Set-top boxes are often associated with these major categories:

(1) Broadcast TV Set-top Boxes - (a.k.a. Thin Boxes) - The more elementary level set-top
box with no return channel (back-end). They might however come with some memory,
interface ports and some processing power.
(2) Enhanced TV Set-top Boxes - (May be known as: Smart TV set-top box, Thick Boxes)
These have a return channel, usually through a phone line, and are the mainstay of today's
set-top boxes. These are capable of Video on Demand, Near Video on Demand, e-
commerce, Internet browsing, e-mail communications and chat. They are giving way to
the next category.
(3) Advanced Set-top Boxes - (a.k.a. Advanced digital Set-top boxes, Smart TV Set-top
box, Thick Boxes) - These are in many ways like a PC. These have good processors,
memory and optional large hard-drives. They're more often used with high-speed
connections. The Explorer 6000 & 8000 set-top boxes from Scientific Atlanta are in this
category. Advanced set-top boxes are more likely to be integrated with DVRs and high-
definition TV oriented functionality.
(4) All-in-one Set-top Boxes - (a.k.a. Integrated set top box, Super Box; maybe be known
as Advanced set top box) - A fully integrated set-top box. Features could include everything
from high-speed Internet access to digital video recording to games and e-mail capacity.
The opposite of this is when are two or more set top boxes (sidecars) are used in tandem by
the subscriber’s TV.
(5) Sidecar - This type of set-top box provides an additional transport stream of data from
the content provider, to compliment the original stream that’s being received by the
subscriber via their original set-top box. With Charter Communications’ important ITV
rollout, the BMC-8000 (Broadband Media Center) is a sidecar box that works in tandem
with the Motorola DCT-2000. A fully integrated unit would not require a Sidecar.
(6) Hybrid Digital Cable Box – A specialized and often more expensive Cable TV set-top
box with high end functions. Motorola Broad band’s DCP501 home theater system is an
example. It has a DVD player.

Set-top boxes (STB) act as a gateway between your television or PC or PC-TV and your
telephone, satellite or cable feed (incoming signal.) In terms of ITV, the STB receives
encoded and/or compressed digital signals from the signal source (satellite, TV
station, cable network, etc.) and decodes (and/or decompresses) those signals,
converting them into analog signals displayable on your television. The STB also
accepts commands from the user (often by use of a remote control {keypad} or keyboard)
and transmits these commands back to the network, often through a back channel (which
may be a separate phone line.)
Interactive television STBs can have many functions such as television receiver,
modem, game console, Web browser, a way of sending e-mail, Electronic Program Guide
(EPG), even CD ROM, DVD player, video-conferencing, cable telephony etc. Many STBs
are able to communicate in real

1
time with devices such as camcorders, DVDs, CD players and music keyboards.
Set-top boxes are usually computers that process digital information. These
typically have on-screen user interfaces that can be seen on the TV screen and
interacted with through the use of an Hand-held Interactive Keypad, which is little
more than an advanced remote control. (These are also known as Control Devices.)
STBs also have facilities for upgrading software such as browsers and Electronic
Program Guides (EPGs). Some have huge hard-drives and smart card slots to put
your smart card into for purchases and identifying yourself to your cable, satellite
TV provider.

To provide interactive services, the set-top box, from the standpoint of its hardware,
needs four important components: a network, an interface, a buffer, as well as
decoder/synchronization Hardware.
(1) The network interface: Allows the user to receive data from the server and send
data back to the server, in a manner that it can be understood by the server.
(2) The decoder: In order to save storage space, disk bandwidth, and network
bandwidth, movies are usually encoded (compressed) before they are sent over the
network. Thus, the end-users needs a decoder to decode (uncompress among other
things) the incoming stream's data before it's viewable. This is part of what a
modem does. The decoding process is sometimes known as Demodulation or
Heavy Lifting.
(3) The buffer: Due to delay jitters in the network, the arrival time of a video
stream cannot be determined exactly. In order to guarantee continuous consistent
playback for the viewer (end-user/subscriber) the stream is often received one or
even a few seconds before it's actually seen by the end-user. This way if there are
fluctuations (even those measured in milliseconds) in the transport time of the video
stream to that receiver, the viewer won't know the difference as their buffer has a bit
of time to spare.
(4) Synchronization hardware: Let's remember that a movie (or whatever one
watches via a set-top box) consists of both video and audio streams. They must be
synchronized with each other before being viewed. Other streams may be added too
which could include that which is Enhanced (ITV) related.
To provide interactive services, the set-top box, from the standpoint of it’s
software, needs the appropriate Platform, Middleware and Software:

Platform - (Sometimes also known as "ITV client") –(1) The underlying system
and standards that makes up the Built-in and/or set-top box. The platform enables
interactivity (among other things.) Platforms can include ITV related software,
middleware and/or hardware. ITV platforms however are often associated with the
Middleware provider. Liberate, OpenTV, PowerTV, Worldgate and Microsoft TV
(MSTV) are middleware platforms and/or Platform providers.

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 (2) The operating system (i.e. Windows 98, Windows NT, etc.) used by the
computer that a visitor to your Web site is using.

(3) It can be used to refer to major communications such as digital terrestrial

(MMDS), cable, satellite, and the Internet. Thus these would be referred to as
"cable platform," "satellite platform" etc.

Some popular ITV Platforms are: ImagicTV, Liberate, MEDIAHIGHWAY, MHEG-

5, Microsoft TV Foundation Edition, MSNTV, Myrio, OpenTV, PowerTV, WebTV,
Worldgate.

Middleware - (a.k.a. System software or Platform software) - A general term for any
programming that serves to "glue together" or mediate between two separate and
usually already existing programs. It includes an application manager, the virtual
machine (such as Java Virtual Machine™), the interactive engine, the libraries and
databases. In terms of ITV related, that would often be software that provides
services that occur between the server and end-user. This includes software that
connects two separate applications together. This is particularly necessary as there
are in use a number of different programs, platforms and software that are all
oriented to the same goal of providing ITV. If the set-top box has a Resident
Application, it’s often thought of as in the Middleware category. In this case a
Resident Application is a program or programs that are built into the memory of the
set-top box. These are updated, often automatically, by the service provider via the
data stream (signal) that the set-top receives from the service provider.

Software - (ITV Software, Set-top Box Software) – This is software that adds features
to the set-top box that often it doesn’t need to operate, or at least operate minimally.
For instance if the set-top box was “Voice-enabled,” so it obeys commands spoken by
the subscriber, that would be largely be thanks to the voice recognition software in
the set-top box.

Back Channel (a.k.a., Return Channel, Reverse Channel, Return Path) – The
physical way that the end-user is able to send information/requests/demands back to
the content provider. This can be an integral part of ITV. A Back Channel is a 2-
way communications link between the TV viewer (end-user) and the Interactive
Television content provider; (as opposed to the Front Channel, which is a 1-way
communication link from the content provider, such a television network, just to
the TV viewer - something we all experience by simply watching TV.) The Back
Channel is often of much lower bandwidth than the Front Channel is. It's
typically a modem and attached telephone line, although it could be a cable modem,
DSL, satellite connection etc.

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Decoder – (Might also be known as Set-top Box, Converter, Receiver, Descrambler):
It’s a device or program that changes encoded data back into its original format. The term
is often used in reference to MPEG-2 video and sound data, which must be decoded
before it's viewable. Most DVD players, for example, include a decoder card which sole
function is to decode MPEG data.

A digital set-top box (and the majority of set-top boxes are digital) and its television
Built-in counterpart, usually has 3 decoders.
(1) Video Decoder - It decodes the video packets into images that can be viewed.
(2) Audio Decoder - It decompresses the audio bit-stream.
(3) Data Decoder - It helps you choose between the potentially hundreds of channels and
ITV services. It's part of the MPEG-2 stream.

All-in-one Set Top Box - (a.k.a. Integrated set top box, Super Box; maybe be known as
Advanced set top box) - A fully integrated set-top box. Features could include everything
from high-speed Internet access to digital video recording to games and e-mail capacity.
The opposite of this is when two are or more set top boxes (sidecars) are used in tandem by
the subscriber’s TV.

Analog Transmission (concerning telephone) - Current main method of voice

transmission used in telephone systems. It converts the voice data to electronic signals and
amplifies them, allowing the signals to be sent over long distances.

Application Programming Interface - (API) - Core Middleware. It’s a series of functions

that programs can use to make the operating system perform specific tasks. APIs allow for
faster development, since programming to a device's API is designed to be easier than
programming to a device directly. APIs also allow you to program without having intimate
knowledge of the device or software that you're sending commands to.

CISCs - (Complex Instruction Set Computers) - Another term for describing the standard
desktop PC or it’s equivalent. PCs are built to handle a number of instructions where the
opposite is true of RISC computers. RISC computers are built to take only a comparatively
few. CISC computers are generally substantially more expensive than RISC computers.

DAC - (Digital to Analog Converter) – (1) A chip used in CD players and Set-top boxes
(STBs) for changing the digital signal to analog. It can supply amplification for
reproduction of audio and/or video signals through speakers or television. (2)
Reconstructing the original analog signal from digital data.

Data Encoding - The method by which certain communication devices (such as a modem)
encode digital data onto an analog signal for transmission. Telephone line communications
are typically analog but computers create digital data (not analog) thus computers need to
turn their digital data into analog data before it can be transmitted over phone lines. A
converter mechanism is necessary for computer data to be transported over phone lines.

4
The most popular of these "converter mechanisms" is a modem. Fax machines also use
modems.

Data Stream – (a.k.a. Stream) - All the data transmitted through a particular
communication line for a particular program, operation or scheduled transmission.

DCT - (Digital Consumer Terminal) - A General Instrument’s (Now Motorola Broadband

Communications Sector) set-top box abbreviation.

Demodulation - What occurs on the receiving end of a transported signal. By doing this
the constant carrier signal is separated from the variable data signals. This is part of what a
modem does.

Demultiplexing - Separating data streams or individual channels of data from a single

multi-channel stream. For example, video and audio streams must be demultiplexed before
they are decoded. This is true for multiplexed digital television transmissions. The set-top
box or Built-in must demultiplex the signal it receives before it can be watched.

Digital-to-Analog Converter - A device that turns incoming analog voltage waveforms

into a readable sequence of binary digits.

Digital Video Broadcasting-Multimedia Home Platform - (DVB-MHP) - A

specification by the DVB. It's a software (middleware) specification that will be
implemented in set-top boxes, integrated digital TV receivers as well as multimedia PCs.
The MHP will connect the broadcast medium, Internet, television, computer and
telecommunication world through these devices and their associated peripherals.
www.mhp.org. The DVB-MHP is often known as the ITV arm of the MHP.
Liberate, OpenTV, PowerTV, and CanalPlus (Canal+) have all committed to supporting
this set-top standard. MHP can support many content types, not just HTML/JavaScript. It's
already been demonstrated across a range of set-tops, operating systems, and hardware
platforms. DVB-MHP is a software (middleware) specification of the DVB, approved by
the DVB in November of 1999. It will be used in set-top boxes, integrated digital TV
receivers, as well as multimedia PCs. www.dvb.org/search/index.html (Type in DVB-
MHP.)

Gateway – A computer system that transfers data between different and/or normally
incompatible operating systems, devices and/or networks. A Gateway would make it
possible (for instance) to watch on-demand content over a TV that that viewer had
originally received from the Internet via his PC.

Hub - The device that serves as the central location for attaching wires from workstations
or other devices. It can be passive, where there is no amplification of the signals, or active
where the hubs are used like repeaters to provide an extension of the cable that connects to
a workstation.

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IRD - (Integrated Receiver Decoder) - A Set-top box/receiver with a built in de-scrambler
for decoding Pay-TV and other services.

Modulator (a.k.a. RF Generator) - A device that combines audio and video signals by
coding them into a TV channel (radio frequency).

Packet - A block of data sent over a network; it contains (1) a header consisting of control
information such as the sender, receiver, and error-control data, and (2) the message itself.
It may be fixed or variable in length.

Parity - A method of verifying the accuracy of transmitted or recorded data. An extra bit
(0 or 1) is added to the data transmission (which is already in the form of 0s and 1s) and
the receiving computer(s) involved in the transmission, check to make sure the data
transmission (zeros and ones, a.k.a. bits) have that one extra bit. It the transmission doesn't,
then that indicates there could have been a faulty transmission. Parity may be even or odd.

PAL - (Phase Alternating Line) - A video signal standard. It's the analog TV format used
in most of Western Europe. It's used in other major areas such as China, India, Australia,
Western Europe and South America. Its analog TV's counterpart used in America is
NTSC. It uses 625 lines (575 are visible) and has a 50 Hz Frame Refresh Rate. PAL plus is
the highest quality process for analog transmission.

Packet Switching - How data is configured when being transmitted through the Internet.
Data is broken into “chunks” with an address to where it is going. Each of these chunks of
data is directed by routers, gateways and servers, through many different routes to their
destination.

Parsing – (1) In the computer world it can mean dividing and/or translating the source
code of a program or application into segments so it can be better understood by the
computer. Compilers must “parse” the source code to be able to translate it into the more
desirable (for computers) object code. (2) In linguistics, it can mean dividing a sentence
into its components. These would be the nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

Personal Video Recorders - (PVR) – (a.k.a. Digital Video Recorders {DVR}) - These are
names for the hardware used by the consumer as part of the Personal TV system. These
"units" are used both to digitally record and play back programming. Still you receive TV
like you normally do. The content provider (TV networks, cable, satellite, etc) sends the
content (TV shows, news etc) and you plug it into the PTV "unit". Often used is a
compression scheme called MPEG-2. (Compression is expressed as Mbps or Megabits per
second.) The unit (which is basically a computer, with among other things a huge hard
drive,) saves the incoming live TV signal from your cable or antenna. Generally put, the
viewer's PTV unit typically compresses the signal of the live show, saves it on it's hard
drive and with about a 3 second delay, plays it for the viewer. Literally the viewer is
watching it off of their hard drive, not straight from the antenna or cable connection as
they're used to.

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Pixel - Picture element, the digital representation of the smallest area of a TV picture that's
capable of being manipulated by the signal (bit stream.) Each pixel is composed of 3
phosphors, one green, one red and one blue. The DTV sets have different size pixels than
the analog TVs, The pixels are square and smaller versus the analog's rectangular ones.

Pixel: Short for "picture element." A pixel is the smallest unit that makes up an image on
your computer monitor. There are thousands of pixels in an standard screen display
arranged in rows. For example, a standard 8-bit GIF image contains 640 pixels on each row
and there are 480 rows from top to bottom. Varying the color of each pixel is what creates
the images you see on your computer.

Pixel Depth: (Also called "bit resolution"). A measurement of the number of bits of
information stored with each pixel. Pixel depth will generally be expressed as either 8-bit,
16-bit or 24-bit. The greater the number of bits, the more different colors a pixel can create.
8-bit pixel depth can create 256 different colors (28), 16-bit pixel depth can create over
65,000 different colors (216) and 24-bit pixel depth can create more than 16-million
different colors (224).

PROM - (Programmable Read Only Memory) - This is a memory chip on which you can
store a program. Once the PROM is used, it cannot be altered.

Proxy Server - A server acts as an intermediary between a Web surfer and his/her Web
server. A proxy server can serve several purposes; it can hold the most commonly and
recently used content from the World Wide Web for users, (versus they having to go all the
way to the server it was originally stored on,) thus providing quicker access. Also it can
filter Web content (so it's used sometimes by schools and libraries,) and it can convert Web
pages to match the capabilities of the receiving software and/or hardware.

RISC - (Pronounced "risk") - (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) - A type of

microprocessor that recognizes only a limited number of instructions. It's the opposite of
the standard PC which is CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer). RISC computers can
execute their instructions very fast because the instructions are so simple. Also RISC chips
as easier to make (as they require fewer transistors.) There are Set-top boxes and other ITV
related hardware that uses RISC.

Tuner - (in terms of ITV) - (May be known as Receiver) - The tuner is for accessing QAM,
OFDM and QPSK networks. As well as being able to receive data in digital form, most
tuners can also receiver analog signals. Set-top and built-in tuners are often thought to be
divided into 3 categories:

1) Broadcast In-Band (IB) - For this the tuner separates a channel from all the channels
received and converts it into a single signal that the receiver makes viewable.
2) OUT Of Band (OOB) - Used often by cable TV set-tops. These can offer more
interactive services.
3) Return Path Tuner - This type of tuner, or mechanism of a tuner, allows more readily
the return of interactive data to a signal's source.

7
Differences between digital and analog television, several are noted below:

• The DTV hardware reads or turns the broadcast signal (depending on the hardware
involved) into bits and bytes, which is the language of computers. This makes
computers and HDTVs very compatible. As the primary language (code) for the
World Wide Web is HTML, which is a computer code turned into bits and bytes,
this makes for a much more efficient way to experience and interact with the
Internet.
• Digital TV signals are much less susceptible to interference. With MPEG-2
compression technology, an error-free picture is possible, even if minor signal
errors are present. With an analog broadcast signal, minor signal errors can
cause minor picture degradation (ghosting etc.) As interference becomes worse,
the picture becomes worse. With a digital signal, because of the way the error
correction works, the picture will still look perfect until the threshold FEC signal to
noise ratio is reached. Ratios below the threshold lead to an unacceptable picture
(which is called catastrophic degradation.)
• The use of compression (which DTV does) means that a standard 6 MHz TV
channel bandwidth can carry around 4 or 5 separate digital TV channels (versus one
with the analog signal) and have the same good resolution.
• DTV can offer at least twice the picture resolution of straight analog TVs, this
making possible a cinema-quality image as well as sound quality like that of a
compact disc.
• Signals for adjacent digital TV channels do not interfere with each other like those
in analog systems. Therefore there are less empty channels as compared to the
analog signal and thus more channels can be occupied.
• Unlike analog systems, the resolution of the digital TV broadcast can be varied.
• Because digital signals can be compressed when they're sent to the DTV, the viewer
can receive a great many more channels. This allows for the development of
channels with content that only a select group of viewers would be interested in.
With some sort of back channel the viewer can interact with others more freely.
• With some sort of back channel the viewer can interact with others more freely.

Analog TV – (a.k.a. SDTV) - These are by far the most widely used type of television sets.
These are televisions where the signal they receive is sent as a continuously varying analog
waveform. The waveform's value determines the amount of voltage that will be applied to
the electron guns in the back of the picture tube. This directly affects the luminance (the
technical term for the picture brightness (a.k.a. intensity,) and chrominance (the technical
term for the color) of the picture. Analog TVs are far and away the dominant type of TVs
used by the public and has been for decades. In analog TV systems, the voltage applied to
the electron guns is proportional to the constantly changing video signal voltage.

Analog TVs have limitations however:

• Analog TV channels are susceptible to interference caused by physical features

(hills, buildings etc.) This interference often takes the form of "ghosting" on the
picture screen.

8
 • The normal TV channel occupies a bandwidth of 6 MHz. With analog TVs, the
viewer can see only a limited total number of 6 MHz channels, obviously limiting
the total number of possible channels the consumer can receive and view, without
outside electronic help that is. In addition, many of the frequency bands that could
be used by TV channels, have to be kept empty, because analog TV channels
spaced too close together can interfere with one another.

• Although luminance and chrominance signals are separated, they can interfere with
one another, especially in regions with low signal strength. This can lead to
problems with the color display.

To watch digital TV on an analog TV you need a DTV tuner (in the form of a set-
top/receiver) and some form of antenna or cable connection. Since analog televisions
are not capable of displaying the higher resolution HDTV broadcasts, the tuners can
be set to convert the signal to what is known as 480I which is roughly equivalent to a
DVD player or Direct TV satellite image.

Analog TV Formats - There are 3 main formats used for analog TV; differing in the
number of lines in each complete picture, the frame refresh rate, and in the detailed
encoding of the color (chrominance) and brightness (luminance) information. All have in
common the fact that the chrominance & luminance signals are separated. This ensures that
an analog color TV signal will display satisfactorily on a monochrome receiver (which has
no chrominance.) The 3 main formats are:

NTSC: National Television Systems Committee

Countries include: USA, Canada, Japan, and Korea

Total Lines: 525
Active Lines: 484
Frame refresh rate: 6o Hz

PAL: Phase Alternating Line

Countries include: EU (except for France, Greece), China, India.

Total Lines: 625 Lines
Active Lines: 575
Frame refresh rate: 50 Hz

SECAM: Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire

Countries include: France, Greece, and Russia

Total Lines: 625 Lines
Active Lines: 575
Frame refresh rate: 5o Hz

9
Electronic Program Guide - (EPG) - (a.k.a. Interactive Program Guide, IPG,) - (EPG) -
Literally an onscreen guide that helps make it easier for viewers to choose and/or go to the
large number of channels, Pay Per View events, and shows available particularly in a
digital environment. By using the EPG you can often also pay for events such as Video on
Demand. More advanced EPGs offer Internet interactivity for browsing, chatting, e-mail
etc. EPGs can also keep track of your favorite channels, offer a "reminder" service that lets
you know when your favorite shows are coming on, restrict access to channels you don't
want the kids to see, offer a television search engine of a sort that can search for types of
shows or themes in shows. The EPG can interact with your hard drive.
When the customer starts up his/her set-top box, the EPG probably is what comes up
initially. Often it can be customized by the content provider and/or by the individual
viewer. EPGs are usually free. Needless to say it can be a good place for ITV advertisers.
Currently one-way television programs can be viewed through an EPG if a TV tuner card is
installed in your computer. EPGs are expected to be important in the ITV revolution.
WebTV for Windows is an EPG.
(Please note that EPGs are not the same as "Channel Browsers.")

Two terms related to EPGs that might be of interest are:

Full Mode & Zap Mode - A look for the display of an Electronic Program Guide (EPG).
There are two of them in this scenario, the "Zap mode," where the EPG is only a partial
overlay on the normal television program. Thus on most of the TV screen would be the
regular program with only a part being the EPG. With "Full Mode, the EPG takes over the
screen and the program becomes secondary.

What is STB

• Digital Set Top Box is a consumer device that acts as a receiver or tuner for TV
signals .
• It follows DVB/MPEG standards.
• They allow users to view premium channels
• Provides internet access.
• It is the Key to digital video processing

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Why STB ?

• User can get more specialized channels

• Support for HDTV
• No Ghosting
• Backward compatible with analog TV’s
• Pay as you view
• Interactive TV (iTV).
• Near Video On Demand
• Internet
• Hard drive storage

DVB

• DVB Project is an industry-led consortium of over 300 companies

• The DVB Project was launched on 10th September, 1993
• In 1995 it was basically finished and became operational
• There are several sub-standards of the DVB standard
– DVB-S (Satellite) – using QPSK
– DVB-T (Terrestrial) – using QAM
– DVB-C (Cable) – using OFDM
• These three sub-standards basically differ only in the specifications to the physical
representation, modulation, transmission and reception of the signal

Layers of development

• End User
• Application Layer
• Middleware
• Adaptive Layer
• OS Operating System and STAPI Drivers

Software Resources

• Host OS Windows 2000

• Target OS ST OS20
• Compiler ST20 CC
• Tool kit STAPI

Hardware Resources

• Processor or mpeg decoder- STi7710/5518

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 • Tuner – sharp
• ST Micro connect debugger
• HDTV with remote.
• DENC

Transport Stream

• A Transport stream is multiplex of Program streams + meta data, further

packetised to get packets of 188 bytes.
• A program stream is a combination of a video PES and number of audio PES
• PES is a pocketised elementary stream of arbitrary length obtained from
Elementary streams along with time stamp for lip sync.
• Elementary stream is a real time signal obtained from a decoder.

Transport Stream Fields

• Sync byte: this is for decoder to deserialize the data ahead.

• Transport error indicator: this bit is set when layer above transport layer finds
BER above a correctible value.
• Start indicator : start of payload
• Packet ID : a 13 bit no. to identify different types of packets.
• Scrambling control: packet is scrambled or not.
• Adaption field control: indicates header is larger than normal.
• Continuity counter :to keep track of sequence of packets.

Service Information Description

So, you have a transport stream, which contains several services, where each service
contains several elementary streams. How do we tell what services we're broadcasting?
The answer is a special set of elementary streams that contain a set of database
tables describing the structure of transport stream, the services within it and some useful
information that digital TV receivers can show the user, such as the name of the service
and schedule information for the services. These tables are collectively known as service
information (SI).

• PAT : Program Association Table:-For each service in the multiplex it gives

the location of the PMT. It also gives the location of NIT.
• CAT : Conditional Access Table:-Provides information on the CA system and
the information is private. When CAT is present it includes the location of the
EMM stream.
• PMT: Program Map Table:-For each service it gives the PID of the streams
and location of PCR for that service.

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 Other Tables

• NIT : Network Information Table:-It gives the physical information of the

Network eg: grouping of TS and tuning info etc
• EIT : Event Information Table : It carries information about the present , past
and future events. For each service a sub table exists.
• SDT: Service Description Table: Used to describe the name and other
parameters of the services available with in the Transport stream.
• TDT: Time and Date Table: contains UTC time and date.
• TOT: Time offset table: Contains UTC time and local offset time.

Transmission Process

• FEC : modern FEC uses Reed-Solomon code.

• Convolution coding/interleaving : for handling burst errors.
• Modulation

 DVB-S : QPSK
 DVB-C : QAM
 DVB-T :COFDM

• Randomizing / energy dispersal

DENC

• It converts Digital video stream into standard base band PAL/NTSC/SECAM.

• DENC is embedded in the chip and can be accessed using EMI. (external
DENC can be accessed through I2C)
• 6 pin are provided to send the signal to the o/p.

Set-Top Box :

As the cable television and satellite television industries enjoy another year of sustained
growth, many cable/satellite operators are continuing to invest in the "digitalization" of
their systems. This is resulting in the transition of the TV transmission infrastructure from
an analog environment to a digital one. Once a cable/satellite system has made the
transition, subscribers have access to an increased number of video channels, highspeed
Internet service, and even telephony voice service. The set-top box market, which is a key
part of this digital upgrade, is benefiting from this evolution.

A set-top box is a device that enables a television set to become a user interface to the
Internet and also enables a television set to receive and decode digital television (DTV)

13
broadcasts. DTV set-top boxes are sometimes called receivers. A set-top box is necessary
to television viewers who wish to use their current analog television sets to receive digital
broadcasts. It is estimated that 35 million homes will use digital set-top boxes by the end of
2006, the estimated year ending the tr In the Internet realm, a set-top box is really a
specialized computer that can "talk to" the Internet - that is, it contains a Web browser

(which is really a Hypertext Transfer Protocol client) and the Internet's main program,
TCP/IP. The service to which the set-top box is attached may be through a telephone line
as, for example, with WebTV, or through a cable TV company like TCI.

Device that converts and displays data from analog cable, digital cable, or digital broadcast
television to a standard frequency (channel number) for display on a standard analog
television set, or a box that receives off-air DTV signal for display on a DTV monitor.

A set-top box is a device that enables a television set to become a user interface to the
Internet and also enables a television set to receive and decode digital television (DTV)
broadcasts. DTV set-top boxes are sometimes called receivers. A set-top box is necessary
to television viewers who wish to use their current analog television sets to receive digital
broadcasts. It is estimated that 35 million homes will use digital set-top boxes by the end of
2006, the estimated year ending the transition to DTV.

In the DTV realm, a typical digital set-top box contains one or more microprocessors for
running the operating system, possibly Linux or Windows CE, and for parsing the MPEG
transport stream. A set-top box also includes RAM, an MPEG decoder chip, and more
chips for audio decoding and processing. The contents of a set-top box depend on the DTV
standard used. European DVB-compliant set-top boxes contain parts to decode COFDM
transmissions while ATSC-compliant set-top boxes contain parts to decode VSB
transmissions. More sophisticated set-top boxes contain a hard drive for storing recorded
television broadcasts, for downloaded software, and for other applications provided by your
DTV service provider.

Digital television set-top boxes are used for satellite, cable, and terrestrial DTV services.
They are especially important for terrestrial services because they guarantee viewers free
television broadcasting. A set-top box price ranges from $100 for basic features to over
$1,000 for a more sophisticated box. It is often leased as part of signing up for a service.

What is Teletext?
It's information and data read in Europe from the unused VBI lines of the PAL & SECAM
broadcasts. The display can also be altered (made smaller) so that viewing of this
information is clearer. (Teletext is primarily used in Europe there but Teletext is available
in various parts of America.)
Teletext consists of information, such as news and sports, which are viewed on a
television set capable of viewing it, or via a set-top box attached to a standard TV set. Its
roots lie in the 70s, when the BBC and Oracle started the first test services. A new and
improved version of Teletext was released in 1997.

14
 The actual Teletext data is broadcasted in a hidden part of the television signal, the VBI,
(the Vertical Blanking Interval) and decoded by the television (if it has Teletext capacity)
or set-top box which then feeds the decoded signal to the standard television set.
As well as news and sports information, Teletext contains financial information, such as
the latest stock prices, also recipes, entertainment listings, advertisements, movie schedules
and reviews, music and TV program reviews, additional information on various TV
programs, and more. Teletext also broadcasts subtitles (closed captions) for various
programs, and news bulletins that are overlaid on top of the TV picture. The incorporation
of Digital TVs by consumers will not end Teletext use but instead will enhance it. The
MHEG-5 hypermedia standard has been picked as the standard authoring language for
Teletext services using the digital terrestrial platform in the U.K. Also see MINITEL.
More info on

Closed Captioning - In analog TV, these are subtitles for hard of hearing and deaf that are
transmitted as digital data in the Vertical Blanking Interval (VBI.) It types out on the screen
the words the characters are saying. The text is in line 21 of the Vertical Blanking Interval.

What is Conditional Access?

Conditional Access - (CA) - (May also be known as: Authentication, Access Control
System,) - CA is an encryption/decryption management method (security system) where the
broadcaster controls the subscriber's access to digital and ITV services. This can ensure
that the person is who he/she says he/she is (authenticity). It also offers security in purchase
and other transactions. The end-users (subscribers) have a receiver/Set-top Box that allows
him or her "Conditional Access" to the services available through that service. "Smart
cards" and/or a private PIN number are most often used to access the services, and/or
premium services, by the end-user (subscriber.) The system is primarily made up of 3
parts: (1) signal scrambling, (2) encryption of electronic "keys" which the viewer will need,
and the (3) Subscriber Management System - ensuring those who have bought the
scrambled programming, are able to receive and watch it.

The Subscriber Management System (SMS) is a combination of hardware and software

as well as human activities that help organize and operate the company business. The SMS
contains all customer relevant information and is responsible for keeping track of placed
orders, credit limits, invoicing and payments, as well as the generation of reports and
statistics. The SMS is part of the Customer Management System (CMS) and includes:

Entitlement Control Messages - (ECMs) - Data (probably encrypted) in the broadcast

stream (which is the signal that travels to and from the subscriber and content provider) that
contains information and directions from the subscriber such as the movie they want to see.
This data doesn't necessarily have what would be considered more personal information,
such as the number of months of service they want to pay for.

15
Entitlement Management Messages - (EMMs) - Data (probably encrypted) in the
broadcast stream that contains information and directions from the subscriber that more
directly deals with their account and personal listings, such as how much of the outstanding
balance of their account they now want to pay. It doesn't deal with things such as what
movie they want to see or what time they want to see that movie.

Subscriber Authorization System - (SAS) - It takes the SMS (Subscriber Management

System) data and translates it into data the operational software can understand.

If the customer’s set-top Box or built-in, has a “Common Interface” (CI), and it’s often
best if it does, the Set-top Box or built-in can be used on more than one encryption system.
Consumers can use detachable hardware, which allows them to receive encrypted services
they pay subscription fee(s) for. The interface between the set-top box and the CI hardware
is standardized so that the same set-top box can be used to handle a variety of encryption
systems.

Some Conditional Access systems are:

NDS' Open VideoGuard

NagraVision's Nagra
Canal+ Technologies' MediaGuard
Telenor Conax - Conax-CAS3
SkyStream's DVB-Simulcrypt

4:3: Aspect ratio of the NTSC TV screen, with "4" unit width corresponding to "3" unit
height, proportionally, regardless of the actual size of the screen.

16:9: Aspect ratio of widescreen DTV formats for all HDTV and some SDTV (Standard
Definition) video. "16" unit width corresponds to "9" unit height, proportionally, regardless
of the actual size of the screen.

8-VSB: Eight discreet amplitude level, "vestigial side-band" broadcast transmission

technology. VSB is an analog modulation technique used to reduce the amount of spectrum
needed to transmit information through cable TV, or over-the-air broadcasts used in the
NTSC (analog) standard. 8-VSB is the U.S. ATSC digital television transmission standard.

Decryption - The restoration of data to its original form after it has been encrypted.

Dialog Box - A "window" that pops up on your computer screen requesting information or
other input. Dialog boxes generally are temporary, disappearing once you’ve entered the
requested information and clicked on an exit button such as "okay" or "apply."

Digital - (1) Any kind of analog information (speech, pictures, text, etc.) that can be
scanned and transformed into binary digits. (2) A way of storing, converting, and
transmitting data in binary numbers (1s and 0s.)

16
Analog data must be digitized (turned into digital data) before computers can do anything
with it. Basically it refers to information in a discrete, rather than continuous (analog)

form. For example, a digital telephone transmits and receives voice information as a stream
of bits; the standard analog phones that we're used to, receive it in waves.

Digital Compression - (1) In terms of ITV, digital compression is very important. By

doing this, a lot of wasted bandwidth (and/or time) is saved when the signal is transmitted.
A typical compression standard is MPEG. (2) A way of reducing the number of bits in a
digital signal is by eliminating redundant data being sent, thereby reducing the space the
signal occupies when being transmitted or recorded.

Digital Set-top Box - Basically another term for “set-top box.” Most often set-top boxes
work as digital units. Most take an incoming digital signal(s) and turn it into an analog
signal(s) that our analog TVs can understand.

DVD - (Digital Versatile Disk) - (Previously called Digital Video Disk) - It's a
comparatively new type of CD-ROM that holds a minimum of 4.7GB (gigabytes), more
than enough for a full-length movie. The DVD specification supports disks with capacities
from 4.7 GB to 17 GB and access rates of 600 Kbps to 1.3 Mbps. These are backward
compatible with CD-ROMs. This means that DVD players can play old CD-ROMs, CD-I
disks, and video CDs, as well as new DVD-ROMs. Newer DVD players can also read CD-
R disks. DVD uses MPEG-2 to compress video data.

Aliasing: Defects or distortion in a television picture or audio. Defects are typically seen as
jagged edges on diagonal lines and twinkling or brightening. In digital video, aliasing is
caused by insufficient sampling or poor filtering of the digital video.

Aspect Ratio: The ratio of a television picture width to height. In NTSC video, the
standard is 4:3. In HDTV and SDTV widescreen video, it is 16:9.

Analog: Analog technology refers to electronic transmission accomplished by adding

signals of varying frequency or amplitude to carrier waves of a given frequency of
alternating electromagnetic current. Broadcast and phone transmission have conventionally
used analog technology.

Analog also connotes any fluctuating, evolving, or continually changing process. Analog is
usually represented as a series of sine waves. The term originated because the modulation
of the carrier wave is analogous to the fluctuations of the voice itself.

A modem is used to convert the digital information in your computer to analog signals for
your phone line and to convert analog phone signals to digital information for your
computer. (1)

Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC): The Advanced Television Systems

Committee (ATSC) is a standards organization that was created in 1982 as part of ATV to

17
promote the establishment of technical standards for all aspects of advanced television
systems. Based in Washington, D.C., ATSC has an international membership of over 200
organizations (up from an original 25), including broadcasters, motion picture companies,

telecommunications carriers, cable TV programmers, consumer electronics manufacturers,

and computer hardware and software companies. The ATSC developed standards for
digital television (DTV) that specify technologies for the transport, format, compression,
and transmission of DTV in the U.S. ATSC DTV Standards include digital high definition
television HDTV), standard definition television (SDTV), data broadcasting, multichannel
surround-sound audio, and satellite direct-to-home broadcasting. For SDTV and HDTV,
ATSC chose >MPEG-2 for video, and Dolby Digital for audio. The ATSC is currently
finalizing DTV standards for satellite services, conditional access (methods, such as
encryption or electronic locking systems, used to restrict service access to authorized
users), datacasting, and interactive services.

ATSC standards are expected to revolutionize the television industry as defined by the
National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) standards set in 1953. ATSC standards
for HDTV are currently being adopted internationally. (1)

Cliff Effect: When approaching the fringes of reception, analog TV pictures begin to
degrade by becoming "snowy." By contrast, when in a weak digital signal area, a relatively
small change in received power may cause the DTV picture to abruptly change from
perfect to nothing; hence the name, "cliff effect." (5)

Conditional access: Digital television signals can be scrambled in such a way that they
cannot be understood by a conventional decoder. Only when unscrambled by a special
system can the original pictures be seen by the viewer. By controlling the operation of the
de-scrambling system through the use of a pre-paid access card, or by a transmitted code,
the broadcaster can control access to a particular channel or service. Conditional access can
be used to control many things from pay-per-view subscription through to target viewing
areas. The ATSC specification, at press time, was not complete. (4)

Datacasting: While broadcasting in HDTV or multicasting in SDTV, digital technology

allows broadcasters to use leftover bandwidth to transmit additional program material or
non-program related resources, such as video, audio, text, graphics, maps and services, to
specially equipped computers, cache boxes, set-top boxes, or DTV receivers. This is called
datacasting. DTV's broader bandwidth channel allows information to be downloaded at a
transmission rate currently 600 times that of a personal computer modem. (5)

DBS: Digital broadcast system. An alternative to cable and analog satellite reception
initially utilizing a fixed 18-inch dish focused on one or more geostationary satellites. DBS
units are able to receive multiple channels of multiplexed video and audio signals as well as
programming information, Email, and related data. DBS typically uses MPEG-2 encoding
and COFDM transmission. Also known as digital satellite system. (4)

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Digital TV: Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of television signals using digital
rather than conventional analog methods. Analog transmission is in the form of a
constantly variable wave; digital transmission consists of an electrical pulse which has two
possibilities: on and off (or positive and negative), which are represented by a one and a
zero (this is binary data, the same type of information that a computer understands).
Because a digital signal does not fluctuate, but is either perfectly intact or totally absent, a
digital transmission is more precise than an analog transmission. Although both signals are
transmitted in the same basic way and have the same range, they behave differently at the
limits of their ranges. An analog signal degrades over distance and may be barely
detectable at the farther reaches of the broadcast area - this is why the signal from a distant
radio station fades in and out. As the signal reaches the farther limits of its range, the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) decreases and the quality of the broadcast suffers, although the
range remains the same. In comparison, when the SNR decreases in a digital signal, the
quality of the broadcast does not degrade, but the range shrinks (this is called the cliff
effect).

Advantages of DTV over analog TV include:

• Superior image resolution (detail) for a given bandwidth

• Smaller bandwidth for a given image resolution
• Compatibility with computers and the Internet
• Interactivity
• Superior audio quality
• Consistency of reception over varying distances
• Capacity for multicasting (1)

DTTV: Digital terrestrial television. The term is used in Europe to describe the broadcast of
digital television services using terrestrial frequencies. (4)

DVD: DVD (digital versatile disc) is an optical disc technology that is expected to rapidly
replace the CD-ROM disc (as well as the audio compact disc) over the next few years. The
digital versatile disc (DVD) holds 4.7 gigabyte of information on one of its two sides, or
enough for a 133-minute movie. With two layers on each of its two sides, it will hold up to
17 gigabytes of video, audio, or other information. (Compare this to the current CD-ROM
disc of the same physical size, holding 600 megabyte. The DVD can hold more than 28
times as much information!)

DVD-Video is the usual name for the DVD format designed for full-length movies and is a
box that will work with your television set. DVD-ROM is the name of the player that will
(sooner or later) replace your computer's CD-ROM. It will play regular CD-ROM discs as
well as DVD-ROM discs. DVD-RAM is the writeable version. DVD-Audio is a player
designed to replace your compact disc player.

DVD uses the MPEG-2 file and compression standard. MPEG-2 images have four times
the resolution of MPEG-1 images and can be delivered at 60 interlaced fields per second
where two fields constitute one image frame. (MPEG-1 can deliver 30 noninterlaced

19
frames per second.) Audio quality on DVD is comparable to that of current audio compact
discs. (1)

Electronic Program Guide: An electronic program guide (EPG) is an application used

with digital set-top boxes and newer television sets to list current and scheduled programs
that are or will be available on each channel and a short summary or commentary for each
program. EPG is the electronic equivalent of a printed television program guide.

An EPG is accessed using a remote control device. Menus are provided that allow the user
to view a list of programs scheduled for the next few hours up to the next seven days. A
typical EPG includes options to set parental controls, order pay-per-view programming,
search for programs based on theme or category, and set up a VCR to record programs.
Each digital television (DTV) provider offers its own user interface and content for its
EPG. (1)

High Definition (HD): HDTV (high definition television) is a television display

technology that provides picture quality similar to 35 mm. movies with sound quality
similar to that of today's compact disc. Some television stations have begun transmitting
HDTV broadcasts to users on a limited number of channels. HDTV generally uses digital
rather than analog signal transmission. HDTV and standard definition television (SDTV)
are the two categories of display formats for digital television (DTV) transmissions, which
are becoming the standard.

HDTV provides a higher quality display with a vertical resolution display from 720p to
1080i. The p stands for progressive scanning, which means that each scan includes every
line for a complete picture, and the i stands for interlaced scanning which means that each
scan includes alternate lines for half a picture. These rates translate into a frame rate of up
to 60 frames per second, twice that of conventional television. One of HDTV's most
prominent features is its wider aspect ratio (the width to height ratio of the screen) of 16:9,
a development based on research showing that the viewer's experience is enhanced by
screens that are wider. HDTV pixel numbers range from one to two million, compared to
SDTV's range of 300,000 to one million. New television sets will be either HDTV-capable
or SDTV-capable, with receivers that can convert the signal to their native display format.

In terms of audio quality, HDTV receives, reproduces, and outputs Dolby Digital 5.1.

HDTV uses the MPEG-2 file format and compression standard. (1)

Interactive TV: Interactive TV (ITV) is television that allows the viewer to interact with
the television set in ways other than simply controlling the channel and the volume and
handling videotapes. Typical interactive TV uses are selecting a video film to view from a
central bank of films, playing games, voting or providing other immediate feedback
through the television connection, banking from home, and shopping from home.

Interactive TV involves adding a special set-top box to the existing television set. In
addition, other installation and infrastructure arrangements are required, depending on the

20
particular approach. Most services involve offering special programming, news, and home
shopping and a number offer video-on-demand and home banking. An early form of
interactive TV is provided by companies that offer Personal Video Recorder services. (1)

Multicasting: Because digital television allows you to pack much more information into
the allotted signal, we can transmit multiple channels on the same bandwidth instead of just
one. Think of a broadcasting bandwidth as a multi-lane freeway. You can run a big, flashy,
wide-load truck carrying HDTV and take up all of the lanes, or you can send multiple
compact cars down the same freeway, each carrying specialized programming. (5)

Multiplex: 1. To transmit two or more signals at the same time or on the same carrier
frequency. 2. To combine two or more electrical signals into a single, composite signal,
such as ATSC multicasting. (4)

Multiplexer: Device for combining two or more electrical signals into a single, composite
signal. (4)

NTSC: National television system committee. The organization that developed the analog
television standard currently in use in the U.S., Canada, and Japan. Now generally used to
refer to that standard. The NTSC standard combines blue, red, and green signals modulated
as an AM signal with an FM signal for audio. (4)

Open Cable: A project aimed at obtaining a new generation of set-top boxes that are
interoperable. These new devices will enable a new range of interactive services to be
provided to cable customers. (4)

Pay-Per-View: The number of households with access to digital cable service is expected
to grow to 23 million over the next few years. One result for this phenomenal next wave of
growth is that PPV revenue is projected to top $2.5 billion by 2005. According to Paul
Kagan Associates, 60 percent of these revenues will come from digital hit movies alone.

On the Web, micropayment is a business concept whose goal is to generate revenue by

offering pay-per-view Web pages, Web links, or Web services for small amounts of money
called "microcents". Since it is not practical for individual users to charge small amounts of
money (such as a penny or a fraction of a penny) to a major charge card, a different method
of payment is needed for sites that wish to go "micro". Several methods of micropayment
collection are being examined, many of which involve encoding per-fee-links inside
HTML pages and some kind of Internet wallet account where individuals would establish a
cash balance with a third-party application that would monitor, collect, and distribute
micropayments.

Once a common micropayment standard has been established, some visionaries predict that
streaming media sites, sports access sites, and other specialized resources will pave the way
for pay-per view Web use, just as they did for cable TV. (1)

21
PSIP: Program and system information protocol. A part of the ATSC digital television
specification that enables a DTV receiver to identify program information from the station
and use it to create easy-to-recognize electronic program guides for the viewer at home.
The PSIP generator insert data related to channel selection and electronic program guides
into the ATSC MPEG transport stream. (4)

PVR: A personal video recorder (PVR) is an interactive TV recording device, in essence a

sophisticated set-top box with recording capability (although it is not necessarily kept on
top of the television set). Vendors and media also refer to the units by these names: digital
video recorder (DVR); personal TV receiver (PTR); personal video station (PVS); and hard
disk recorder (HDR).

Like the familiar VCR, a PVR records and plays back television programs, but, unlike the
VCR, it stores the programs in digital (rather than analog) form. Like a VCR, a PVR has
the ability to pause, rewind, stop, or fast-forward a recorded program. Because the PVR
can record a program and replay it almost immediately with a slight time lag, what seem to
be live programs can be manipulated as though they were recorded programs (which they
actually are). A PVR's capabilities include time marking, indexing, and non-linear editing.
The PVR encodes an incoming video data stream as MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 and stores it on a
hard disk within a device that looks much like a VCR.

Most PVRs come as part of a subscriber service that may or may not charge a monthly fee.
The service enables such activities as searching for shows according to type (movies or
baseball games, for example), choosing among video-on-demand (VOD) options, or doing
shopping or banking. Service providers, such as TiVo and ReplayTV, may also sell PVRs.
There are a number of PVRs on the market, including TiVo's DVR, SONICblue's
ReplayTV, Sony's SVR-2000, and Philips' PTR. There are also products that offer similar

functionality but are software-based (such as SnapStream Personal Video Station) or

network-based. The Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) Project is an industry consortium
dedicated to the development of standards for PVRs and other digital video technologies.
(1)

Resolution: 1. Detail. In digital video and audio, the number of bits (four, eight, 10, 12,
etc.) determines the resolution of the digital signal. Four bits yields a resolution of one in
16. Eight bits yields a resolution of one in 256. Ten bits yields a resolution of one in 1,024.
Eight bits is the minimum acceptable for broadcast television. 2. A measure of the finest
detail that can be seen, or resolved, in a reproduced image. While influenced by the number
of pixels in an image (for high definition approximately 2,000 x 1,000, broadcast NTSC
TV 720 x 487, broadcast PAL TV 720 x 576), note that the pixel numbers do not define
ultimate resolution but merely the resolution of that part of the equipment. The quality of
lenses, display tubes, film process and film scanners, etc., used to produce the image on the
screen must all be taken into account. This is why a live broadcast of the Super Bowl looks
better than a broadcast recorded and played off of VHS, while all are NTSC or PAL. (4)

22
Set Top Box: A set-top box is a device that enables a television set to become a user
interface to the Internet and also enables a television set to receive and decode digital
television (DTV) broadcasts. DTV set-top boxes are sometimes called receivers. A set-top
box is necessary to television viewers who wish to use their current analog television sets
to receive digital broadcasts. It is estimated that 35 million homes will use digital set-top
boxes by the end of 2006, the estimated year ending the transition to DTV.

In the Internet realm, a set-top box is really a specialized computer that can "talk to" the
Internet - that is, it contains a Web browser (which is really a Hypertext Transfer Protocol
client) and the Internet's main program, TCP/IP. The service to which the set-top box is
attached may be through a telephone line as, for example, with WebTV, or through a cable
TV company like TCI.

In the DTV realm, a typical digital set-top box contains one or more microprocessors for
running the operating system, possibly Linux or Windows CE, and for parsing the MPEG
transport stream. A set-top box also includes RAM, an MPEG decoder chip, and more
chips for audio decoding and processing. The contents of a set-top box depend on the DTV
standard used. More sophisticated set-top boxes contain a hard drive for storing recorded
television broadcasts, for downloaded software, and for other applications provided by your
DTV service provider.

Digital television set-top boxes are used for satellite, cable, and terrestrial DTV services.
They are especially important for terrestrial services because they guarantee viewers free
television broadcasting. A set-top box price ranges from $100 for basic features to over
$1,000 for a more sophisticated box. It is often leased as part of signing up for a service. (1)

Standard Definition TV: Standard definition television (SDTV) is a digital television

(DTV) format that provides a picture quality similar to digital versatile disk (DVD). SDTV
and high definition television (HDTV) are the two categories of display formats for digital
television (DTV) transmissions, which are becoming the standard.

Because a compressed SDTV digital signal is smaller than a compressed HDTV signal,
broadcasters can transmit up to five digital SDTV programs simultaneously instead of just
one HDTV program. This is multicasting. Multicasting is an attractive feature because
television stations can receive additional revenue from the additional advertising these
extra programs provide. With today's analog television system, only one program at a time
can be transmitted.

When the United States decided to make the transition from analog television to DTV, the
Federal Communications Commission decided to let broadcasters decide whether to
broadcast SDTV or HDTV programs. This is still being decided by most of the
broadcasters in the United States. Both SDTV and HDTV are supported by the Digital
Video Broadcasting (DTV) and Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) set of
standards. (1)

23
Video On Demand: The ability to start delivering a movie or other video program to an
individual Web browser or TV set whenever the user requests it. (2)

Bandwidth: The complete range of frequencies over which a circuit or electronic system is
allocated to function. In transmission, the U.S. analog and digital television channel
bandwidth is 6 MHz.

Baud: A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of signal events per second. Baud is
equivalent to bits per second in cases where each signal event represents exactly one bit.

BER: "Bit error rate." Bit errors are caused by interference, or loss of signal, so the stream
of bits composing the DTV picture is disrupted. A measure of the errors in a transmitted
signal.

Binary: A numbering system using the digits "0" and "1" in the decimal system. All
computer programs are executed in binary form.

Bit: Binary digit. The smallest unit of data in a digital system. A bit is a single one or zero.
A group of bits, such as 8-bits or 16-bits, compose a byte. The number of bits in a byte
depends upon the processing system being used. Typical byte sizes are 8, 16, and 32.

Bitmap: 2-dimensional array of pixels representing video and graphics.

Bitstream: A continuous series of transmitted bits.

Broadband: Capable of handling frequencies greater than those required for high-grade
voice communications.

Byte: A group of data bits that are processed together. Typically, a byte consists of 8 bits.
There are kilobytes, Megabytes, Gigabytes, Terabytes, etc.
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 kilobyte = about 1,000 bytes
1 Megabyte = about 1,000,000 bytes
1 Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes
1 Terabyte = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes

Cache: Storage of digital data (video, audio, text, etc.).

Clone: An exact digital copy, indistinguishable from the original.

Closed Captioning: Text stream included in broadcast signal that provides narrative
description of dialogue, action, sounds, and other elements of the picture. Most often used
by the hearing impaired and in environments where audio is undesirable (such as in
restaurants).

24
Codec: "Coder-decoder." A device that converts analog video and audio signals into a
digital format for transmission. Also converts received digital signals back into analog
format.

COFDM: "Coded orthogonal frequency division multiplexing." COFDM can transmit

many streams of data simultaneously, each one occupying only a small portion of the total
available bandwidth. The DTV standard used in Europe.

Compression: Reduction of the size of digital data files by removing redundant and/or
non-critical information ("data" being the elements of video, audio and other
"information"). Digital TV in the U.S. would not be possible without compression.

CD: A compact disc [sometimes spelled disk] (CD) is a small, portable, round medium
made of molded polymer (close in size to the floppy disk) for electronically recording,
storing, and playing back audio, video, text, and other information in digital form. Tape
cartridges and CDs generally replaced the phonograph record for playing back music. At
home, CDs have tended to replace the tape cartridge although the latter is still widely used
in cars and portable playback devices.

Initially, CDs were read-only, but newer technology allows users to record as well. CDs
will probably continue to be popular for music recording and playback. A newer
technology, the digital versatile disc (DVD), stores much more in the same space and is
used for playing back movies. (1)

Data Compression: A technique that provides for the transmission or storage, without
noticeable information loss, of fewer data bits than were originally used when the data was
created.

Data casting: Enhanced options offered with some digital programming to provide
additional program material or non-program related resources, allowing viewers the ability
to download data (video, audio, text, graphics, maps, services) to specially equipped
computers, cache boxes, set-top boxes, or DTV receivers.

Dolby Digital (formerly Dolby AC-3): The approved 5.1 channel (surround-sound) audio
standard for ATSC digital television, using approximately 13:1 compression. Six discreet
audio channels are used: Left, Center, Right, Left Rear (or side), Right Rear (or side), and a
subwoofer -- LFE, "low frequency effects" -- (considered the ".1" as it is limited in
bandwidth).

Dolby Surround (Dolby Stereo): Matrix analog coding of four audio channels - Left,
Center, Right, Surround (LCRS) - into two channels referred to as Right-total and Left-
total. The Dolby Surround system originally was developed for motion pictures.

Downconverting: The process which changes the number of pixels and/or frame rate
and/or scanning format used to represent an image, by removing pixels.

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DRAM: "Dynamic Random Access Memory" (RAM). High density, cost-effective
memory chips.

Dub: A "dub" is a duplicate copy of an existing tape.

DVD: "Digital Versatile Disk." (Formerly Digital Video Disk.) Same size as a CD but
stores seven times CD capacity on a single side. DVDs can also be double-sided or dual
layer. Today most DVDs are used to display full-length commercial motion pictures, plus
additional material such as outtakes, director's notes, movie trailers, etc.

DVTR: "Digital videotape recorder."

Electronic Programming Guide (EPG): An application that provides an on-screen listing

of all programming and content that an interactive television service subscriber or digital
television viewer has available to them.

Encryption: The process of coding data so that a specific code or key is required to restore
the original data, used to make transmissions secure from unauthorized reception.

Encryption: Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a ciphertext, that
cannot be easily understood by unauthorized people. Decryption is the process of
converting encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be understood.

Simple ciphers include the substitution of letters for numbers, the rotation of letters in the
alphabet, and the "scrambling" of voice signals by inverting the sideband frequencies. More
complex ciphers work according to sophisticated computer algorithms that rearrange the
data bits in digital signals.

Encryption/decryption is especially important in wireless communications. This is

because wireless circuits are easier to "tap" than their hard-wired counterparts.
Nevertheless, encryption/decryption is a good idea when carrying out any kind of sensitive
transaction, such as a credit-card purchase online, or the discussion of a company secret
between different departments in the organization. The stronger the cipher -- that is, the
harder it is for unauthorized people to break it -- the better, in general. However, as the
strength of encryption/decryption increases, so does the cost. (1)

Flash : Non-volatile memory used as a re-writable, general purpose mass storage device
for the switch. Information stored on the flash file my include bootable code images,
configuration files, call record information, etc. Switch software supports user-initiated
reading/writing from/to the flash (via TFTP protocol), allowing file backup/restore
operations to a remote server.

Format Conversion: Process of both encoding/decoding and re-sampling digital rates to

change digital data from one format to another.

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fps: "Frames Per Second," the number of still frames (pictures) that give the illusion of
motion, which appear in a single second of time.

Freeze frame: Display of a single (frozen) frame of video.

Flicker: It is related to the rate at which an image is refreshed--a higher refresh rate will
result in a steadier screen image. The appearance of flicker can also be affected by the
resolution at which the display is operating. High resolutions such as 1,024 by 768 and
above require screens with faster refresh rates in order to eliminate flicker.

HDTV: "High Definition Television." This is the most superior video picture available in
DTV. In the U.S., the 1080i and 720p formats in a 16:9 aspect ratio are the two acceptable
HDTV formats. HDTV is a component of DTV.

Interlaced: A system of video scanning where odd- and even-numbered lines of a TV

picture are transmitted consecutively as two separate interleaved fields. Interlace is a form
of compression and has been used for decades in analog (NTSC) TV.

Interlaced versus Noninterlaced: Monitors and video adapters may support interlaced or
noninterlaced resolution. In noninterlaced (conventional) mode, the electron beam sweeps
the screen in lines from top to bottom, one line after the other, completing the screen in one
pass. In interlaced mode, the electron beam also sweeps the screen from top to bottom, but
it does so in two passes--sweeping the odd lines first and the even lines second. Each pass
takes half the time of a full pass in noninterlaced mode. Therefore, both modes refresh the
entire screen in the same amount of time. This technique redraws the screen faster and
provides more stable images.

Monitors that use interlacing can use lower refresh rates, lessening their cost. The
drawback is that interlacing depends on the ability of the eye to combine two nearly
identical lines, separated by a gap, into one solid line. If you are looking for high-quality
video, however, you want to get a video adapter and monitor that support high-resolution,
noninterlaced displays.

IP Set Top Box: "An IP set-top box is a dedicated computing device that serves as an
interface between a television set and a broadband network. In addition to decoding and
rendering broadcast TV signals, an IP set-top box can provide functionality that includes
video-on-demand (VOD), Electronic Program Guide (EPG), digital rights management
(DRM), and a variety of interactive and multimedia services. IP set-top boxes can support
in-demand features such as Web browsing, e-mail and viewing e-mail attachments,
advanced multimedia codecs, home networking, personal computer connectivity, gateway
functionality, instant messaging (IM), and real-time voice over IP (VoIP). These types of
advanced functionality are in demand by end-users and enable incremental network
operator service opportunities." -- excerpt from Microsoft VoIP whitepaper.

JTAG Interface: Debug Innovations Ltd. says it has devised a one-pin version of the
JTAG interface commonly used to develop, debug, and test microprocessor-based systems.

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A normal JTAG interface is based on a five-pin interface, whereas the proposed one-wire
JTAG replacement -- called J-link -- requires just one pin. Yet, it provides full-speed JTAG
debug access to a device while maintaining compatibility with existing debug tools, Debug
Innovations claims.

Minimizing chip pin requirements is increasingly important as microprocessors become

more integrated and chip packages become smaller. The proposed one-pin scheme is said
to be compatible with existing five-pin JTAG test devices, since an external J-link adapter
is used to convert back and forth between the conventional five JTAG signals and J-link's
one signal.
Debug Innovations Ltd. is hoping to license its one-wire J-link approach to semiconductor
companies and test equipment designers, and it plans to sell converter boxes that suit
various requirements, it says.

Jitters: It is caused by bad circuit designs, and by interference caused by external magnetic
fields. The extent to which flicker and jitters are noticeable can depend on the individual
user to a certain extent, however the ISO regulations require that a screen must appear to be
flicker-free to at least 90 per cent of viewers.

The luminance of a screen image and the degree to which this can be controlled are key
factors in determining the quality of a display. The relationship between the brightness of
the display screen, the frame around the display and the colour and brightness of the
surrounding workplace, all impact the perceived luminance of the screen image. Ideally,
there should be a minimal difference in brightness between these three components, and the
monitor should be equipped with locatable controls for altering brightness and contrast of
the screen image. Ensuring that the picture occupies the whole screen, rather than leaving a
black border between the image and the monitor frame reduces the contrast between a light
display image and the screen surround.

Luminance: Component of video data that includes technical "information" about its
brightness.

Megabyte: One million bytes (actually 1,048,576); one thousand kilobytes.

Metadata: Informational data about the data, included in a signal's data stream.

Motion-JPEG: Uses JPEG (computer) compressed images as individual still frames for
motion. For example, 30 Motion-JPEG frames viewed in one second would approximate
30-fps video.

MPEG 2: Compression standards for moving images and audio are set by the Motion
Pictures Expert Group (MPEG), an international committee of industry experts. MPEG-2 is
the basis for ATSC digital television transmission in the U.S.

Multicasting: Option made possible by digital technology to allow each digital broadcast
station to split its bitstream into 2, 3, 4 or more individual channels of programming and/or
data services

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NTSC: "National Television Systems Committee" and the name of the current analog
transmission standard used in the U.S., which the committee created many decades ago.

Pixel: A tiny sample of video information, the "dots" that make up an overall picture.

Progressive: Refers to "progressive scanning," as in DTV formats 480p or 720p. A system

of video scanning whereby lines of a picture are transmitted consecutively (unlike
interlaced), as on computer screens.

Protocol: Set of "rules" defining exchange of data, including timing, format, sequencing,
error checking, etc.

Resolution: Directly affects picture quality. The higher the resolution, the more picture
detail there is. Many things affect resolution, including number of bits, pixel count, format,
receiver quality, cameras, lenses and lighting used for live or taped programming, etc.

RGB: Abbreviation for red, green and blue signals, the primary colors of light -- and
television.

Sampling: Digital process by which analog information is measured, often millions of

times per second, in order to convert analog to digital.

SDTV: "Standard Definition Television." Digital formats that do not achieve the video
quality of HDTV, but are at least equal, or superior to, NTSC pictures. SDTV may have
either 4:3 or 16:9 aspect ratios, and it includes surround sound. Variations of fps (frames
per second), lines of resolution, and other factors of 480p and 480i make up the 12 SDTV
formats in the ATSC standard.

Server (video): System that provides large-capacity audio and video storage for video-on-
demand retrieval, transmission, post production, news, etc. Most professional servers use
digital disk storage.

Smart Cards - Smart cards look like credit cards. These have a computer chip about the
size of a fingernail implanted in the card. It can hold up to 100+ times more information
than standard magnet strip cards. Typically they have a microprocessor and a substantial
amount of memory, say 1 Megabyte.
The smart card's CPU typically is 8-bit. The CPU's speed typically is slow, 3-5 MHz. It
has some RAM 128-258 bytes) and ROM for the operating system. (A higher-end
operating system size is around 24 KB) and EEPROM (which acts like a hard drive in a PC
and can be erased and re-written on.) It can't interface with keyboards, monitors and other
peripherals but it does have an I/O interface to communication with your set-top box which
in turn communicates with the content provider.
The card's built in miniature integrated circuit can hold information about you - a bank
balance, a phone card, timer and even medical records. They're expected to be a big future
player in e-commerce transactions regarding ITV. Passwords determine who has access to
the card's information. Smart cards can modify the information they hold. Connection to a

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bank is not necessary to use them. Some Web TV, Satellite service providers, Cable
service providers and others use them for security and monetary transaction purposes.
Smart cards are also used to identify you as the subscriber and thus allow you access to a
network. www.teleport.com/~samc/scard.html
The subscriber inserts their smart card into the set-top boxes’ Smart Card Slot(s).
(Typically the set-top box will have one or two slots. The Smart Card Slots are part of the
Smart Card Reader.) If there are two Smart Card Slots in the Smart Card Reader, typically
one would be for electronic commerce transactions and the other for providing
authorization and authentication for the subscriber to access the various services their
provider offers.

Smart Card Reader - Standard set-top boxes can contain two slots for 'reading' the cards.
One would be for electronic
commerce functions and the other for providing authorization and authentication for the
subscriber to access the various
services their provider offers.

Smart Card Slots – (Smart Card Expansion Slots) - The opening(s) on a set-top box where
the user can insert his/her smart card. Advanced slots can accept next generation Smart
Cards without having to change the Smart Card hardware/software.

SmartCard Televisions – TVs with Smart Card functionality built into them. Often the
TV has other advanced functions built into them also. www.philipsitv.com/n-
lodging/products/smartcardtvs.htm

Sound Card - In order for an electronic device, such as a computer, to deal with audio, the
sound is converted into a continuous stream of analog electrical voltages. These voltages
are what pass through speaker wire from an amplifier to speakers and through cables
connecting a CD player to an amplifier. These analog signals are continuous, whereas a
computer can only deal with discrete pieces of information (that is 0s and 1s, which is the
binary number system.)
Since a computer deals in 0s and 1s to handle information, it's considered a digital
device. Therefore, the continuous analog voltage information must be made digital by an
analog to digital converter (A/D converter). Thus we get digital audio, which is the format
of the audio information as it is stored in and handled by the computer. In its most typical
form, a digital audio file is a WAV file as it holds the .wav file extension. In order to play a
WAV file, the computer has to send the digital information (0s and 1s) to the sound card
which then uses a digital to analog converter (D/A converter) to turn the information into a
continuous voltage stream that can then be heard through speakers or headphones.
Converter types:
· A/D Converter: converts analog signal to digital format (outside world into computer
format)
· D/A Converter: converts digital format to analog signal (computer format to outside
world)
· CODEC: Coder/Decoder (or compressor/decompressor) - essentially the A/D converter
and D/A converter on a

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SRAM - (Static Random Access Memory) (Pronounced ess-ram) - SRAM is a type of
memory that is faster and more reliable than the more common DRAM (dynamic RAM).
The term static is derived from the fact that it doesn't need to be refreshed like dynamic
RAM. While DRAM supports access times of about 60 nanoseconds, SRAM can give
access times as low as 10 nanoseconds.

S-Video - (Super-Video) - (a.k.a. Y/C video and S-Video, sometimes called High Band) -
The video is divided into two separate signals, one for brightness (luminance) and the other
for color (chrominance.) Compared to the standard composite video, which only has one
signal. This produces sharper images. It still is not of professional quality. This is because
televisions are designed to display separate luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals. S-
Video increases the picture sharpness above 400 lines of resolution.
Computer monitors, on the other hand, are designed for RGB signals. Most digital video
devices, such as digital cameras and game machines, produce video in RGB format. The
images thus look best when the output is on a computer monitor. When output is on a
standard analog television, it looks better in S-Video format than in composite format.
To use S-Video, the device sending the signals must support S-Video output and the
device receiving the signals must have an S-Video input jack. Then you need a special S-
Video cable to connect the two devices.

Scrambling (Scrambling System) - Purposely manipulating and/or breaking up the signal

frequency (often the lower frequencies) for purposes of trying to make it difficult to
understand.

TV Pass Card - A small plastic device resembling a 3.5" computer diskette for insertion in
set-top boxes (that use TV Pass Cards.) The card is encoded to provide the subscriber with
only authorized access to programming services.

Set-top box (STB): Device that converts and displays data from analog cable, digital cable,
or digital broadcast television to a standard frequency (channel number) for display on a
standard analog television set, or a box that receives off-air DTV signal for display on a
DTV monitor.

Side Panels: Used with imaging a standard 4:3 picture on a wide-screen 16:9 aspect ratio
television screen, typically with black bars (side panels) on each side. Used to maintain the
original aspect ratio of the source material.

TDM: "Time division multiplex." The management of multiple signals on one channel by
alternately sending portions of each signal and assigning each portion to particular blocks
of time.

Terrestrial: A broadcast signal transmitted "over the air" to an antenna.

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Upconverting: Process which increases the number of pixels or frame rate or scanning
format used to represent an image by interpolating existing pixels to create new ones at
closer spacing. Process does not increase the resolution of image. Upconverting is done
from standard definition to high definition. (See Downconverting.)

Video-on-Demand (VOD): When video can be requested at any time, solely at the
discretion of the end-user (viewer).

Bootstrapping : This process, by which a simple language is used to translate a more

complicated program, which in turn may handle an even more complicated program and so
on, is known as bootstrapping, by analogy with the idea that it might be possible to lift
oneself off the ground by tugging at one's boot-straps.

Breakpoint: A breakpoint, in software development, is an intentional stopping or pausing

place in a program, put in place for debugging purposes. More generally, a breakpoint is a
means of acquiring knowledge about a program during its execution. During the
interruption, the programmer inspects the test environment (logs, memory, files, etc.) to
find out whether the program functions as expected.

In practice, a breakpoint consists of one or more conditions that determine when a

program's execution should be interrupted. Most commonly, the program's execution is
interrupted before a programmer-specified instruction is executed. Other kinds of
conditions, such as the modification of a specific area in memory, or at a particular time, or
upon a keystroke, are also used.

"Coder-decoder." A device that converts analog video and audio signals into a digital
format for transmission. Also converts received digital signals back into analog format.

Coder/decoder equipment used to convert and compress analog video and audio signals
into a digital format for transmission, then convert them back to analog signals upon
reaching their destination.

Coder-Decoder. Videoconferencing hardware that codes the outgoing video and audio
signals and decodes the incoming signals. Prior to transmission, the codec converts analog
signals to digital signals and compresses the digital signals. Incoming audio and video must
be decompressed and converted from digital back to analog.

Compressor/decompressor. Software component used to translate video or audio between

its uncompressed form and the compressed form in which it is stored. Sorenson Video and
Cinepak are common QuickTime video codecs. Also referred to as a compressor.

An acronym for "compression/decompression", a codec is an algorithm or specialized

computer program that encodes or reduces the number of bytes consumed by large files and
programs. Files encoded with a specific codec require the same codec for decoding.

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An acronym for COder/DECoder. In short, a codec is a piece of hardware or software that
takes some signal (such as video or audio) and converts it to a format suitable for
transportation using a specific set of protocols. Equipment on the receiving end must also
use these same protocols. The H.323 standard is a collection of protocols designed to
ensure compatibility between products of various manufacturers. Even though the term
“codec” specifically refers to the hardware or software converter, the term has come to
include the entire set of videoconferencing terminal equipment. Someone saying “codec” is
most

Compression-Decompression. (Pronounced "COE-deck"). A codec is a particular

compression scheme used to compress and later decompress digital video. Each
compression scheme has a different way of handling compression and decompression.
Codecs include: Cinepak, Indeo, Apple Video, Apple Animation and YUV Codec.
Compression and decompression can be done with either software or hardware. Software
codecs are slower and generally aren't capable of handling full-screen, full-motion (30
frames per second), high-quality video. Hardware compression is able to compress and
decompress full-motion, full-screen video in real-time, but requires the purchase of a
special card

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