5 16 Fluid Mechanics

Fluid is the name given to a substance which begins to flow when

external force is applied on it. Liquids and gases are fluids. Fluids do not
have their own shape but take the shape of the containing vessel. The
branch of physics which deals with the study of fluids at rest is called
hydrostatics and the branch which deals with the study of fluids in motion
iscalled hydrodynamics.
Pressure.
The normal force exerted by liquid at rest on a given surface in
contact with it iscalled thrust of liquid on that surface.
The normal force (or thrust) exerted by liquid at rest per unit area
of the surface in contact with it, is called pressure of liquid or hydrostatic
pressure.
If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact
with liquid, then pressureexerted by liquid on thissurfaceis A F P / =
(1) Units:
2
/ m N or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm
2
(C.G.S.)
(2) Dimension : ] [
] [
] [
] [
] [
] [
2 1
2
2

= = = T ML
L
MLT
A
F
P
(3) At apoint pressureactsin all directionsand adefinitedirection
isnot associated with it. So pressureisatensor quantity.
(4) Atmospheric pressure : The gaseous envelope surrounding the
earth is called the earth's atmosphere and the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. Its value on the surface of the
earth at sea level is nearly
2 5
/ 10 013 . 1 m N or Pascal in S.I., other
practical unitsof pressureareatmosphere, bar and torr (m m of Hg)
torr 760 bar 01 . 1 10 01 . 1 1
5
= = = Pa atm
The atmospheric pressure is maximum at the surface of earth and
goeson decreasing aswemoveup into theearth'satmosphere.
(5) If
0
P is the atmospheric pressure then for a point at depth h
below the surface of aliquid of density , hydrostatic pressure P is given
by g h P P + =
0






(6) Hydrostatic pressuredependson thedepth of thepoint below the
surface (h), natureof liquid ( ) and acceleration dueto gravity (g) whileit is
independent of theamount of liquid, shapeof thecontainer or cross-sectional
area considered. So if a given liquid is filled in vessels of different shapes to
sameheight, thepressureat thebasein each vessel'swill bethesame, though
thevolumeor weight of theliquid in different vesselswill bedifferent.





C B A
P P P = = but
C B A
W W W < <
(7) In a liquid at samelevel, the pressurewill be same at all points,
if not, due to pressure difference the liquid cannot be at rest. This is why
the height of liquid is the same in vessels of different shapes containing
different amounts of the same liquid at rest when they are in
communication with each other.




(8) Gaugepressure: Thepressuredifferencebetween hydrostatic pressure
P and atmosphericpressureP
0
iscalled gaugepressure.
g h P P =
0

Density
In a fluid, at a point, density is defined as:
dV
dm
V
m
V
=
A
A
=
A 0
lim
Fl u i d M echan i cs
Chapter
11
(B) (C) (A)
Fi g. 11.2
Fi g. 11.3

Fluid Mechanics 5 17
(1) In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional
properties, so isascalar.
(2) It has dimensions ] [
3
ML and S.I. unit k g/m
3
while C.G.S. unit
g/cc with
3 3
/ 10 / 1 m kg cc g =
(3) Density of substancemeanstheratio of massof substanceto the
volume occupied by the substance while density of a body means the ratio
of massof abody to thevolumeof thebody. So for asolid body.
Density of body =Density of substance
While for a hollow body, density of body is lesser than that of
substance ] As [
sub. body
V V >
(4) When immiscible liquids of different densities are poured in a
container, the liquid of highest density will be at the bottom while that of
lowest density at thetop and interfaceswill beplane.
(5) Sometimes instead of density we use the term relative density
or specific gravity which isdefined as:

of water Density
of body Density
= RD
(6) If
1
m mass of liquid of density
1
and
2
m mass of density
2
aremixed, then as
2 1
m m m + = and ) / ( ) / (
2 2 1 1
m m V + =
[As / m V = ]
) / ( ) / ( ) / (
2 2 1 1
2 1
i i
i
m
m
m m
m m
V
m

=
+
+
= =
If
2 1
m m = =
+
=
2 1
2 1
2


Harmonic mean
(7) If
1
V volume of liquid of density
1
and
2
V volume of liquid
of density
2
aremixed, then as:
2 2 1 1
V V m + = and
2 1
V V V + = [As V m/ = ]
If V V V = =
2 1
2 / ) (
2 1
+ = =Arithmetic Mean
(8) With rise in temperature due to thermal expansion of a given
body, volume will increase while mass will remain unchanged, so density
will decrease, i .e.,
) 1 ( ) / (
) / (
0
0 0
0 0
u

A +
= = =
V
V
V
V
V m
V m
[As ) 1 (
0
u A + = V V ]
or ) 1 (
~
) 1 (
0
0
u
u

A
A +
=
(9) With increasein pressuredueto decreasein volume, density will
increase, i .e.,
V
V
V m
V m
0
0 0
) / (
) / (
= =

[As
V
m
= ]
But asby definition of bulk-modulus
V
p
V B
A
A
=
0
i .e.,
(

A
=
B
p
V V 1
0

So |
.
|

\
| A
+ |
.
|

\
| A
=

B
p
B
p
1
~
1
0
1
0

Pascal's Law
It statesthat if gravity effect isneglected, thepressureat every point
of liquid in equilibrium of rest issame.
or
The increase in pressure at one point of the enclosed liquid in
equilibrium of rest is transmitted equally to all other points of the liquid
and also to the walls of the container, provided the effect of gravity is
neglected.
Exam pl e : Hydraulic lift, hydraulic pressand hydraulic brakes
W or ki n g of h yd r au l ic li ft : It isused to lift theheavy loads. If asmall
forcef isapplied on piston of C then thepressureexerted on theliquid
a f P / = [a =Areaof crosssection of thepiston in C]
Thispressureistransmitted equally to piston of cylinder D .
Hencetheupward forceacting on piston of cylinder D .






|
.
|

\
|
= = =
a
A
f A
a
f
A P F
As a A >> , therefore f F >> . So heavy load placed on thelarger
piston iseasily lifted upwardsby applying asmall force.
Archimedes Principl e
Accidentally Archimedes discovered that when a body is immersed
partly or wholly in afluid, at rest, it is buoyed up with aforceequal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the body. This principle is called
Archimedes principle and is a necessary consequence of the laws of fluid
statics.
When a body is partly or wholly dipped in a fluid, the fluid exerts
force on the body due to hydrostatic pressure. At any small portion of the
surface of the body, the force exerted by the fluid is perpendicular to the
surface and is equal to the pressure at that point multiplied by the area.
Theresultant of all theseconstant forcesiscalled upthrust or buoyancy.
To determine the magnitude and direction of this force consider a
body immersed in afluid of density o asshown in figure. Theforceson the
vertical sidesof the body will cancel each other. The top surface of the body
will experienceadownward force.
) (
0 1 1 1
P g h A AP F + = = o [As
0
P g h P + = o ]
Whilethelower faceof thebody will experiencean upward force.
) (
0 2 2 2
P g h A AP F + = = o





As
2 1 2
, F h h > will be greater than
1
F , so thebody will experience
a net upward force
) (
1 2 1 2
h h g A F F F = = o
If L isthevertical height of thebody g V gL A F o o = =
[As )] (
1 2
h h A AL V = =
i .e., F =Weight of fluid displaced by thebody.
Thisforceis called upthrust or buoyancy and actsvertically upwards
(opposite to the weight of the body) through the centre of gravity of
Load
F
C D
f
Fi g. 11.4
F
1
F
2

h
1
h
2

Fi g. 11.5

5 18 Fluid Mechanics
displaced fluid (called centre of buoyancy). Though we have derived this
result for a body fully submerged in a fluid, it can be shown to hold good
for partly submerged bodiesor abody in morethan onefluid also.
(1) Upthrust is independent of all factors of the body such as its
mass, size, density etc. except thevolumeof thebody insidethefluid.
(2) Upthrust depends upon thenatureof displaced fluid. Thisiswhy
upthrust on a fully submerged body is more in sea water than in fresh
water becauseitsdensity ismorethan fresh water.
(3) Apparent weight of the body of density ( ) when immersed in
aliquid of density ) (o .
Apparent weight = Actual weight Upthrust
up
F W =
g V g V g V ) ( o o = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o
1 g V

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o
1 W W
APP

(4) If a body of volumeV isimmersed in aliquid of density o then
itsweight reduces.
1
W = Weight of the body in air,
2
W = Weight of the body in
water
Then apparent (lossof weight) weight g V W W o =
2 1


g
W W
V
o
2 1

=
(5) Relativedensity of abody
(R.D.)=
of water density
of body density

of water me equal volu of Weight
of body Weight
= =
st Water thru
of body Weight

water in of weight Loss
of body Weight
=
=
water in weight air in Weight
air in of body Weight
=
2 1
1
W W
W

(6) If thelossof weight of abody in water is'a ' whilein liquid is'b '

water in body on Upthrust
liquid in body on Upthrust
=
W
L
o
o

water in of weight Loss
liquid in of weight Loss
=
water air
liquid air
W W
W W
b
a

= =
Floatation
(1) T r an sl at or y eq u il i b r i u m : When abody of density and volume
V isimmersed in aliquid of density o , theforcesacting on thebody are
Weight of body , g V mg W = = acting vertically downwards
through centreof gravity of thebody.
Upthrust force = g Vo acting vertically upwardsthrough thecentre
of gravity of thedisplaced liquid i .e., centreof buoyancy.

If densityof bodyisgreater than that of liquid o >





Weight will bemorethan upthrust so thebodywill sink
If density of body is equal to that of liquid o =





Weight will be equal to upthrust so the body will float fully submerged in
neutral equilibrium with its top surface in it just at thetop of liquid
If density of bodyislesser than that of liquid o <





Weight will be less than upthrust so the body will, move upwards and in
equilibrium will float and partially immersed in the liquid Such that,
g V W
in
o = g V g V
in
o =
o
in
V V = Where
in
V is the volume of body in the liquid
(i) A body will float in liquid only and only if o s
(ii) In caseof floating asweight of body =upthrust
So
App
W =Actual weight upthrust =0
(iii) In caseof floating g V g V
in
o =
So the equilibrium of floating bodies is unaffected by variations in g
though both thrust and weight depend on g.
(2) Rot at or y Eq u i li b r i um : When a floating body is slightly tilted
from equilibrium position, thecentreof buoyancy B shifts. Thevertical line
passing through the new centre of buoyancy B' and initial vertical linemeet
at apoint M called meta- centre. If themeta-centreM isabovethecentre of
gravity the couple due to forces at G (weight of body W ) and at B'
(upthrust) tends to bring the body back to its original position. So for
rotational equilibrium of floating body the meta-centre must always be
higher than thecentreof gravity of thebody.











However, if meta-centregoes below CG, thecoupledue to forces at G
and B' tendstotopplethefloatingbody.
(A) (B)
(C)
G
B
G
B
B'
M
W
T h
M
B
G
T h
B'
W
Fi g. 11.6

Fluid Mechanics 5 19
That is why awooden log cannot bemade to float vertical in water
or a boat is likely to capsize if the sitting passengers stand on it. In these
situations CG becomes higher than M G and so the body will topple if
slightly tilted.
(3) Ap p l icat ion of f l oat at ion
(i) When abody floatsthen theweight of body =Upthrust
g V g V
in
o = V V
in
|
.
|

\
|
=
o

V V V V
in
|
.
|

\
|
= =
o

1
out

i .e., Fraction of volumeoutsidetheliquid
(

= =
o

1
V
out
out
V
f
(ii) For floatation o
in
V V = o
V
V
in
= o
in
f =
If two different bodies A and B are floating in the sameliquid then
B in
A in
B
A
f
f
) (
) (
=

(iii) If the samebody ismadeto float in different liquidsof densities
A
o and
B
o respectively.
B B in A A in
V V V o o ) ( ) ( = =
A in
B in
B
A
V
V
) (
) (
=
o
o

(iv) If aplatform of massM and cross-section A isfloating in aliquid of
density o with itsheight h insidetheliquid
g hA Mg o = (i)
Now if a body of massm is placed on it and theplatform sinksby y
then
g A h y g m M o ) ( ) ( + = + (ii)
Subtracting equation (i) from (ii),
g y A mg o = , i .e., y W (iii)
So wecan determinetheweight of abody by placing it on afloating
platform and noting thedepression of theplatform in theliquid by it.
Streamline, Laminar and Turbulent Flow
(1) St r eam l i ne fl ow : Stream line flow of a liquid is that flow in
which each element of the liquid passing through a point travels along the
same path and with the same velocity as the preceding element passes
through that point.







A streamline may be defined as the path, straight or curved, the
tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the flow of liquid at
that point.
The two streamlines cannot cross each other and the greater is the
crowding of streamlines at a place, the greater is the velocity of liquid
particlesat that place.
Path ABC is streamline asshown in the figureand
1
v ,
2
v and
3
v
arethevelocitiesof theliquid particlesat A , B and C point respectively.
(2) Lam i nar fl ow : If a liquid is flowing over a horizontal surface
with a steady flow and moves in the form of layers of different velocities
which do not mix with each other, then the flow of liquid is called laminar
flow.
In this flow, thevelocity of liquid flow isalwayslessthan thecritical
velocity of theliquid. Thelaminar flow isgenerally used synonymously with
streamlined flow.
(3) T u r bu l en t f l ow : When a liquid moves with a velocity greater
than its critical velocity, the motion of the particles of liquid becomes
disordered or irregular. Such aflow iscalled aturbulent flow.




In aturbulent flow, the path and the velocity of the particlesof the
liquid change continuously and haphazardly with time from point to point.
In a turbulent flow, most of the external energy maintaining the flow is
spent in producing eddies in the liquid and only a small fraction of energy
is available for forward flow. For example, eddies are seen by the sides of
thepillarsof ariver bridge.
Cri tical Velocity and Reynold' s Number
Thecritical velocity isthat velocity of liquid flow upto which itsflow
isstreamlined and abovewhich itsflow becomesturbulent.
Reynold's number isa purenumber which determinesthenature of
flow of liquid through apipe.
It is defined as the ratio of the inertial force per unit area to the
viscousforceper unit areafor aflowing fluid.
area unit per force Viscous
area unit per force Inertial
=
R
N
If a liquid of density is flowing through a tube of radius r and
cross section A then mass of liquid flowing through the tube per second
=
dt
dm
volumeflowing per second density = v A
Inertial forceper unit area=
A
dt dm v
A
dt dp ) / ( /
= =
A
Av v
=

2
v
Viscousforceper unit area
r
v
A F
q
= /
So by thedefinition of Reynoldsnumber
area unit per force Viscous
area unit per force Inertial
=
R
N
q

q
r v
r v
v
= =
/
2

If thevalueof Reynold'snumber
A
B
C v
1

v
2


v
3


Fi g. 11.7
Pillar
Fi g. 11.8

5 2 0 Fluid Mechanics
(i) Lies between 0 to 2000, the flow of liquid is streamline or
laminar.
(ii) Lies between 2000 to 3000, the flow of liquid is unstable and
changing from streamlineto turbulent flow.
(iii) Above3000, theflow of liquid isdefinitely turbulent.
Equati on of Continuity
The equation of continuity is derived from the principle of
conservation of mass.





A non-viscousliquid in streamlineflow passesthrough atube AB of
varying cross section. Let the cross sectional area of the pipe at points A
and B be
1
a and
2
a respectively. Let theliquid enter with normal velocity
1
v at A and leave with velocity
2
v at B. Let
1
and
2
bethedensities
of theliquid at point A and B respectively.
Mass of the liquid entering per second at A = Mass of the liquid
leaving per second at B
2 2 2 1 1 1
v a v a = and
2 2 1 1
v a v a =
[If theliquid isincompressible
1 2
= ]
or = av constant or
v
a
1






Thisexpression iscalled theequation of continuity for thesteady flow of
an incompressibleand non-viscousliquid.
(1) The velocity of flow is independent of the liquid (assuming the
liquid to benon-viscous)
(2) The velocity of flow will increase if cross-section decreases and
vice-versa. That iswhy :
(a) In hilly region, where the river is narrow and shallow (i .e., small
cross-section) the water current will be faster, while in plains where the
river is wide and deep (i .e., large cross-section) the current will be slower,
and so deep water will appear to bestill.




(b) When water falls from a tap, the velocity of falling water under
theaction of gravity will increasewith distancefrom thetap (i .e,
1 2
v v > ).
So in accordance with continuity equation the cross section of the water
stream will decrease (i .e., ),
1 2
A A < i .e., the falling stream of water
becomesnarrower.
Energy of a Flowi ng Fluid
A flowing fluid in motion possesses the following three types of
energy
Pr essur e Ener gy Pot ent i al en er gy Ki n et i c en er gy
It is the energy
possessed by aliquid
by virtue of its
pressure. It is the
measure of work
done in pushing the
liquid against
pressure without
imparting any
velocity to it.
It is the energy
possessed by liquid by
virtue of its height or
position above the
surface of earth or
any reference level
taken aszero level.
It is the energy
possessed by aliquid
by virtue of its
motion or velocity.
Pressure energy of
theliquid PV
Potential energy of
theliquid m gh
Kinetic energy of the
liquid
2
2
1
mv
Pressure energy per
unit mass of the
liquid

P

Potential energy per
unit mass of the
liquid gh
Kinetic energy per
unit mass of the
liquid
2
2
1
v
Pressure energy per
unit volume of the
liquid P
Potential energy per
unit volume of the
liquid gh
Kinetic energy per
unit volume of the
liquid
2
2
1
v

Bernoulli' s Theorem
According to this theorem the total energy (pressure energy,
potential energy and kinetic energy) per unit volume or mass of an
incompressibleand non-viscousfluid in steady flow through apipe remains
constant throughout the flow, provided there is no source or sink of the
fluid along thelength of thepipe.





Mathematically for unit volumeof liquid flowing through apipe.
= + +
2
2
1
v gh P constant
To proveit, consider aliquid flowing steadily through atubeof non-
uniform area of cross-section as shown in fig. If
1
P and
2
P are the
pressures at the two ends of the tube respectively, work done in pushing
the volume V of incompressible fluid from point Bto C through the tube
will be
V P P V P V P W ) (
2 1 2 1
= = (i)
Thiswork isused by thefluid in two ways.
(a) In changing the potential energy of mass m (in the volume V )
from m gh
1
to m gh
2
,
i .e., ) (
1 2
h h mg U = A (ii)
v
1
A
B
a
2

v
2

a
1
Fi g. 11.9
v
a
Fi g . 11.10
v
1
v
2
A
1
A
2
Fi g. 11.11
A
1
h
1
P
2

v
2

P
1
B
C

A
2
h
2

v
1
Fi g . 11.12

Fluid Mechanics 5 2 1
(b) In changing thekinetic energy from
2
1
2
1
mv to
2
2
2
1
mv ,
i .e., ) (
2
1
2
1
2
2
v v m K = A (iii)
Now as the fluid is non-viscous, by conservation of mechanical
energy
K U W A + A =
i .e., ) (
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
2
2 1 2 2 1
v v m h h mg V P P + =
or ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
2 1 2 2 1
v v h h g P P + = [As V m / = ]
or
2
2 2 2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
v gh P v gh P + + = + +
or = + +
2
2
1
v gh P constant
This equation is the so called Bernoulli's equation and represents
conservation of mechanical energy in caseof moving fluids.
(i) Bernoulli's theorem for unit mass of liquid flowing through a
pipecan also bewritten as:
= + +
2
2
1
v gh
P

constant
(ii) Dividing aboveequation by g weget
g
v
h
g
P
2
2
+ +

=constant
Here
g
P

is called pressure head, h is called gravitational head and

g
v
2
2
is called velocity head. From this equation Bernoulli's theorem can be
stated as.
In stream line flow of an ideal liquid, the sum of pressure head,
gravitational head and velocity head of every cross section of the liquid is
constant.
Applications of Bernoulli' s Theorem
(i) A t t r act i on bet w een t w o closel y p ar all el m ovi ng b oat s ( or b u ses)





When two boats or buses move side by side in the same direction,
thewater (or air) in theregion between them movesfaster than that on the
remote sides. Consequently in accordance with Ber n ou l l i ' s p r i nci pl e the
pressure between them is reduced and hence due to pressure difference
they arepulled towardseach other creating theso called attraction.
(ii) W or ki ng of an aer opl ane






This is also based on Bernoulli's principle. The wings of the
aeroplane are of the shape as shown in fig. Due to this specific shape of
wings when the aeroplane runs, air passes at higher speed over it as
compared to itslower surface. Thisdifferenceof air speedsaboveand below
the wings, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle, creates a pressure
difference, due to which an upward force called 'dynamic lift' (= pressure
difference area of wing) acts on the plane. If this force becomes greater
than theweight of theplane, theplanewill riseup.
(iii) A ct i on of at om i ser




The action of carburetor, paint-gun, scent-spray or insect-sprayer is
based on Bernoulli's principle. In all these, by meansof motion of apiston P
in acylinder C, high speed air ispassed over atube T dipped in liquid L to
be sprayed. High speed air createslow pressureover thetubedueto which
liquid (paint, scent, insecticideor petrol) rises in it and is then blown off in
very small dropletswith expelled air.
(iv) Bl ow i n g of f r oof s by w in d st or m s






During a tornado or hurricane, when a high speed wind blows over
a straw or tin roof, it creates a low pressure (P) in accordance with
Bernoulli'sprinciple.
However, the pressure below the roof (i .e., inside the room) is still
atmospheric (
0
P = ). So dueto thisdifferenceof pressure, the roof islifted
up and isthen blown off by thewind.
(v) M agn u s eff ect : When aspinning ball is thrown, it deviatesfrom
its usual path in flight. This effect is called Magnus effect and plays as
important role in tennis, cricket and soccer, etc. as by applying appropriate
spin themoving ball can bemadeto curvein any desired direction.
If a ball is moving from left to right and also spinning about a
horizontal axis perpendicular to the direction of motion as shown in fig.
then relativeto theball, air will bemoving from right to left.
The resultant velocity of air above the ball will be ) ( e r v + while
below it ) ( e r v . So in accordance with Bernoulli's principle pressure
above the ball will beless than below it. Due to this difference of pressure
an upward force will act on the ball and hencethe ball will deviatefrom its
usual path
0
OA and will hit the ground at
1
A following the path
1
OA
i .e., if a ball is thrown with back-spin, the pitch will curve less sharply
prolonging theflight.



v large
B
1
B
2
P
0

P
0

P<P
0

P<P
0

Fi g. 11.13
v large, P small
v small, P large
Fi g. 11.14
P
C
T
L
Fi g. 11.15
Wind
v largeso
P <P
0

P
0

P
Fi g. 11.16
v
r e
v
v
Vertical plane
Curve path
Usual path
v r e
v +r e
A
0
A
1
O
Fi g. 11.17

5 2 2 Fluid Mechanics



Similarly if thespin isclockwisei .e., theball isthrown with top-spin,
theforce due to pressure difference will act in the direction of gravity and
so thepitch will curvemoresharply shortening theflight.





Furthermore, if the ball isspinning about avertical axis, thecurving
will besidewaysasshown in producing theso called out swing or in swing.
(vi) V en t u r i m et er : It is a device based on Bernoulli'stheorem used
for measuring therateof flow of liquid through pipes.
It consists of two identical coaxial tubes A and C connected by a
narrow co-axial tube B. Two vertical tubes D and E are mounted on the
tubesA and B to measurethepressureof the flowing liquid.





When theliquid flowsin thetubeABC, thevelocity of flow in part B
will belarger than in thetubeA or C. So thepressurein part B will beless
than that in tube A or C. By measuring the pressure difference between A
and B, therateof flow of theliquid in thetubecan becalculated.
Let
1
a and
2
a are area of cross section of tube A and B
respectively
=
2 1
, v v Velocity of flow of liquid through A and Brespectively
=
2 1
, P P Liquid pressureat A and Brespectively
g h P P =
2 1
(i)
[ =density of flowing liquid]
From Bernoulli'stheorem for horizontal flow of liquid
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
1
2
1
v P v P + = +
) (
2
1
2
1
2
2 2 1
v v P P = (ii)
From (i) and (ii) ) (
2
1
2
1
2
2
v v g h = =
(
(

2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
a
V
a
V

[As
2 2 1 1
v a v a V = = ]

2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1 2
2
a a
hg a a
V

= or
2
2
2
1
2 1
2
a a
hg
a a V

=
Velocity of Efflux
If a liquid isfilled in a vessel up to height H and a hole ismade at a
depth h below thefreesurfaceof theliquid asshown in fig. then taking the
level of hole as reference level (i .e., zero point of potential energy) and
applying Bernoulli's principle to the liquid just inside and outside the hole
(assuming theliquid to beat rest inside) weget

2
0 0
2
1
0 ) ( v P g h P + = + + or gh v 2 =





Which is same as the speed that an object would acquire in falling
from rest through a distance h and iscalled velocity of efflux or velocity of
flow.
This result wasfirst given by Torricelli, so thisis known as Torricelli's
theorem.
(i) Thevelocity of efflux isindependent of thenatureof liquid, quantity
of liquid in thevessel and theareaof orifice.
(ii) Greater is thedistance of the hole from thefree surface of liquid,
greater will bethevelocity of efflux [i .e., ] h v





(iii) Asthevertical velocity of liquid at theorificeis zero and it isat a
height ) ( h H from the base, the time taken by the liquid to reach the
base-level
g
h H
t
) ( 2
=
(iv) Now during time t liquid is moving horizontally with constant
velocity v, so it will hit the base level at a horizontal distance x (called
range) asshown in figure.






Such that ) ( 2 ] / ) ( 2 [ 2 h H h g h H gh vt x = = =
For maximum range 0 =
dh
dx


2
H
h =
i .e., rangex will bemaximum when
2
H
h = .
Horizontal plane
A
2

A
0

A
0

A
1
Fi g . 11.18
C
E
B
D
A
v
1
v
2

a
2
a
1
h
Fi g. 11.19
H
h
x
C
gh v 2 =

Fi g. 11.20
v
1
v
2

v
3

v
1
<v
2
<v
3

Fi g. 11.2 1
Fi g. 11.22
H
x
m ax
=H
h =H /2
H
x
C
h
H h
v
A B

Fluid Mechanics 5 2 3
Maximum range H
H
H
H
x =
(

=
2 2
2
max

(v)






If thelevel of free surface in a container is at height H from thebase
and therearetwo holesat depth h and y below thefreesurface, then

) ( 2 h H h x = and ) ( 2 y H y x = '
Now if x x ' = , i .e., ) ( ) ( y H y h H h =
i .e., 0 ) (
2
= + h H h Hy y
or )] 2 ( [
2
1
h H H y = ,
i .e., h y = or ) ( h H
i .e., the range will be same if the orifice is at a depth h or ) ( h H
below the free surface. Now as the distance ) ( h H from top means
h h H H = ) ( from the bottom, so the rangeissamefor liquid coming
out of holesat samedistancebelow thetop and abovethebottom.
(vi)





If
0
A isthearea of orificeat a depth y below thefree surface and A
is that of container, the volume of liquid coming out of the orifice per
second will be gy A vA dt dV 2 ) / (
0 0
= = [As
gy v 2 = ]
Dueto this, the level of liquid in thecontainer will decreaseand so if
thelevel of liquid in thecontainer abovetheholechangesfrom y to dy y
in timet to dt t + then dy A dV =
So substituting thisvalueof dV in theaboveequation

gy A
dt
dy
A 2
0
=
i .e., dy y
g
A
A
dt
} }

=
2 / 1
0 2
1

So thetimetaken for thelevel to fall from H t o H'
] [
2
2 0
2 / 1
0
H H
g A
A
dy y
g
A
A
t
H
H
' =
1
=
}
'

If theholeisat thebottom of thetank, timet to makethetank empty
:
g
H
A
A
t
2
0
= [As here 0 = ' H ]
Vi scosi ty and Newton's law of Viscous Force.
In case of steady flow of a fluid when alayer of fluid slipsor tends
to slip on adjacent layersin contact, thetwo layer exert tangential forceon
each other which tries to destroy the relative motion between them. The
property of afluid dueto which it opposes the relative motion between its
different layers is called viscosity (or fluid friction or internal friction) and
the force between the layers opposing the relative motion is called viscous
force.





Consider the two layersCD and M N of theliquid at distances x and
x + dx from the fixed surface AB, having the velocities v and v + d v
respectively. Then
dx
dv
denotestherateof change of velocity with distance
and isknown asvelocity gradient.







According to Newton'shypothesis, thetangential forceF acting on a
plane parallel layer is proportional to the area of the plane A and the
velocity gradient
dx
dv
in adirection normal to thelayer, i .e.,
A F and
dx
dv
F

dx
dv
A F
or
dx
dv
A F q =
Where q is a constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Negative
sign is employed because viscous force acts in a direction opposite to the
flow of liquid.
If 1 , 1 = =
dx
dv
A then q =F.
Hencethecoefficient of viscosity isdefined astheviscousforce
acting per unit areabetween two layersmoving with unit velocity gradient.
(1) Units: dyne-s- cm
2
or Poise(C.G.S. system); Newton-s-
m
2
or Poiseuilleor decapoise(S.I. system)
1Poiseuille=1decapoise=10 Poise
(2) Dimension : [M L
1
T
1
]
(3) Viscosity of liquid ismuch greater (about 100 timesmore) than
that of gasesi.e.
G L
q q >
Exam pl e : Viscosity of water =0.01Poise.
Whileof air =200 Poise
h
y
A
0

A
Fi g. 11.2 4
H
h
h
y
x =x'
A B
Fi g. 11.2 3
A
F
v
dx

Fi g. 11.2 5
M
v + dv
N
D
v
x +dx
Rest
A B
C
x
Fi g. 11.26

5 2 4 Fluid Mechanics
(4) With increasein pressure, the viscosity of liquids(except water)
increases while that of gases is practically independent of pressure. The
viscosity of water decreaseswith increasein pressure.
(5) Difference between viscosity and solid friction : Viscosity differs
from the solid friction in the respect that the viscousforce acting between
two layers of the liquid depends upon the area of the layers, the relative
velocity of two layers and distance between two layers, but the friction
between two solid surfaces is independent of thearea of surfacesin contact
and therelativevelocity between them.
(6) From kinetic theory point of view viscosity represents transport
of momentum, while diffusion and conduction represents transport of mass
and energy respectively.
(7) The viscosity of thick liquids like honey, glycerin, coaltar et c. is
morethan that of thin liquidslikewater.
(8) Thecause of viscosity in liquidsiscohesiveforces among molecules
whereasin gases, it isduetodiffusion.
(9) The viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature,
becauseon increasing temperaturetherateof diffusion increases.
(10) The viscosity of liquid decreases with increase of temperature,
because the cohesive force between the liquid molecules decreases with
increaseof temperature
Relation between coefficient of viscosity and temperature; Andrade
formulaq =
3 / 1
/

T C
e A

Where T= Absolute temperature of liquid, = density of liquid, A
and C areconstants.
Stoke's Law and Terminal Velocity
When a body moves through a fluid, the fluid in contact with the
body isdragged with it. This establishesrelativemotion in fluid layersnear
the body, due to which viscous force starts operating. The fluid exerts
viscous force on the body to oppose its motion. The magnitude of the
viscousforce depends on the shape and sizeof the body, its speed and the
viscosity of the fluid. Stokes established that if a sphere of radius r moves
with velocity v through afluid of viscosity q, theviscousforceopposing the
motion of thesphereis
F =6tqr v
Thislaw iscalled Stokeslaw.
If aspherical body of radiusr isdropped in aviscousfluid, it isfirst
accelerated and then it's acceleration becomeszero and it attainsa constant
velocity called terminal velocity.





Forceon thebody
(i) Weight of thebody (W ) =m g
=(vol um e den si t y) g g r t
3
3
4
=
(ii) Upward thrust (T) =weight of thefluid displaced
=(vol um e den si t y) of thefluid g = g r o t
3
3
4

(iii) Viscousforce(F) = rv tq 6
When the body attains terminal velocity the net force acting on the
body iszero. W T F =0 or F=W T
g r g r rv o t t tq
3 3
3
4
3
4
6 = g r ) (
3
4
3
o t =
Terminal velocity
q
o g r
v
) (
9
2
2

=
(i) Terminal velocity depend on theradius of the sphere so if radius
ismaden - fold, terminal velocity will becomen
2
times.
(ii) Greater thedensity of solid greater will betheterminal velocity
(iii) Greater the density and viscosity of the fluid lesser will be the
terminal velocity.
(iv) If > o then terminal velocity will be positive and hence the
spherical body will attain constant velocity in downward direction.
(v) If <o then terminal velocity will be negative and hence the
spherical body will attain constant velocity in upward direction. Example :
Air bubblein aliquid and cloudsin sky.
(vi) Terminal velocity graph :






Poiseui lles Formula
Poiseuillestudied thestream-lineflow of liquid in capillary tubes. He
found that if apressuredifference(P) ismaintained across thetwo ends of
a capillary tubeof length 'l ' and radiusr , then the volumeof liquid coming
out of thetubeper second is





(i) Directly proportional to thepressuredifference(P).
(ii) Directly proportional to the fourth power of radius (r) of the
capillarytube
(iii) Inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity (q) of the
liquid.
(iv) Inversely proportional to thelength (l ) of thecapillary tube.
i .e.
l
r P
V
q
4
or
l
r KP
V
q
4
=

l
r P
V
q
t
8
4
=
[Where
8
t
= K istheconstant of proportionality]
Thisisknown asPoiseuille's equation.
Thisequation also can bewritten as,
R
P
V = where
4
8
r
l
R
t
q
=
F
T
W
r
Fi g. 11.2 7
V
T
V

Timeor distance(R)

Fi g. 11.2 8
l
r
Fi g. 11.2 9

Fluid Mechanics 5 2 5
R iscalled asliquid resistance.
(1) Ser i es com bi n at i on of t ub es



(i) When two tubesof length l
1
, l
2
and radii r
1
r
2
areconnected in
seriesacrossapressuredifferenceP,
Then P =P
1
+P
2
(i)
WhereP
1
and P
2
arethepressuredifferenceacrossthefirst and
second tuberespectively
(ii) Thevolumeof liquid flowing through both thetubesi .e. rateof
flow of liquid issame.
Therefore
2 1
V V V = =
i .e.,
2
4
2 2
1
4
1 1
8 8 l
r P
l
r P
V
q
t
q
t
= = (ii)
Substituting thevalueof P
1
and P
2
from equation (ii) to equation (i)
weget
2 1
P P P + =
(
(

+ =
4
2
2
4
1
1
8 8
r
l
r
l
V
t
q
t
q


(
(

+
=
4
2
2
4
1
1
8 8
r
l
r
l
P
V
t
q
t
q eff
R
P
R R
P
=
+
=
2 1

WhereR
1
and R
2
aretheliquid resistancein tubes
(iii) Effectiveliquid resistancein seriescombination
2 1
R R R
eff
+ =
(2) Par al l el com b i nat i on of t u bes





(i) P =P
1
=P
2

(ii) V =V
1
+V
2

2
4
2
1
4
1
8 8 l
r P
l
r P
q
t
q
t
+ =
(
(

+ =
2
4
2
1
4
1
8 8 l
r
l
r
P
q
t
q
t


eff
R
P
R R
P V =
(

+ =
2 1
1 1

(iii) Effectiveliquid resistancein parallel combination
2 1
1 1 1
R R R
eff
+ = or
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R
eff
+
=







When a liquid is in equilibrium, the force acting on its surface is
perpendicular everywhere.
In aliquid, thepressureissameat thesamehorizontal level.
Pressureat any point issamein all directions.
Thepressureisperpendicular to thesurfaceof thefluid.
Thepressureat any point in theliquid dependson depth (h ) below
thesurface, density of liquid and acceleration dueto gravity.
It is independent of the shape of the containing vessel, or total mass of
theliquid.
Forceisavector quantity but pressureisatensor quantity
Pressure and density play the same role in case of fluids as force
and massplay in caseof solids.
Bar and millibar are commonly used units for pressure in
meteorology.
Sudden fall in atmospheric pressurepredictspossibility of astorm.
Water barometer was constructed in 17th century by Von Guericke
and fixed on the outside wall of his house. With the help of this
barometer Von Guericke made the first recorded scientific weather
forecast. He correctly predicted the severe storm after noting a sudden
fall in theheight of thewater column.
Thespecific gravity isalso known asrelativedensity. Thus, S.G. of a
substance
) 4 (at of water density
substance the of density
C
=
If thespecific gravity of thematerial of abody isx , then itsdensity
is
(I) x g cm
3
in C.G.S.
(Ii) x 10
3
kg m
3
in SI.
The number of moles in a sample of any substance containing N
moleculesisgiven by
=
A
N
N

The force between atoms and molecules is electrical in nature.
However, it doesnot obey inversesquarelaw.
If two liquids of masses m
1
, m
2
and densities
1
,
2
are mixed
together, then thedensity of themixtureisgiven by
2
2
1
1
2 1

m m
m m
+
+
=

If two liquids of same mass but different densities are mixed
together, then the density of the mixture is harmonic mean of the
densities. That is
2 1
2 1
2

+
= or (

+ =
2 1
1 1
2
1 1


It two drops of same volume but different densities are mixed
together, then the density of the mixture is arithmetic mean of the
l
1
l
2

Fi g. 11.31
l
1
l
2

Fi g. 11.3 0

5 2 6 Fluid Mechanics
densities. That is
2
2 1

+
=
The density of the liquid changes with pressure as follows :
(

A
+ =
B
p
1
0
where = Ap change in pressure and B is the bulk
modulus.
The density of a liquid of bulk modules B at depth h is given
(

+ =
B
g h
d

1
0

Where istheaveragedensity of theliquid.
The hydrometer can be used to measure density of the liquid or
fluid.
If a vessel containsliquid upto a height H and it has a hole in the
side at a height h , then the velocity of efflux is ) ( 2 h H g v = . The
time taken by the liquid to reach the ground level is g h t / 2 = .
Horizontal range of the liquid
2 / 1
)] ( [ 2 h H h R = . The range is same
for theholeat aheight h abovethe bottom or at thedepth h below the
surfaceof theliquid.
Therangeismaximum for 2 / H h = . It isgiven by :
H
H
H
H
R =
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 / 1
max
2 2
2
The cross-section of the water stream from a tap decreases as it
goesdown in accordancewith theequation of continuity.
Theupthrust on body immersed in aliquid doesnot depend on the
mass, density or shapeof thebody. It only dependson thevolumeof the
body.
The weight of the plastic bag full of air is same as that of the
empty bag because the upthrust is equal to the weight of the air
enclosed.
Upthrust dependson thedensity of thefluid, not thedensity of the
body.
If two bodies have equal upthrust in a liquid, both have the same
volume.
When air blowsover aroof, theforceon theroof isupwards.
If one floats ones back on the surface of water, the apparent
weight iszero.
If a body just floats in liquid (density of the body is equal to the
density of liquid) then thebody sinksif it ispushed downwards.
The line joining the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy is
called central line.
The point where the vertical line through centre of huoyancy
intersectsthecentral lineiscalled metacentre.
The floating body is in stable equilibrium where the metacentre is
above the centre of gravity. (Centre of gravity is below the centre of
buoyancy)
The floating body is in unstable equilibrium when the metancetre
lies below the centre of gravity. (Centre of gravity is abovethecentreof
buoyancy).
The floating body is in the neutral equilibrium when centre of
gravity coincides with the metacentre. (Centre of gravity coincides with
thecentreof buoyancy).
The wooden rod cannot float vertically in a pond of water because
centreof gravity liesabovethemetacentre.
Air bubble in water always goes up. It isbecausedensity of air ()
is less than the density of water (o). So the terminal velocity for air
bubble is negative, which impliesthat theair bubble will go up. Positive
terminal velocity meansthebody will fall down.
Thefaster theair, thelower thepressure.
Wings of an aeroplane are shaped to make air travel further and
faster over their top surfaces.
The lift force on awing or aerofoil isproportional to thesquareof
thespeed of flow.
Viscous force between thelayersof aliquid is analogous to friction
between two solid surfaces.
With increase in temperature, the coefficient of viscosity of liquids
decreases but that of gases increases. The reason isthat as temperature
rises, the atoms of theliquid become more mobile, whereasin case of a
gas, the collision frequency of atoms increases as their motion becomes
morerandom.
We cannot sip a drink with a straw on the moon because there is
no atmosphereon themoon.