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Appendix A to Interim Report No. 5:
The Load Flow Problem and Technical Aspects of Power Electronics
WV Electric Industry Restructuring Group

5A.0 The Load Flow Problem and Technical Aspects of Power Electronics
A given set of loads can be supplied by a given set of generators in a number of ways. A load flow
analysis is used for planning and to determine the transmission constraints in the existing networks. A
mathematical/computer model of the interconnected network is used to describe the relationship
between powers and the voltages. Power flows in all the transmission lines are calculated by solving
the equations numerically, subject to some power and voltage constraints. The load flow solution
gives information about the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and real and
reactive power flows in each line for given generation, load and transmission network data.
The maximum amount of power that can be transmitted through a transmission line depends on
voltages at both ends of the line and the line parameters. The four parameters of a transmission line
are resistance, inductance, capacitance, and conductance. The leakage current over the insulators
of the overhead line and through the insulation of a cable is determined by the conductance. Since
the leakage current is very small, the conductance parameter of the transmission line is neglected.
Transmission lines at voltages greater than 230 kV have more than one conductor per phase. Table
5.1 shows typical parameters of transmission lines from 230 kV to 1100 kV.
Table 5.1 Typical overhead transmission line parameters.
Nominal
Voltage
230 kV 345 kV 500 kV 765 kV 1100 kV
R (W/km) 0.050 0.037 0.028 0.012 0.005
x
L
= wL
(W/km)
0.488 0.367 0.325 0.329 0.292
bc = wC
(mS/km)
3.371 4.518 5.200 4.978 5.544
Zc (m) 380 285 250 257 230
SIL(MW) 140 420 1000 2280 5260

The line losses decease at higher voltages due to decrease in resistance of the line. The surge
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impedance(Z
c
) of the line varies from 380 ohms to 230 ohms. Surge impedance loading(SIL) of the
lines varies from 140 MW to 5260 MW. The power transfer capability of a transmission line is usually
expressed in terms of SIL. For example, a 200 miles line can be loaded to 1.25 SIL.
The power transfer capability of the transmission line can be increased by the use of power
electronics if the line has not been loaded to the thermal limit. Most of the EHV transmission lines in
the United States today are not loaded to their thermal limit. They are loaded to lower limits due to
voltage and stability considerations. Table 5.2 shows the typical surge impedance loading and the
thermal rating of the EHV lines.
Table 5.2 Surge impedance loading (SIL) and typical thermal rating for voltage levels 230 kV
to 1100 kV.

Voltage (kV) SIL (MW) Typical Thermal
Rating (MW)
230 150 400
345 400 1200
500 900 2600
765 2200 5400
1100 5200 24000
5A.1 Power Electronic Devices and Systems
Some examples of power electronics devices and systems which can increase the efficiency of use of
existing transmission lines are reviewed below.
5A.1.1 Static Var Compensator
Figure 5.5 shows a single line diagram of a Static Var Compensator. The power through a simple
transmission line model depends on voltage magnitude, transmission line reactance, and phase angle
difference between the sending end and the receiving end voltages. Power electronic switching
devices such as thyristors and gate turn-off thyristors (GTO) can be used to control voltage, line
reactance, and phase angle. A Static Var Compensator (SVC) can increase power transmission
significantly by maintaining constant voltage during steady state and dynamic operating conditions. A
SVC consists of switchable capacitors and thyristor controlled reactors. A capacitor supplies reactive
power and raises the voltage of the transmission line. An inductor absorbs reactive power and lowers
the voltage of the transmission line. A number of utilities have applied SVC to enhance their
transmission systems. A SVC can modulate reactive power to improve the dynamic and transient
stability of power system.
(Figure 5.5 not available at this time)
Figure 5.5: A Single-line Diagram of a Static Var Compensator
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5A.1.2 Series Controlled Capacitor
Figure 5.6 shows a single line diagram of a series controlled capacitor. Power transfer through a
transmission line can be increased by decreasing reactance of the line. The reactance of the line can
be decreased by adding capacitors in series with the line. Series compensation has mostly been used
in the Western U.S. power system to increase transmission capacity in long transmission lines. The
addition of series capacitors may cause subsynchronous resonance problems and damage the shaft
of a turbine generator. However, a thyristor-based controller has been developed to damp the
subsynchronous oscillations.
General Electric demonstrated the operation of a three-phase thyristor controlled series capacitor in
a 500 kV line at Slatt Substation of Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) system. It consists of six
1.33 ohm modules connected in series. Each module consists of a series capacitor group in parallel
with a series connected reactor and a thyristor unit. This installation has a continuous current rating
of 2900 amperes and a short-term overload rating of 4350 amperes. The use of thyristor controlled
series capacitor will allow control over the level of series compensation and can improve the damping
of the power system.
(Figure 5.6 not available at this time)
Figure 5.6 : Single Line Diagram of a Series Controlled Capacitor

5A.1.3 Static Condenser
Figure 5.7 shows a one-line diagram of a Static Condenser or STATCON. An inverter generates three-
phase voltages in phase with the ac system voltages. The current lags if the inverter voltage is less
than the system voltage and leads if the inverter voltage is greater than the system voltage. The
reactive power delivered by STATCON is a function of voltage and current. This device can deliver
reactive power under reduced voltage condition and has a better performance than a Static Var
Compensator. A 100 MVA SATCON has been installed at Sullivan substation in TVA power system to
demonstrate its operation.
(Figure 5.7 not available at this time)
Figure 5.7: One-line Diagram of Static condenser (STATCON)

5A.1.4 Unified Power Flow Controller
Figure 5.8 shows a one-line diagram of a unified power flow controller. This controller allows the
control of real and reactive power through the transmission line. The unified power flow controller
allows the injection of a variable voltage magnitude and phase angle in series with the phase voltage.
American Electric Power is planning to install a 320 MVA unified power flow controller at its Inez
Station in eastern Kentucky to fully utilize the high capacity of this new 138 kV line. In the first
phase of the project a 160 MVA shunt voltage source inverter is installed at the Inez substation.
This controller will provide reactive power and dynamic voltage control in the Inez area. Other power
electronics devices are Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator and Thyristor Controlled Dynamic
Brake. The thyristor controlled dynamic brake can damp subsynchronous oscillations if the power
transfer capability of the transmission network is limited due to concern of subsynchronous
resonance. Mechanically switched devices are less expensive and slower in response compared to
electronically switched devices. A combination of mechanical and electronic devices may provide a
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least cost solution to give the desired steady state and dynamic response for the transmission
system.
(Figure 5.8 not available at this time)
Figure 5.8: One-line Diagram of a Unified Power Flow Controller

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