but !! but
W enim !! conunction= RenimS for, indeed !! indeed
W )roiano !! adective= ablative singular masculine of R)roianus, )roiana, )roianumS
)roan !! )roan
W a !! preposition= RabS from, after !! from
W sanguine !! noun= ablative singular masculine of Rsanguis, sanguinisS blood !! blood
W duci !! verb= infinitive passive of RdEc?, ducere, dECG, ductumS lead, consider !! would
be drawn
W audierat !! verb= ,rd person singular pluperfect of Raudi?, audGre, audGvG, audGtumS hear
!! she had heard
W )yrias !! adective= accusative plural feminine of R)yrius, )yria, )yriumS )yrian !! )yrian
W olim !! adverb= RolimS some day !! some
W quae !! relative pronoun= nominative singular feminine of Rqui, quae, quodS who, which,
what, that !! which
W verteret !! verb= ,rd person singular imperfect subunctive of Rvert?, vertere, vertG,
versumS turn, overturn !! would overturn
W arces !! noun= accusative plural feminine of RarC, arcisS citadel, fortress !! citadels
Lesson )eCt
-rma virumque cano, )roae qui primus ab oris
#taliam fato profugus Laviniaque venit
Litora !! multum ille et terris actatus et alto
"i superum, saevae memorem :unonis ob iram,
Multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem
#nferretque deos Latio !! genus unde Latinum
-lbanique patres atque altae moenia 6omae.
Musa, mihi causas memora, quo numine laeso
5uidve dolens regina deum tot volvere casus
#nsignem pietate virum, tot adire labores
#mpulerit. )antaene animis caelestibus iraeZ
;rbs antiqua fuit ')yrii tenuere coloni(
3arthago, #taliam contra )iberinaque longe
Ostia, dives opum studiisque asperrima belli.
quam :uno fertur terris magis omnibus unam
posthabita coluisse Samo% hic illius arma,
hic currus fuit= hoc regnum dea gentibus esse,
si qua fata sinant, iam tum tenditque fovetque.
4rogeniem sed enim )roiano a sanguine duci
audierat )yrias olim quae verteret arces.
)ranslation
# sing of arms and the man, who as first 'among the 6omans( came from the coasts of )roy
to the Lavinian shores in flight driven by fate. )ossed about on lands and the sea by the might
of the gods, he suffered many things also in battle through the relentless anger of fierce :uno
as he brought the gods to Latium, whence the Latin race and the -lban fathers and also the
walls of lofty 6ome.
6emind me of the causes, oh Muse, offended for what authority, or angry at what the queen
of the gods caused a man outstanding in piety to undergo so many troubles, to suffer so many
labors. -re there such angers in the celestial mindsZ
)here was an ancient city ')yrian colonists maintained it(, /arthage, a long way opposite
#taly and the mouths of the )iber, rich in wealth and very fierce in the pursuits of war, which
alone :uno is said to have cherished more than all others, even esteeming Samos less. 2ere
were her arms, her chariot. )his was the ruling power among the races for the goddess, and as
the fates permitted, she favored and supported it. .ut she had heard that a race from )roan
blood would at some time overturn the )yrian citadels.
6eferences
ML. )eCts.
-s a result of the long and detailed attention, the teCts of the Latin authors have been fiCed.
1or eCample, the teCts of the first two lessons are identical in the publication by Mauritius
Mueller 'LeipFig% )eubner, JPQ+( and that of the Loeb /lassical Library published in JQJQ
and reprinted numerous times to JQQP. -nd the teCt of Einhard>s biography of /harlemagne
was fiCed after numerous other editions in that of O. 2older!Egger '2annover, JQJJ(, which
has subsequently been reprinted.
;nless a teCt with eCtensive commentary is desired, readers of the Latin teCts will do well to
use the editions of the Loeb /lassical Library, which have the added advantage of including
translations. )hese are readily available from the 2arvard ;niversity 4ress '/ambridge, Mass.
and London, England(. )he teCts that have been widely read in schools and universities, such
as those of /aesar and "irgil, are readily available. )hey have been published with
introductions and commentaries, often also with glossaries. 6eferences may be found in
catalogues of libraries and publishers.
MO. *rammars.
#n much the same way, the grammars of Latin are based on long attention. )he fullest
grammar is that of Manu Leumann, :oh. .apt. 2ofmann and -nton SFantyr, Lateinische
*rammatik. #. Laut!und 1ormenlehre 'Munich% .eck, JQOO(, ##. SyntaC und Stilistik 'Munich%
.eck, JQLN(. 1or ready reference, most readers will find useful a shorter grammar, such as -
Latin *rammar of JQK,, by <illiam *ardner 2ale and /arl 0arling .uck ')uscaloosa%
-labama ;niversity 4ress, JQLL(.
1or a historical treatment, see the /omparative *rammar of *reek and Latin, by /arl 0arling
.uck '/hicago% ;niversity of /hicago 4ress, JQ,,(. - successor is the $ew /omparative
*rammar of *reek and Latin, by -ndrew L. Sihler 'OCford% ;niversity 4ress, JQQN(= it is
written like a novel !! no references, no bibliography.
MP. 0ictionaries.
0ictionaries of various eCtent are also readily available. - Latin 0ictionary, by /harlton ).
Lewis and /harles Short 'OCford ;niversity 4ress, JQNL( is eCtensive. )he companion
Elementary Latin 0ictionary by Lewis 'OCford ;niversity 4ress, JQLQ( is also
comprehensive, and less costly.
MQ. SpecialiFed handbooks.
-s catalogues in libraries and in lists of the concerned publishers indicate, one may readily
find handbooks dealing with all aspects of 6oman culture and history. -mong eCamples, the
OCford ;niversity 4ress '+KKJ Evans 6oad, /ary, $/ +ONJ,( has published )he OCford
2istory of the 6oman <orld, eds. :ohn .oardman, :asper *riffin, Oswyn Murray '+KKJ(, )he
OCford #llustrated 2istory of the 6oman <orld by the same editors '+KKJ(, 2andbook to Life
in -ncient 6ome, by Lesley -dkins and 6oy -. -dkins 'JQQP(, Slaves and Masters in the
6oman Empire, by 3.6..radley 'JQPO(, 6ome, by M. 6ostovtFeff 'JQLK(, among many other
more specialiFed works. 6eferences works like - Smaller /lassical 0ictionary, ed.
E.2..lakeney '$ew ork% 0utton, JQ+P( provide compact entries on persons, places and things
in the 6oman and *reek world.
One should not overlook the essays in encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated J,th
edition of the Encyclopedia .rittanica. )hese deal with various aspects of culture and history.
NK. )he Legacy of the 6oman <orld.
)he 6oman world has eCerted massive influence on the western world, as its linguistic effects
and institutions indicate. -n eCample is Salus Mundi >welfare or prosperity of the world>, the
name of the foundation that sponsored the present work. -mong many other eCamples, we
may cite /ursor Mundi, the name of an English epic poem of the J,th century that sketches
the history of the world according to the Old and $ew )estaments. #ts unidentified author
eCplains the title with the lines%
/ursur of werld man aght it call
1or almast it overrennes all.
'/f. Encyclopedia .ritannica, "ol. O, p. LNK. London% )he Encyclopedia .ritannica /o., JQ+L,
J,th ed.( -nother eCpression, E pluribus unum !! one out of many !! was selected as
characteriFing the ;nited States. -nd Summa cum laude !! with the highest praise !! indicates
academic eCcellence.
:ames .radstreet *reenough and *eorge Lyman 3ittredge state in their work <ords and their
<ays in English Speech '$ew 8ork% Macmillan, JQK+( p. Q,% V)he influence of Latin is not
confined to the technical vocabulary. #t is felt in almost every sentence that we utter. #t
pervades the whole system of English speech.V - sentence like the first in this section
provides ample support for the statement. )hey also point to the 6oman numerals and the
symbol [c for Latin et cetera. Moreover, they cite doublets, like reason, ration and ratio, the
first of which was taken from the Old 1rench refleC of the Latin word, the second somewhat
later from 1rench in military use, and the last directly from Latin in mathematical use.
)he institutions are of lesser concern here, but as the linguistic importations indicate, they as
well as our clerical, military and educational terms are heavily based on those developed in
the 6oman world. Such effects indicate eCcellent reasons for reading Latin teCts, as promoted
by this series of online lessons.