Positionstand1 Powerpoint Template October 2007

Resistance Training for Children and Adolescents: A Position Stand from the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association
(ASCA).
Prepared by the ASCA Advisory Panel Dr Greg Wilson (Chair), Dr Stephen Bird, Dr Donna OConnor and Julian Jones
ASCA
Position Stand
Resistance Training for Children
and Youth
ASCA Position Stand 2007 Resistance Training for Children and Adolescents
www.strengthandconditioning.org
Presentation Outline
1. Rationale to the ASCA Position Stand.
2. The appropriate age to commence training how young is too
young?
3. Training intensity how heavy is too heavy?
4. Long Term Athlete Development: Program design for the 6-9;
9-12; 12-15; and 15-18 years of age groups including model
programs and muscular function prerequisites prior to
progression.
5. Injuries, how they are caused, appropriate lifting technique
and injury prevention strategies.
6. Legal cases involving weight training and children.
7. Nutrition and recovery strategies to enhance training
effectiveness in children and youth.
8. Overall summary of the ASCA recommendations.

1. Rationale to ASCA Position Stand

Previous Position Stands [NSCA 1996; AAP 2001;
BASES 2004] thorough academic documents
However, the practical recommendations that were
developed in these position stands are very general and do
not provide a great deal of specific guidance for the coach,
parent, athlete or teacher. For example, in the AAP 2001
Policy Document one of the main recommendations is:
A general strengthening program should address all major
muscle groups and exercise through the complete range of
motion. (AAP 2001 p 1471).
While such advice is undoubtedly correct these types of
general statements provide little real clarity for the coach in
developing a comprehensive resistance training program for
children and youth.
Purpose of the ASCA Position Stand
The purpose of the ASCA Position Stand is to develop a document
that provides for as much clarity and guidance as possible to assist
coaches in designing resistance training programs for children and
youth at various stages throughout their development. Hence this
document develops a number of age related sample programs,
proposes age and function specific progressions in training, and
describes the actual first hand experiences of highly trained athletes
who have performed intense resistance training during their youth.

ASCA Position Stand
The entire ASCA Position Stand and the
PowerPoint slides for this presentation
can be downloaded free of charge from
the ASCA website:
We encourage all ASCA members to
use and apply this information and make
others aware of it so that the area of
resistance training for children and youth
can be better understood.
2. The appropriate age to commence
training how young is too young?
Falk and Mor (1996) reported positive results from resistance and
martial arts training in 6-8 year old boys.
Faigenbaum et al. (2003) conducted a study with 32 girls and 64 boys
between the ages of 6-12 years that demonstrated that 1 RM testing
using child-sized weight machines was safe and effective.
Avery Faigenbaum from the University of Massachusetts in Boston is
perhaps the most prolific researcher in this area. In a review paper
entitled: Resistance training for Adolescent Athletes he stated:
Although there is no minimum age requirement for participation in a
youth resistance-training program, all participants should have the
emotional maturity to accept and follow direction and should
genuinely appreciate the potential benefits and risks associated with
youth strength training. (Faigenbaum, 2002 p 32).
The appropriate age to commence
training how young is too young?
If a child is ready to participate in organised and
structured sports such as cricket, football, rugby,
basketball etc then they are generally ready to
perform a supervised resistance training program.
As children typically enter formal school at the age of
6 years they may be ready to participate in an
organised resistance training program at about this
time.
However, the actual age will vary from child to child
and will be largely based on their capacity to follow
clear directions.
3 Training intensity how heavy
is too heavy?
The American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM) in a Current Comment paper entitled
Youth Strength Training stated:
Strength training with maximal weights is not
recommended because of the potential for
possible injuries related to the long bones,
growth plates, and back. (Faigenbaum &
Micheli, 1998 p 2).
Current Practices in Australia?
The Australian Powerlifting Federation has current records for boys and
girls for the 14 to 18 age groups (sub-junior class) with some of the boys
performing squats and deadlifts in excess of 250 kg, while one of the
girls performed 150 kg in the squat and 155 kg in the deadlift (see
www.powerliftingaustralia.homestead.com for details).
The federation also has school bench press records for various age
categories including under 14, under 15 and under 16 age categories
for both boys and girls divisions, with one of the under 14 boys lifting 85
kg and one of the under 14 girls lifting a whopping 75 kg bench press.
Similarly, the Australian Weightlifting Federation has current records for
both boys and girls in the under 16 and under 18 age classes, with
some of the under 16 boys performing the clean and jerk lift with 150 kg,
while one of the under 16 girls performed the clean and jerk with 92 kg
(see www.awf.com.au for details).
Is this really a good idea for such young athletes to be lifting such heavy
weights?
Injuries from Powerlifting
98 injuries were reported by adolescent power lifters in a survey conducted by
Brown and Kimball (1983) -
50% were to the lower back,
18% to the upper extremity,
17% to the lower extremity and
14% to the trunk.
The injury rate value of 13.8 injuries per 1000 athlete hours is much higher than
that reported for other youth sports.
In 2006 the Centre for Disease Control (CDC) in the US commissioned a study of
the injury rate in high school sport and reported:
An estimated 1,442,533 injuries occurred among U.S. high school student
athletes participating in practices or competitions for the nine sports studied. The
overall (i.e., practice and competition) injury rate in all sports combined was 2.44
injuries per 1,000 athlete exposures. Football had the highest injury rate (4.36
injuries per 1,000 athlete exposures) followed by wrestling (2.50), boys' (2.43) and
girls' (2.36) soccer, and girls' basketball (2.01). Boys' basketball, volleyball,
baseball, and softball each had injury rates of less than 2.0 injuries per 1,000
athlete exposures. (CDC 2006).
Safety of Weight Lifting
Apart from competitive powerlifting, weight lifting is a
relatively safe activity.
Rielly et al. (2002) followed 20 youth weightlifters (mean age
14.6 + 1.9 years) for their final 8 weeks of preparation for
the US National Junior Weightlifting Championships and
reported only 0.9 injuries per 1000 hours of participation.
A similar value of 0.8 was reported for weightlifters by
Risser et al. (1990).
These values are much lower than the average of 2.44
reported for other popular youth sports.
Anecdotal Experience: My Story
Greg Wilson commenced intense weight training at 13 years of age and
competed in his first junior (u/20) National Powerlifting championships in
1981 in the 67.5 kg weight class winning the division with a 165 kg squat, 105
kg bench press and a 195 kg deadlift at 15 years of age.
Two years later with consistent heavy training in 1983 Greg again won the
junior National Powerlifting championships in the 90 kg weight class lifting a
235 kg squat, 152.5 kg bench press and 260 kg deadlift at 17 years of age.
Later that year Greg herniated his lower spine while deadlifting. The back
injury settled down and Greg continued to compete throughout his teenage
years finishing his lifting career at the 1990 WA State Powerlifting
Championships with a 320 kg squat; 225 kg bench press and 320 kg deadlift
lifting in the 110 kg weight class.
At this stage, at the age of 24, Gregs body was so riddled with injuries that
he no longer competed.
Reflections from my Experience
Now in his 40s Greg still trains with weights and often has soreness
in his lower back, elbows, and knees. He remembers his Powerlifting
days with fondness but wishes with the benefit of hindsight that he
commenced competing in Powerlifting once he had reached skeletal
maturity at the age of about 18 years, rather than at 13 years of age.
Greg still feels that it is a good idea to train with weights at 13 years
of age but would have been better to do body building type training
with lighter weights (60-80% maximum) for more repetitions (6-12)
and avoided maximal lifts, especially for the squats and deadlifts.
Greg feels such an approach may have avoided many of the injuries
that he endured, enabled him to compete for longer in Powerlifting,
but still allowed him the benefits of training during the adolescent
growth spurt from 15 to 17 years when he experienced the best gains
in size and strength throughout his lifting career.
Greg also feels that he should have spent more time performing
flexibility work during his youth as his body is quite stiff now and is
relatively unresponsive to flexibility training at this later time.
Recommended Training Intensity
There is an abundance of scientific and anecdotal evidence to
suggest that when appropriately performed resistance training is a
safe and effective exercise to be engaged by children and youth.
However, it would seem prudent for all children and most youth to
avoid the performance of maximal lifts, especially maximal
deadlifting.
It is the Position of the ASCA that the following training loading
intensities and exercise selection strategies be adopted when
training children and youth:
Level 1: 6-9 years of age: modification of body weight exercises and
light resistance (brooms and bands etc) work only for relatively high
repetitions eg 15+ reps;
Level 2: 9-12 years of age: 10-15 RM; (maximal loading
approximately 60% maximum) using predominantly simple free
weight exercises and machine exercises where the machine is an
appropriate size for the child.
Recommended Training Intensity
approximately 70% maximum) using progressively more free weight
exercises but avoiding complex lifts such as cleans, snatches,
deadlifts and squats etc unless competent coaching is available
from a coach with at least a Level 2 ASCA strength and conditioning
accreditation.
approximately 80% maximum) progressively moving towards an
advanced adult program involving split routines where appropriate
and complex multi-joint movements provided sound technique has
been developed under competent coaching by a coach with at least
Level 2 ASCA strength and conditioning accreditation.
Long Term Athlete Development:
Physical Competencies
In addition to chronological age, the progression from levels
1 to 4 is also muscular function dependent. For example,
prior to progressing onto Level 2: 9-12 years of age the
athlete should be at least 9 years of age and able to:
1. Hover in a horizontal position with feet, elbows and forearms
touching the ground and straight back position for 60 s.
2. Perform 10 well controlled back extensions to horizontal.
3. Perform 10 well controlled full range double leg squats with
hands behind the head and feet flat on the floor.
4. Perform 10 well controlled push ups off their toes chest to
touch the ground and arms achieve full extension.
5. Perform 5 well controlled lunges each leg with back knee
touching the ground and good balance.
6. Wall squat at 90 degrees for 60 s.
7. Touch their toes in the sit and reach test.

Hence an 11 year old just starting out with resistance
training would be encouraged to commence in the 6-9
years old category i.e. Level 1 using modified body weight
and light resistance exercises only until they can perform
the above exercises and then progress to the 9-12 year
old category i.e. Level 2 when this has been achieved.
In this way the various categories are age related but
also muscular function dependent, with the main
emphasis of the training period being the achievement of
the set physical competencies for that chronological age
group
Prior to commencing Level 3: 12-15 years of age the athlete should be
at least 12 years of age and able to:
1. Satisfy the requirements for Level 2.
2. Hover in a horizontal position with feet, elbows and forearms touching
the ground and straight back position for 90 s.
3. Perform 10 well controlled repetitions of barbell bench press using a
load of 40% of body weight.
4. Perform 10 well controlled repetitions of dumbbell rowing using a load
of 15% of body weight in each hand.
5. Perform 10 well controlled pull ups with legs out straight using an
underhand grip.
6. Perform 10 well controlled lunges each leg with back knee touching
the ground and good balance holding a load of 10% of body weight in
each hand
7. Reach 5 cm beyond their toes in the sit and reach test.
Prior to commencing Level 4: 15-18 years of age the
athlete should be at least 15 years of age and able to:
1. Satisfy the requirements for Levels 2 and 3.
2. Hover in a horizontal position with feet, elbows and forearms
touching the ground and straight back position for 120 s.
3. Perform 5 well controlled full range single leg squats each leg.
4. Perform 10 well controlled parallel bar dips for boys and 10
bench dips for girls with legs out straight.
5. Perform 10 well controlled chin ups for boys and a 30 s arm
hang at 90 degree elbow angle for girls (underhand grip).
6. Perform 10 well controlled repetitions of barbell bench press
using a load of 70% of bodyweight for boys and 50% of body
weight for girls.
Model Programs
In this section a number of model programs for Levels 1,
2, 3 and 4 will be outlined.
It is not intended that these programs be the only
programs allowable for children or youth to use and
modifications to the programs will be required depending
upon the individual characteristics of the children, training
goals, available equipment, training time etc.
However, model program are developed to serve as
useful examples from which individual specific training
programs may be developed and employed.
Training Supervision
It is the position of the ASCA that all programs performed
by children must be strictly coached by an adult(s)
accredited with at least a Level 1 ASCA Strength and
Conditioning coaching accreditation and to coach youth
in level 3 and 4 in the more complex lifts a coaching
accreditation of at least a ASCA Level 2 would be
required with a preference for such coaches to be moving
towards the ASCA Pro Structure.
Further, when supervising groups of children the ratio of
coaches to children is recommended to be 1 coach for
every 10 children and that the children receive
comprehensive instruction on relevant safety issues prior
to the commencement of training.
Model Programs for Level 1: 6-9 yr
Level 1 programs are designed for young children 6 to 9
years of age or any older child who is just starting out in
resistance training and conditioning.
Appropriate programs involve modified body weight type
exercises and light resistance work with bands and
broom sticks etc performed for relatively high repetitions
eg 15+ reps.
The goal over this period is to have the children become
accustomed to regular training, develop basic fitness
abilities such as strength, muscular endurance,
cardiovascular endurance, co-ordination and flexibility in
a safe, low stress, fun environment.
Model Programs for Level 1: 6-9 yr
A beginning program would comprise a basic 3 day per week circuit type whole body
program performed on alternate days (i.e. Monday, Wednesday and Friday) of the following
exercises:
Basic warm up and stretch (5 minute jog or cycle etc plus 2-3 minutes of light stretching)
1. Step ups (both left and right legs) (quadriceps, hamstring and gluteal muscles) 20 to 30 cm
step or chair
2. Push ups (pectorals, deltoid and triceps brachia muscles) - off knees initially progressing
onto toes as strength increases.
3. Star jumps (quadriceps, adductors, gluteal muscles).
4. Abdominal crunches (abdominals and hip flexors) as strength increases progress towards
bent legged sit ups.
5. Chair dips (triceps brachia muscle).
6. 90 degree wall sit (quadriceps and gluteal muscles).
7. Reverse back extensions (lower back, gluteal and hamstring muscles) lying face down with
torso over table or bench and lift legs to level of hips hold top position for 1-2 s and repeat.
8. Hover (abdominal, hip flexor and lower back muscles) initially off knees progressing to
toes.
Cool down and stretch (5 min jog or cycle etc and 5 minutes of stretching)
Progression for Level 1
Week 1: Perform 20 s of each exercise for as many controlled repetitions as possible
followed by 40 s rest and then move onto the next exercise. Perform 1 circuit total
workout time approximately 25 minutes (including warm up and cool down). Once this
circuit is comfortably achieved by the athlete progress onto stage 2.
Stage 2: Perform 30 s of each exercise for as many controlled repetitions as possible
followed by 40 s rest and then move onto the next exercise. Perform 1 circuit total
workout time approximately 27 minutes (including warm up and cool down). Once this
circuit is comfortably achieved by the athlete progress onto stage 3
Stage 3: Perform the same as stage 2 but repeat the circuit 2 times total workout
time approximately 38 minutes. Once this circuit is comfortably achieved by the athlete
progress onto stage 4.
Stage 4: Perform 2 circuits but increase exercise time to 40 s per exercise with 50 s
recovery total workout time approximately 40 minutes. Once this circuit is
comfortably achieved by the athlete progress onto stage 5.
recovery - total workout time approximately 43 minutes. Once this circuit is
comfortably achieved by the athlete progress onto stage 6.
recovery - total workout time approximately 47 minutes.
Further progressions in Level 1
Over time the athlete can increase the intensity of some of the exercises. For
example, some options include:
1. Increasing the step height for the step ups
2. Push ups off toes rather than knees
3. Progress from crunches to bent legged sit ups
4. Chair dips performed with legs progressively further from the chair
5. Hover off toes rather than off knees
Over time, with continued adaptation, additional exercises may be added or substituted
such as:
1. Lying pull ups performed from under a small table or off a low bar (e.g., smith
machine bar)
2. Isolated DB exercises such as DB arm curls, triceps kickback, lateral raises
3. Lunges
4. DB Squats
5. Normal back extensions instead of reverse back extension
However, in all cases workouts should be limited to 3 whole body routines per week
performed on alternate days for a duration not exceeding 1 hour in total.
Final progression in Level 1
Hence towards the end of the Level 1 period a typical program may involve the
following exercises:
Basic warm-up and stretch 5 minutes
1. Step Ups (both left and right legs) (quadriceps, hamstring and gluteal muscles)
2. Push Ups (off toes) (pectorals, deltoid and triceps brachia muscles)
3. Star Jumps (quadriceps, adductors, gluteal muscles)
4. Sit Ups (abdominal and hip flexor muscles)
5. Lunges (both left and right legs) (quadriceps, hamstring, gluteal muscles)
6. Lying Pull Ups (upper back and biceps)
7. Standing Squats with light (2-3 kg) DB (quadriceps and gluteal muscles)
8. Chair Dips (triceps brachia muscle)
9. Back Extensions (lower back, gluteal and hamstring muscles)
10. Hover (abdominal, hip flexor and lower back muscles)
Cool down and stretch 10 minutes
60 s work and 60 s rest for 2 circuits total workout time approximately 60
minutes.
Level 1 model programs
There are many variations that could be done to the above
programs.
The use of time rather than a prescribed repetition number
has been employed as it is often easier to co-ordinate and
focus children, especially when in a small group, to a time
of exercise rather than a repetition number and have them
focus on performing controlled repetitions rather than rush
to get to a particular repetition number.
The above programs have been developed with minimal
equipment requirements so that they may be adopted by
the greatest number of children who may not have access
to specialized resistance training equipment and can
perform the exercises from home or in a school room etc.
Model Level 2 Programs: 9-12 yr
At level 2 the programs begin to incorporate some free
weights and machine weight exercises as well as body
weight activities.
Again it is essential that the programs adopted be
strictly supervised by an adult with at least a Level 1
ASCA Strength and Conditioning accreditation and the
machines used be an appropriate size for the children.
A beginning program for level 2 would comprise a basic
3 day per week whole body program performed on
alternate days (i.e., Monday, Wednesday and Friday) of
the following exercises:
Model Level 2 Program
Basic warm up and stretch (5 minute jog or cycle plus 2-3 minutes of light stretching)
1. Lunges (initially using body weight but progressing to include light dumbbells when
appropriate)
2. Machine Leg Press
3. Barbell Bench Press
4. Wide Grip Lat Pulldown to the Front
5. Dumbbell Row
6. Back Extensions
7. Triceps Pushdown
8. Dumbbell Arm Curl
9. Hanging Knee Raises
The repetition range is between 10 to 15-RM with a maximal loading of 60% of the 1-
RM.
Initially the program should commence with 1 set of each exercise with 1-2 minutes
rest between sets, progressively building up to 3 repeated sets as the child advances
and can readily tolerate the increased training volume.
Model Level 3 Program: 12-15 yr
At level 3 the programs begin using progressively more
free weight exercises but avoid complex lifts such as
cleans, snatches, deadlifts and squats etc unless
competent coaching is available from a coach with at
least a Level 2 ASCA strength and conditioning
accreditation.
Again it is essential that the programs adopted be strictly
supervised by an accredited adult and the equipment
used be an appropriate size for the children.
A beginning program for level 3 would comprise a basic 3
day per week whole body program performed on
alternate days (i.e., Monday, Wednesday and Friday) of
Level 3 model program
Basic warm up and stretch (5 minute jog or cycle etc plus 2-3
minutes of light stretching)
1. Front barbell squats
2. Step ups holding light dumbbells
3. Barbell bench press
4. Chin ups initially using a close underhand grip and restricted
range of motion but progressing to a full range of motion as
strength develops
5. Back extensions with a 2 s pause at top
6. Hanging leg raises or Inclined sit ups
7. DB seated overhead press
8. Parallel bar dips or Bench dips if not sufficiently strong to perform
8 repetitions.
9. Hover Circuit: 60 s 2 arms to front and 30 s 1 arm each side
10. Barbell Arm Curls
Level 3 model program
The repetition range is between 8 to 15-RM with a maximal loading
of 70% of the 1-RM.
Initially the program should commence with 2 sets of each exercise
with 1-2 minutes rest between sets, progressively building up to 4
repeated sets as the youth advances and can readily tolerate the
increased training volume.
Towards the end of level 3 the youth may start employing pyramid
loading where the loading can be increased on subsequent sets with
a lighter drop set employed for the final set.
For youth wishing to pursue a sporting career in a strength or power
based sport such as any of the rugby or football codes, track and
field, swimming etc it is recommended that during this level the more
complex and/or explosive exercises such as clean and press,
squats, and deadlifts be included in the program and that competent
instruction from a strength and conditioning coach with at least Level
2 accreditation be employed to instruct the athlete.
Level 4 Model Programs: 15-18 yr
At level 4 the programs are progressively moving
towards an advanced adult program involving split
routines where appropriate and complex multi-joint
movements provided sound technique has been
developed under competent coaching by a coach with at
least Level 2 ASCA strength and conditioning
accreditation.
The repetition range is between 6 to 15 RM with a
maximal loading of 80% of the 1 RM.
A beginning program for level 4 would comprise a basic
3 day per week whole body program performed on
alternate days (i.e.. Monday, Wednesday and Friday) of
Level 4 Model Programs: 15-18 yr
Warm up 10 mins on bike
1. Major chest exercise (Bench press, Incline bench press or DB
press)
2. Overhead shoulder press (Clean and press, Standing military
press or Seated press behind neck)
3. Upper back exercise (Chins, Lat pull or DB pullover)
4. Triceps (Dips, Lying triceps extension or Triceps pushdown)
5. Major leg exercise (Squat, Leg press or Hack squat)
6. Lower back exercise (Deadlift or Back extension)
7. Hanging leg raise (holding light 1-3 kg medicine ball between
legs when strong enough)
8. Major bicep exercise (Standing DB curls, EZ curls or Preacher
curls)
9. Inclined sit ups or Hover circuit
10. Calf raises
Cool down and Stretch 10 mins
Level 4 Programs
Should change specific exercises throughout the week:
Mon and Fri perform Barbell Bench Press, Wed Inclined Bench Press
Mon Clean and Press, Wed Standing Military Press, Friday Press
Behind Neck
Mon Chins, Wed DB Pullover, Fri Lat Pulldown
Mon Squat, Wed Leg Press, Fri Hack Squat
Mon and Fri Deadlift, Wed Back Extension etc
The repetition range is between 6 to 15-RM with a maximal loading of
80% of the 1-RM.
The program should consist of 3-4 sets of each exercise with 2-3
minutes rest between major exercise such as clean and press, squats,
deadlifts etc and 1-2 minutes rest between sets for more basic
exercises such as back extensions, sit ups etc.
The youth is encouraged to employ pyramid loading techniques where
the loading can be increased on subsequent sets with a lighter drop set
employed for the final set.
Level 4: Split routines

After 12 months on the above whole body program the
individual may choose to up the intensity and volume and
move to a 2 way split routine.
This involves splitting the body in 2 and performing each
workout 2 times per week, thus 4 workouts per week.
The ASCA preferred way to achieve this is to split the
body into:
Day 1: Upper Body (Chest, Shoulders, Triceps, Upper
Back and Biceps): Monday and Friday.
Day 2: Lower Body (Legs, Lower Back and Stomach):
Wednesday and Saturday
Level 4: Model 2 way split routine
Monday and Friday - Upper Body (Chest, Shoulders, Triceps, Upper
Back and Biceps)
1. Bench Press
2. Inclined Bench Press or DB Flies
3. Standing Push Press
4. DB Lateral Raises or Rear deltoid exercise
5. Chin Ups
6. DB Pullovers or Bench pull
7. Dips
8. Lying Triceps Extension
9. DB Twist and Turn Biceps Curls
Cool down 10 mins stretching
3-4 sets of 6-15 reps with about 1-3 minutes rest between sets.
Level 4: Model 2 way split routine
Wednesday and Saturday - Lower Body (Legs, Lower Back and
Stomach):
1. Squats
2. Deadlifts or Cleans
3. Leg press
4. DB lunges
5. Leg curls
6. Back extensions with additional loading
7. Calf raises
8. Russian twists with medicine ball or Inclined sit ups with rotation
9. Hanging leg raises with light medicine ball between legs
Cool down 10 mins stretching
3-4 sets of 6-15 reps with about 1-3 minutes rest between sets.
Level 4: Periodisation Strategies
At this stage the athlete should be adopting periodisation techniques
for the major lifts (i.e. bench press, squats, cleans etc) with their
resistance training to coincide with their sporting program. For
example, if the athlete was simply interested in getting basically big
and strong during a 12 week off-season program the following
schedule may be of use:
4 weeks of high volume and low intensity training performing 4 sets of
15-RM loads per exercise followed by:
4 week of moderate volume and intensity training performing 4 sets of
10-RM loads per exercise followed by:
4 weeks of low volume and high intensity training performing 4 sets of
6-RM loads per exercise.
At the end of the 12 week period the program could return to the 15
RM loads hopefully with the athlete considerably bigger and stronger
then when they commenced the 12 week program.
5. Injuries, how they are caused, appropriate
lifting technique and injury prevention strategies
One method to determine the prevalence, severity and
types of injuries that occur when performing resistance
training is from data available from the US National
Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) which is a
national probability sample of hospitals in the U.S. and its
territories (see www.cpsc.gov/library/neiss.html).
This web site allows an individual to enter an activity (eg
such as Weight lifting, code 3265) for various age groups
and determine the number of times individuals presented to
hospital emergencies departments, the outcomes from the
presentation (e.g., admitted, treated and released,
deceased etc), and the reason for the accident (e.g., weight
dropped on toe, hurt back while lifting etc).
Weight training injuries
If age is limited from 6 to 17 years for the year 2006 and 3265 entered for the
product code (i.e. Weight lifting) the system records some 531 presentations at
emergencies departments in the sample which is estimated to represent
18,592 presentations across the US as a whole.
Of these presentations about 98% were simply seen or treated and released
not requiring hospital admission.
33% of the injuries (6,093) were sustained at school,
26% (4,796) occurred in the home,
14% (2,624) occurred at a sport or recreational place.
In examining the region of the body most likely to be injured the following were
identified:
Finger 3,196 (17%)
Lower Trunk 1,930 (10%)
Foot 1,882 (10%)
Toe 1,386 (7%)
Shoulder 1,323 (7%)
Head 1,274 (7%)

US Hospital Presentation Data
In examining the hospital presentation data for the 6-17 age group quite a
few very basic types of reoccurring themes are clear eg dropped weight on
foot, finger or toes, bumped head on bar or fell over lifting weights etc as
well as strained back, shoulder or abdomen when lifting etc.
In reading through the details of individual cases it reveals that in order to
significantly reduce injuries to children in the weight room that more attention
to basic safety issues such as putting weights and dumbbells safely away,
using collars, basic training on loading and unloading bars, appropriate
handling and storing of dumbbells, bars, plates and collars, strict supervision
of children in weights area etc may well be of greater importance than
instruction on lifting technique, especially for younger children (i.e. 6-13 year
olds).
The adherence to such basic safety issues should be particularly
emphasized in the school and at home where most of these injuries occur.
It should be understood that the weights areas is a very dangerous location
for young children, full of heavy objects that are very hard when collided with
and easy to fall over, bump into and drop on little fingers and toes.
Appropriate lifting technique
As children progress through to the teenage years the
number of lower back injuries from weight lifting tends to
increase to a greater extent and appropriate instruction in
lifting technique becomes increasingly important.
In the Keynote Lecture for the International Society of
Biomechanics entitled The biomechanics of low back
injury: implications on current practice in industry and the
clinic, Dr Stuart McGill (1997) presented a diagram of two
different dead lifting techniques that clearly demonstrated
that the optimal back posture while lifting is the normal
lumbar curve that is present while standing erect
Appropriate lifting technique
McGills (1997) research clearly demonstrated that when
adopting this natural lumbar curve when lifting the
musculature of the lower back and abdominals are
highly activated.
This serves to take much of the load off the lower back
ligaments and greatly reduces the net shearing forces on
the spine.
When this back position is not adopted and the lifters
lower back flexes forward the musculature of the lower
back and abdominals can not effectively function and
this places much higher shearing forces on the
ligaments and spine, increasing the likelihood of damage
to these vital structures.
Injury Prevention: Training the Core
The research of McGill (1997) clearly
demonstrates that strong muscular action from
the abdominals and lower back muscles can
significantly serve to reduce dangerous shear
forces on the spine.
Hence training of the vital musculature of the
abdominals and lower back should be a
fundamental aspect to all training programs for
children and youth through all phases of the
training process.
Injury Preventation
Resistance training can favorably enhance the strength of the
musculo-skeletal system and has been shown to reduce the rate of
sports-related injuries (Cahill and Griffin, 1978; Hejna et al., 1982;
Hewett et al., 1999; Heidt et al., 2000).
Each of these studies has shown that the performance of a
preseason and/or in season conditioning program that included
resistance training significantly reduced the incidence of sports-
related injuries.
For example, in the study by Hewett et al. (1999) a 6 week
conditioning program on high school female athletes decreased the
incidence of serious knee injuries from 10 in the control (non-
conditioning group) to only 2 serious knee injuries in the group who
had performed the 6 week conditioning program.
Eliminating False Grips
During a 1-year period, 11 adult men died of asphyxia caused by
barbell compression of the neck or chest as they performed heavy
bench presses at home without a spotter (Lombardi, 1995), and a
similar accident occurred in a 9-year-old boy (George, Stakiw &
Wright, 1989). (Faigenbaum, 2002 p 34).
The bench press is arguably the most popular of all weight training
exercises. One factor associated with serious injuries from the bench
press exercise is the tendency for many experienced lifters to adopt a
false grip, whereby the thumb is placed behind the bar rather than
secured firmly around the bar.
The use of a false grip is quite prevalent amongst experienced
trainers and greatly increases the likelihood of the bar slipping out of
the hands while bench pressing resulting in potentially devestating
and even fatal injuries.
A second factor is benching pressing without a competent spotter.
6. Legal cases involving weight
training and children
The Australian Legal Information Institute, which is a joint
facility of the University of Technology Sydney and the
University of New South Wales Faculties of Law (web site
www.austlii.edu.au) lists legal cases.
Cullen v Tathem (2000), which was heard in the
Queensland District Court, order made 30 June 2000.
Andrea Cullen injured her thumb in squat machine just
prior to her 17th birthday and successfully sued the
manager of the fitness centre, for $11,789 Ms Tathem, for
failure to supervise or provide safety-warning signs.
Cullen v Tathem (2000)
This case is interesting in that it clearly demonstrates that children can
not be expected to have common sense in a gym setting and that they
require instruction and supervision.
It is perhaps a little hard to believe that anyone would actually place one
hand underneath a weight stack and then use the other hand to pull the
pin out that holds the weight stack up not realizing that the weight stack
was going to squash the hand placed underneath it. However, this is
apparently what happened and the legal system then holds Ms Tathem,
the proprietor of the Squash and Fitness Centre liable for this event. Ms
Tathem had a duty of care to provide instruction for Miss Cullen or at the
very least a warning sign that presumably would have stated something
like Dont remove weight pins while lifting.
The requirement to provide clear instruction and adequate supervision for
children in a weights room is an obvious implication from this case as is
the understanding that children can do really silly things when in a gym
and when they do these silly things the coach or owner may well be
legally liable for them.
7. Nutrition & recovery strategies
For the child athlete, energy intake should be
high enough to support growth and maturation
while providing enough energy and fluids for the
additional physical activity. (Cotugna, Vickery
and McBee 2005 p 324).
ASCA Macro-nutrient
recommendations
Approximately:
55% Carbohydrate: 5 to 10 g/kg bwt/day
depending on training intensity
25% Protein: 1.4 to 1.8 g/kg bwt/day
20% Fat: Majority from unsaturated fats eg
nuts, avocardos etc
Protein Supplementation
There is this anabolic window that during
which, ingestion of small amounts (eg 40 g) of
protein/essential amino acid maximises the
training response to resistance exercise.
Hence the use of protein supplements prior to,
during and immediately after intense exercise is
advocated by the ASCA.
Such supplementation should be performed
within the overall limit of 2 g of protein/kg
bwt/day.
Creatine Supplementation
The ASCA acknowledges that there is
considerably controversy surrounding the use of
creatine by young athletes.
However, based on available published findings
it is the opinion of the ASCA that the sensible
use of creatine (5 g/day) is a safe and effective
strategy to be employed by healthy young
athletes.
Recovery Strategies
Based on available research data and currently
adopted practices in elite sport, it is the
position of the ASCA that active cool-down and
water immersion (cold water, contrast hot and
cold, and pool recovery sessions) are useful
recovery methods that should be adopted by
adolescent athletes in serious training.
8. Overall summary of the ASCA
recommendations
It is the position of the ASCA that:
1. There is an abundance of evidence to suggest that when
appropriately performed resistance training is a safe and effective
exercise to be engaged by children and youth.
2. Prior to the commencement of resistance training all children should
receive comprehensive instruction on gymnasium safety including
use of collars, placing weights away correctly, correct handling and
storage of dumbbells, barbells, collars and weights, appropriate
spotting procedures, no playing around in the weights room etc.
3. Throughout their training period youth should be instructed by
competent strength and conditioning coaches who can ensure
correct lower back lifting technique involving the adoption of the
natural lumbar curve and effective use of the abdominal and lower
back muscles when lifting.
Recommendations: ASCA Position Stand
4. Strong muscular action from the abdominals and lower back muscles
can significantly serve to reduce dangerous shear forces on the
spine. Hence training of the vital musculature of the abdominals and
lower back should be a fundamental aspect to all training programs
for children and youth through all phases of the training process.
5. Technical competence in the performance of resistance training
exercises is the primary focus for children and youth prior to any
progression in loading or training volume.
6. All individuals should adopt a standard grip whereby the thumbs are
securely rapt around the bar during all lifts where the bar is lifted
above the body such as bench press. The use of a false grip is
strongly discouraged.
7. The youngest a child should commence resistance training is at 6
years of age provided they have the maturity to follow clear
instructions and an appreciation of the dangers present when
training.
8. When training children and youth the long term athletic development of the child needs to
be of paramount concern and various logical progressions in the training cycle are required
to be systematically imposed throughout the childs development which are age related but
also muscular function dependent. It is the Position of the ASCA that the following training
loading intensities and exercise selection strategies be adopted when training children and
youth:
Level 1: 6-9 years of age: modification of body weight exercises and light resistance
(brooms and bands etc) work only for relatively high repetitions eg 15+ reps;
Level 2: 9-12 years of age: 10-15 RM; (maximal loading approximately 60% maximum)
using predominantly simple single joint exercises with dumbbells and machine
exercises where the machine is an appropriate size for the child.
using progressively more free weight exercises but avoiding complex lifts such as
cleans, snatches, deadlifts and squats etc unless competent coaching is available from
a coach with at least a Level 2 ASCA strength and conditioning accreditation.
progressively moving towards an advanced adult program involving split routines
where appropriate and complex multi-joint movements provided sound technique has
been developed under competent coaching by a coach with at least Level 2 ASCA
strength and conditioning accreditation.
9. Children and youth in the first 3 stages (i.e. Levels 1-3) benefit
most from programs that improve body/limb control and joint
stability. These programs would also inadvertently improve other
outcomes (eg. strength-endurance, general strength) without
specific training for those outcomes. With a solid foundation of
training emphasizing body/limb/joint control and stability and
technical mastery during resistance exercises, athletes entering the
fourth stage (i.e. Level 4) may more safely embrace training aimed
at improving other resistance training outcomes such as strength
and hypertrophy.
10. Resistance training can be effectively used to reduce the likelihood
of the occurrence of sporting injuries by the development of the
musculo-skeletal system and through reducing muscular
imbalances.
11. All programs performed by children must be strictly coached by an
adult(s) and that the adult be accredited with at least a level 1
ASCA Strength and Conditioning coaching accreditation. To coach
youth in level 3 and 4 in the more complex lifts a coaching
accreditation of at least ASCA Level 2 would be required with a
preference for such coaches to be moving towards the ASCA Pro
Structure. Further, when supervising groups of children the ratio of
coaches to children is recommended to be 1 coach for every 10
children.
12. Young and less experienced, school-aged resistance trainers can
have their strength capabilities assessed by performing testing with
lighter resistances and performing a repetitions till fatigue test,
from which 1 RM can be extrapolated with reasonable accuracy.

13. Children and youth require appropriate energy intake:
7-10 yrs 70 kcal/kg/day
11-14 yrs 47-55 kcal/kg/day
15-18 yrs 40-45 kcal/kg/day
14. Macro-nutrient recommendations are:
Protein 1.4 1.8 g/kg/day or 15-25% total energy intake
Carbohydrate 5-7 g/kg/day increased to 7-10 g/kg/day if
engaged in intensive training; or 50-55% total energy intake
Fat lower limit 15%, with upper limit of 30% total energy
intake

15. Supplement timing represents a simple but effective
strategy that enhances the muscular adaptations from
resistance training. There is this anabolic window prior
to and following training that during which, ingestion of
small amounts of protein/essential amino acid maximises
the training response to resistance exercise. Such
supplement strategies may benefit young athletes
wishing to increase lean body mass and strength.
16. Recovery techniques including active cool-down and
water immersion (cold water, contrast hot and cold, and
pool recovery sessions) offer an effective recovery
strategy and should be adopted by adolescent athletes in
serious training.

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Resistance Training for Children and Adolescents: A Position Stand from the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association

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