Lecture 4- Chapter One: Science and Pseudoscience in Psychology

Popular Psychology Industry ~ sprawling network of every day sources of information about human
behaviour.
- misinformation explosion due to scant quality control over what this industry produces

Common and Uncommon Sense
i. Although common sense can be enormously useful for some purposes, its sometimes completely wrong
1. Common sense adage - Theres safety in numberspsychological research actually shows that the
more people present at an emergency, the less likely it is that at least one of these people will help 2.
Common sense can lead us to believe two things that cant both be true simultaneously, yet in most cases
we never notice the contradictions until other people point them out to us
a. Look before you leap/ He who hesitates is lost
b. Birds of a feather flock together/ Opposites attract
c. Absence makes the heart grow fonder/ Out of sight, out of mind

Naive Realism ~ the belief that we see the world precisely as it is.
- we assume that seeing is believing and trust our intuitive senses about the world
Works well in ordinary life, but consider:
The earth seems flat
We seem to be standing still, yet the earth is moving around the sun 18.5 miles/sec
Geshalt psych the whole is more than the sum of its parts, specialize in optical illusions
i. We trust our common sense largely because were prone to nave realism - the belief that we see
the world precisely as it is (Ross & Ward, 1996)
ii. In daily life, naive realism often serves us well
1. If were driving down a one-lane road and see a tractor trailer barreling toward us at 85 miles
per hour, the odds are high that we should get out of the way
iii. Appearances can sometimes be deceiving
1. The earth seems flat
2. The sun seems to revolve around the earth
3. We seem to be standingor sittingentirely still
iv. Naive realism can trip us up when it comes to evaluating ourselves and others
1. Our common sense tells us that our memories accurately capture virtually everything weve
seen, although scientific research indicates otherwise (Loftus, 1997)
2. Our common sense also assures us that people who dont share our political views are biased,
but that were objective; yet psychological research demonstrates that were all susceptible to evaluating
political issues in a biased fashion (Pronin, Gilovich, & Ross, 2004)
v. We must be careful not to be fooled by our tendencies toward naive realism, because they can
lead us to draw erroneous conclusions about human nature
b. When Our Common Sense Is Right
i. Our intuition comes in handy in many situations and sometimes guides us to the truth
(Gladwell, 2004; Myers, 2002)
1. Our snap (5-second) judgments about whether someone weve just watched on a videotape is
trustworthy or untrustworthy tend to be right more often than would be expected by chance (Fowler,
Lilienfeld, & Patrick, 2007).
ii. Common sense can also be a helpful guide for generating hypotheses that scientists can later test
in rigorous investigations (Redding, 1998)
iii. Some everyday psychological notions are indeed correct
1. Most people believe that happy employees tend to be more productive on the job than unhappy
employees, and research indicates that theyre right (Kluger & Tikochinsky, 2001)
iv. To think like scientific psychologists, we must learn when to trust our common sense and when
not to
v. Doing so will help us to become more informed consumers of popular psychology and to make
better real-world decisions
c. Truth Is Often Stranger Than Fiction
i. Psychology is about far more than challenging our common sense and debunking false claims; it
includes investigations of
1. Patients whose corpus callosum (a large band of fibers connecting the brains left and right
hemispheres) has been surgically removed and who show many extremely unusual behaviours
2. Pigeons that have been taught to distinguish paintings by Monet from paintings by Picasso and
music by Bach from music by Stravinsky
3. People with extreme forms of anterograde amnesia, a severe memory disorder, who cant
consciously recall any new information theyve learned, and who may repeatedly (even over many years)
express catastrophic shock when told of the death of the same family member

Thought Field Therapy (TFT) ~ a treatment that claims to eleviate severe anxiety by tapping on body
areas that radiate important psychological energies

Psychology as a Science
psych had physics envy
Psychology as a Science
i. Whats Science Anyway?
1. Many think science is only the complicated stuff you learned in biology, chemistry, and physics
classes
2. Science isnt a body of knowledge
3. Science is an approach to evidence, designed to prevent us from fooling ourselves (Robert
Merton)


Communalism ~ a willingness to share our findings with others.
- called communalism because scientists are part of a community of scholars that work together

Disinterestedness ~ attempt to be objective when evaluating the evidence
Types of Bias
Logical positivts possible to discover truth about world through scientific method, hard facts vs social
constructionalist - there is always boas, within reality that we exist

Confirmation Bias ~ tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypothesis and neglect or distort evidence
that contradicts them
- you will only see what you are looking for
Disconfirmation Bias ~ tendency to seek out evidence inconsistent with a hypothesis we dont believe and
neglect evidence consistent with it
Scientists need to design studies that may disapprove ( or disconfirm) their theories
Ex; If I give a rat food pellets reward will make a lever that will give it the food, however other lever exist - if it
goes for lever with food, hypothesis approved, other lever disapproved

Belief Perseverance ~ tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even if evidence contradicts them
- students examine suicide notes, told feedback is bogus, believe it anyways
Gay people were mentally ill studies used gay people in mental institution . lesbians are aggressive used
lesbians in prison

What is a Scientific Theory and What Isnt?
- scientific theory ~ explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world, not just an educated guess-
thats a hypothesis
- hypothesis ~ testable prediction derived from a theory, a proposition
Null hypotheisi A causes B, A doesnt caus eB
Misconception 1: A theory explains one specific event.
Misconception 2: A theory is just an educated guess.

Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience - set of claims that seems scientific but isnt - lacks safeguards against confirmation bias
and belief perseverance
Examples: Astrology, out-of-body experiences, polygraph testing, recovered memories, multiple
personality disorder, and some forms of psychotherapy
Sometimes difficult to discern from bad science
Metaphysical claims are unfalsifiable
(e.g., God, the soul, or the afterlife: not necessarily wrong, but untestable; Popper)

~ set of claims that seems scientific but is not
- lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perseverance that characterize science
- must distinguish pseudoscience claims from metaphysical claims ~ assertions about the world that are
unfalsifiable (God, soul, after life)
The Prevalence of Pseudoscientific Beliefs
i. Pseudoscientific and other questionable beliefs are widespread
ii. That many Americans entertain the possibility of paranormal phenomena isnt worrisome; it is
worrisome that so many are convinced that such claims exist despite weak or nonexistent scientific evidence
iii. Its troubling that far more Americans seem interested in pseudoscience than in science


Seven Deadly Sins of Pseudoscience:
1. Overuse of ad hoc immunizing hypotheses ~ escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect
their theory from falsification
Sometimes loopholes are justified, but other times they are excuses for negative findings
e.g., when well-conducted tests provided evidence suggesting that speed-reading leads to lower comprehensions,
advocates of speed-reading programs suggested things, such as Maybe the subjects in these studies were really
nervous about being tested, so they did poorly on the comprehension tests
2. Lack of Self Correction
In science, incorrect claims tend to be weeded out eventually
In pseudosciences, incorrect claims never seem to go away, because their proponents cling to them
stubbornly despite contrary evidence


3. Exagerrated Claims
Not all extraordinary claims are false
Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence
Pseudosciences tend to promise remarkable or dramatic cures but rarely deliver the goods
Even well-established scientific findings are occasionally overturned by new evidence

4. Overreliance on anecdotes
Anecdotes are I know a person who assertions
The plural of anecdotes is not data
Pseudosciences tend to rely on anecdotal evidence
Anecdotes seem compelling, but dont constitute good scientific evidence because of severe limitations
a. Anecdotes dont tell us anything about cause and effect
b. Anecdotes dont tell us anything about how representative the cases are
c. Anecdotes are difficult to verify
5. Evasion of peer review information isnt verified
1. Peer review - mechanism whereby experts in a field carefully screen the work of their colleagues
2. This process isnt perfect, because reviewers arent immune from biases; however, it is the best
mechanism we have for weeding out research
3. Pseudosciences typically bypass peer review, instead relying on anecdotes or informal research
not published in scientific journals
4. Psychology has a hierarchy of journals and not all are equally rigorous

6. Absence of connectivity ~ extent to which a researchers findings build on previous findings
Connectivity - extent to which a researchers findings build on previous findings
2. Sciences tend to be cumulative, that is, new findings typically extend earlier ones
3. Most pseudosciences neglect previous research and purport to create new ideas


7. Psychobabble designed to impress gullible people who lack extensive psychological or neurological
training
Many pseudosciences attempt to lure customers by peppering advertisements with technical terms that
sound scientific, but are in fact devoid of meaning

Why Are We Drawn to Pseudoscience?
Rational vs Experimental Thinking
Rational Thinking ~ thinking that relies on careful reasoning and objective analysis
Experimental Thinking ~ thinking that depends on intuitive judgements and emotional reactions
- default mode of thinking, but we need both to function


Transcendental Temptation ~ desire to alleviate our anxiety by embracing the supernatural
Scientific Illiteracy many people are unable to differentiate between scientific and pseudoscientific
information
Cognitive Factors: Making Sense out of Nonsense brain has a natural need to create order out of disorder
Pareidolia ~ tendency to perceive meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli
Apophenia ~ tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena

Terror Management Theory:
~ theory proposing that out awareness of our death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror with which
we cope by adopting reassuring cultural worldviews (belief in paranormal)
i. Pareidolia: Ill See It When I Believe It
1. Pareidolia - the tendency to perceive meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli
a. Pictures in clouds
b. The man in the moon
ii. Apophenia: What a Coincidence!
1. Apophenia - the tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena
2. Coincidences are everywhere
3. Because of apophenia, we may attribute paranormal significance to coincidences that are probably
due to chance
4. Because we typically find coincidences to be far more interesting that noncoincidences, we tend to
neglect evidence that doesnt support our hypothesis
5. To counteract confirmation bias, we must seek out evidence that contradicts our ideas rather than
confirms them
iii. The Hot Hand: Reality or Illusion?
1. Are there hot hands or winning streaks?
2. Gilovich and colleagues looked at shooting records of professional basketball players
a. If the hot hand is real, once a player has made a few baskets in a row, he should be more likely
to make another shot
b. There was no evidence to support the hot hand hypothesis
3. The hot hand may be an illusion, but through belief perseverance effect, it is a remarkably
stubborn one
Logical Fallacies in Psychological Thinking
Emotional Reasoning Fallacy ~ error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim
effect heuristic
Bandwagon Fallacy ~ error of assuming that a claim is correct just because many people believe it
Either-Or Fallacy ~ error of framing a question as though we can answer it in only one of two extreme ways
Not Me Fallacy ~ error of believing were immune from thinking errors that afflict others
~ bias blind spot ~ lack of awareness of our biases, coupled with an awareness of others biases
Appeal to Authority Fallacy ~ error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
Genetic Fallacy ~ error of confusing the correctness of a belief with its origins
Argument from Antiquity Fallacy ~ error of assuming that a belief must be valid because its been around a long
time
Argument from Adverse Consequences Fallacy ~ error of confusing the validity of an idea with its potential
real world consequences
Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy ~ error of assuming that a claim must be true because no one has shown it to be
false
Naturalistic Fallacy ~ error of inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact
Hasty Generalization Fallacy ~ error of drawing a conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence
Circular Reasoning Fallacy ~ error of basing a claim on the same claim reworded in slightly different terms

Dangers of Pseudoscience
Randy - $ million dollar prize for people who can prove ghosts are real

Opportunity Cost ~ investment of time, energy, and effort in a questionable treatment that can lead people to
forfeit the chance to obtain an effective treatment
Animal Deaths/Extinctions killing animals to obtain a certain product for health remedies that are not proven
in any way to work
Direct Harm treatments can harm instead of help patients
- rebirthing incident
- Inability to Think Critically

Scientific Skepticism
~ approach of evaluating all claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them
- crucial to differentiate scientific skepticism from pathological skepticism ~ tendency to dismiss any claims that
contradict our beliefs
- key feature is an unwillingness to accept claims on the basis of authority alone
- Obergs Dictum ~ premise that we should keep our minds open, but not so open that we believe virtually
everything
- Astrology ~ pseudoscience that claims to predict peoples personalities and futures from the precise date and
time of their birth
- scientists found that astrological signs are unrelated to personality traits

Basic Principles of Critical Thinking
CarlPpper- something must be falsifiable in order to be confirmed?
Critical Thinking ~ set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion
- these are a set of skills for overcoming our own biases

Principle One: Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence
- proposed by Scottish philosopher David Hume
- the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more persuasive the evidence must be in order for us to
accept it

Principle Two: Falsifiability
- philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper
- falsifiable means capable of being disproved
- good scientific theories take risks, risky prediction ~ forecast that stands a good chance of being wrong

Principe Three: Occams Razor
- go for the simplest explanation for a set of data sometimes things are complex
- AKA principle of parsimony, AKA K.I.S.S, by Sir William of Occam
- if two explanations account equally well for a phenomenon, we should generally select the most
parsimonious one
- shave off needlessly complicated explanations for a simple answer
- ex. Crop circle prank

Principle Four: Replicability
- demand that a studys findings be duplicated, ideally by independent investigators
- ex. Researchers prove existence of ESP, can never be replicated

Principle Five: Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses
- most psychological findings lend themselves to multiple explanations. Whenever we evaluate these
psychological claims, we must ask ourselves whether weve excluded other plausible explanations for it
- look at bottom of wiki for sources that contradict article

Principle Six: Correlation Isnt Causation
- just because two variables are related doesnt mean they cause each other .
- Correlation-Causation Fallacy ~ error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another,
it must cause the other
- Third-Variable Problem ~ case in which a third variable causes the correlation between the other two
variables