PRACTICAL

GUIDE
7 5 AS HR AE J o u r n a l Ap r i l 1999
eopl e sometimes attribute ef fects to
humidity without understanding the
underlying physics. For example, we have all
experienced hot, humid summer weather. Yet the
outdoor air relative humidity on a hot, humid summer
day (95F db/78F wb [35C db/26C wb]) is less than
50%. By contrast, the outdoor air relative humidity on a
cold, dry winter day is typically around 80%. This article
examines the difference between relative humidity,
specific humidity, and vapor pressure. It goes on to
explore how those measures influence phenomena
loosely attributed to humidity.
Measures of Humidity
Different measures of humidity quantify different physical
properties of the mixture of water vapor (moisture) and air. Un-
derstanding how moist air behaves requires understanding those
measures of humidity.
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water va-
por in the air to the amount of water vapor air can hold at that
temperature. At 100% relative humidity, the dry bulb, wet bulb,
and dew point temperatures are equal. At 100% relative humid-
ity, the air is saturated, which means it cannot hold any more
moisture. Raising the temperature without changing the amount
of moisture in the air reduces the relative humidity. The relative
humidity goes down because warmer air can hold more moisture
than colder air. For example, a comfort cooling system might be
designed to maintain 75F (24C)/55% RH at design load using
56F (13C) coil leaving air temperature. The system might
have enough sensible capacity to cool the room to 70F (21C)
at less than design load, or the system might be oversized. The
coil leaving air temperature does not change, so the available
dehumidification capacity does not change. The resulting room
relative humidity at 70F (21C) will be 65%, possibly generat-
ing complaints that the relative humidity is too high.
While room conditions should be analyzed in accordance with
ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Environmental Con-
ditions for Human Occupancy to evaluate comfort, if relative
humidity itself is the problem, one practical solution might be to
operate the system at the design temperature setpoint of 75F
(24C). Achieving moderately low humidity at low room tem-
peratures may require using a reheat system. Achieving low rela-
tive humidity at low temperatures usually requires specialized
systems like desiccant dehumidification.
Specific humidity is the amount of moisture in the air per
unit mass of air. It is usually expressed as grains of water per
pound of dry air (gr/lb) or pounds of water per pound of
dry air (lbw/lbda, kgw/kgda). Specific humidity is proportional
to the enthalpy or total energy content of the moist air mixture.
Specific humidity changes when moisture is added or removed.
Changing temperature does not change specific humidity unless
the air is cooled below the dew point.
Dew point is the temperature where moisture begins to con-
dense out of the air. When air is cooled to its dew point, it reaches
100% relative humidity or saturation. Cooling the air any further
causes water vapor in the air to change to the liquid phase. Liquid
water molecules accumulate, droplets form, and moisture condenses
out of the air. At the new conditions, the air contains less moisture,
has lower specific humidity, and has a lower dew point temperature,
but it is still at 100% relative humidity. Raising the temperature of
air at its dew point reduces its relative humidity but does not change
its water vapor content (specific humidity) so does not change its
dew point.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by free molecules at
the surface of a solid or liquid. Consider water in a closed vessel
at 75F (24C). Water will evaporate until the partial pressure
of the water in the vessel reaches 0.44 in. Hg (1.49 kPa), which
P
UNDERSTANDING WHAT HUMIDITY
DOES AND WHY
By Kenneth M. Elovitz, P.E.
Member ASHRAE
The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, April 1999. Copyright 1999 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in paper
form without permission of ASHRAE.
7 6 AS HR AE J o u r n a l Ap r i l 1999
Practical Guide
is the vapor pressure of water at 75F (24C).
For a given substance, vapor pressure is a function of tem-
perature. As temperature increases, vapor pressure increases.
When the vapor pressure reaches atmospheric pressure (29.92
in. Hg [100 kPa]), the liquid boils. For water at sea level, this
condition occurs at 212F (100C). At 5,000 ft (1524 m) above
sea level, atmospheric pressure is only 24.89 in. Hg (84 kPa).
That is why water boils at 202F (94C) in Denver.
Vapor pressure is a measure of the affinity of a substance
for itself. If a substance has low affinity for itself, it evapo-
rates readily even at low temperature. The substance will have
a high vapor pressure. For most HVAC processes, the vapor
pressure of interest is for water in contact with itself. How-
ever, water in contact with other substances (e.g., wood, pa-
per, salt) also has a vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of
water in contact with those other substances may be different
from the vapor pressure of water in contact with itself.
Effects of Humidity
Understanding how moisture affects materials and processes
requires understanding whether those effects are a function of
relative humidity, specific humidity, or vapor pressure. Much of
the literature on effects of humidity covers a narrow temperature
range. Those studies likely used relative humidity because it is
easy to measure. At constant temperature, relative humidity var-
ies directly with moisture content the lower the moisture con-
tent, the lower the relative humidity. Since the studies were con-
ducted over a narrow temperature range, the data lend little in-
sight into whether the operative factor is relative humidity, spe-
cific humidity, or vapor pressure. Engineers must identify the
operative parameter before they can design HVAC/R systems
that avoid or mitigate the effects of moisture in the air.
Condensation
Condensation is strictly a function of relative humidity. When
air cools to a temperature below its dew point, moisture con-
denses out of the air. It is not necessary to cool the entire air
mass to get condensation. Condensation occurs on the coldest
surface in a room. A cold window might cool nearby air below
its dew point and cause condensation while the rest of the room
remains at normal temperature.
Condensation causes a variety of problems. Condensation is a
housekeeping problem if moisture puddles on the floor or if droplets
stain the materials they contact. Condensation can damage wood,
paper, and fabric, and it accelerates rusting of steel. It can also hurt
products like frozen foods in a supermarket. No one wants to buy
the package of ice cream coated with frost. Moreover, for water
vapor in the air to form frost on the package of ice cream, it must
give up its heat of vaporization (approximately 1000 Btu/lb [2326
kJ/kg]) and its heat of fusion (approximately 144 Btu/lb [335 kJ/
kg]). It gives up some of that heat to the air and some of it to the ice
cream. The ice cream warms up a bit and can even begin to soften
or melt if the freezer is not cold enough.
HVAC/R designs generally try to avoid condensation in the
conditioned space. For cooling applications, they accomplish that
goal with dehumidifying coils that remove moisture from the sup-
ply air before it enters the conditioned space. Most comfort cool-
ing systems are designed to control temperature, so they control
Figure 1a: Temperature and moisture gradient in a wall
(condensation).
Figure 1b: Temperature and moisture gradient in a wall (no
condensation).
Ap r i l 1999 AS HR AE J o u r n a l 7 7
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INDOOR TEMPERATURE 70F (21.1C) OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE 10F (23.3C)
INDOOR MOISTURE 22.4 GR/LB OUTDOOR MOISTURE 1.3 GR/LB
CUMULATIVE FRACTION OF SFCE. TEMP. CUMULATIVE MOISTURE SURFACE DEW POINT
ITEM R-VALUE R-VALUE TEMP. DIFF. F (C) PERMS REPS REPS DIFFERENCE GR/LB F (C)
Inside air film 0.68 0.68 0.091 62.7 (17.1) nil 0.00 0.000 22.4 28 (2)
Paint nil 0.68 0.091 62.7 (17.1) 5.0 0.20 0.20 0.074 20.8 27 (3)
inch Wallboard 0.45 1.13 0.151 57.9 (14.4) 37.5 0.03 0.23 0.084 20.6 26 (3)
3 inch Air space 1.01 2.14 0.286 47.1 (8.4) 34.3 0.03 0.26 0.094 20.4 26 (3)
inch Polystyrene 3.75 5.89 0.786 7.1 (13.8) 1.6 0.63 0.88 0.325 15.5 20 (6)
inch Plywood 0.62 6.51 0.869 0.5 (17.5) 0.7 1.43 2.31 0.852 4.4 4 (20)
Clapboards 0.81 7.32 0.977 8.2 (22.3) 2.5 0.40 2.71 1.000 1.3 27 (33)
Outside air film 0.17 7.49 1.000 10.0 (23.3) nil 2.71 1.000 1.3 27 (33)
Notes: (1) Perms are grains/hr per sq ft per in. Hg Pressure difference (3) SFCE. Temp. is on outside face of surface.
(2) Reps are 1/perms (4) SFCE. Temp. = Indoor Temp. (Frac. of Temp. Diff. x Total Demp Diff.)
Table 1: Stud wall dew point analysis.
relative humidity and the risk of condensation only indirectly.
However, matching both the sensible (temperature) and latent
(dehumidification) capacities to the cooling loads is part of a
successful design.
Excessive winter humidification risks condensation on cold
window and wall surfaces. Excess humidification is humidity
above what the building envelope was designed to accommo-
date. Besides condensation, excess humidification can cause prob-
lems like peeling paint, either inside or outside.
Moisture in the Building Structure
Condensation problems are not limited to the occupied space.
Condensation inside walls can be a serious problem. Any con-
ditioned building has a temperature gradient between indoors
and outdoors. The temperature difference across each element
of the wall structure is proportional to the insulating value of
that element. Buildings also have a moisture gradient between
indoors and outdoors. The moisture difference across each ele-
ment of the structure is proportional to the vapor diffusion resis-
tance of the element.
Figure 1 illustrates the temperature and vapor pressure gradi-
ents in a wood stud wall and shows how insulation placement
affects performance.
1
While this example is for a modern house,
the analysis applies to any structure, including historic build-
ings. The house had urea formaldehyde foam insulation that
had shrunk away from the studs, leaving large areas effectively
uninsulated. Moisture from the humidified house condensed on
the back side of the sheathing, ruining it. The owner wanted to
install insulated sheathing for energy conservation and to avoid
another condensation problem.
Table 1 is a dew point calculation for Figure 1a. Like the
temperature gradient, the moisture gradient is proportional to
the resistance of each element in the wall. Where the tempera-
ture gradient is expressed in degrees, the moisture gradient is
expressed in vapor pressure (in. Hg or kPa) or specific humidity
(grains/lb, lbw/lbda, or kgw/kgda). Since vapor permeance data
are commonly tabulated in grains in the I-P system of units, it is
easier to work in grains/lb than lb/lb.
Although the units are different, the principle is similar to the
more familiar temperature gradient calculation:
Quantity Area Driving Force
R-Value Btu/h ft
2
(m
2
) F (C)
Permeance (perms) gr/h ft
2
(m
2
) in. Hg (kPa)
In Figure 1a, with the insulation inside the exterior sheath-
ing, the surface of the sheathing falls below the dewpoint and
damaging condensation can occur. The following calculation
shows the basis for that conclusion:
R-value of all components up to plywood: 5.89
Total R-value of assembly: 7.49
Temperature on inside surface of plywood:
Inside R-value Temperature
Temp. Ratio Difference
70F [70F (10F)] = 7.1F (13.8C)
Vapor diffusion resistance of components up to plywood: 0.88
Total vapor diffusion resistance of assembly: 2.71
Dew point calculation for surface of plywood
Inside Rep Moisture
Moisture Ratio Difference
22.4 gr/lb (22.4 1.3) gr/lb
= 15.5 gr/lb dew point = 20F (6C)
Since the temperature on the plywood is lower than the dew
point, moisture can condense.
Figure 1b shows that installing the insulation outside the sheath-
ing keeps the sheathing above the local dewpoint, avoiding con-
5.89
7.49
0.88
2.71
7 8 AS HR AE J o u r n a l Ap r i l 1999
Practical Guide
densation. Note that these conditions result in part from the fact
that plywood sheathing is a moderately effective vapor retarder.
2
In hot, humid climates, the indoor temperature and dewpoint
are below the outdoor temperature and dewpoint much of the
year. In those situations, the vapor retarder is usually installed
outside the insulation.
3
If a wall is not designed for the anticipated indoor/outdoor
moisture gradient, or if the indoor humidity is higher than the
building design contemplated, moisture can condense inside the
wall. That moisture can eventually cause structural damage. New
construction can include vapor retarders to accommodate indoor
humidification. Depending on their construction, it might not
be feasible to humidify existing buildings without risk of conden-
sation and damage to the building structure.
Mold and Fungus Growth
Mold and fungus spores are difficult to eliminate from a build-
ing. The spores themselves are not much of a problem until they
grow. To grow, mold spores need moisture and a food source.
4
Neither moisture nor food necessarily comes from the air. Rather,
they both more often come from the substrate where the spores
land and germinate.
5
Mold can grow inside air-handling units. In cooling systems,
cooling coil condensate may be available as a moisture source.
Although the relative humidity can be 95% or higher for months
at a time, mold does not always grow in air-handling units. Mold
will not grow even in high humidity environments unless it has
food. When mold grows in air-handling units, the food source is
accumulated dust and dirt. Keeping systems clean is the key to
avoiding mold growth in air-handling units and ducts.
Maintaining relative humidity below the oft-cited 60% level
does not guarantee against mold growth. Mold can not only
obtain food from a substrate, it can also obtain moisture from a
substrate. Some substrates allow mold to germinate with fairly
low moisture levels. Dirty surfaces and accumulated salts tend to
deliquesce moisture out of the air. That moisture in the material
promotes mold growth. Where moisture is unavoidable, as in a
cooling system, the key to avoiding mold growth is to eliminate
food sources.
Materials that hold moisture can be sites for mold growth
even in a room where the relative humidity is low. Like desic-
cants, some materials absorb moisture from the air even at low
humidity. Other materials are slow to release moisture once they
get wet. The literature suggests materials absorb moisture faster
than they release it.
6
If these materials are organic, they are ideal
substrates for mold growth.
Maintaining relative humidity below 60% at temperatures in
the normal human comfort range may reduce mold growth.
However, low relative humidity is no guarantee. Selecting mate-
rials and treating surfaces so they do not absorb or hold moisture
appears to be a more effective strategy against mold growth.
Desiccants
Desiccants are materials that absorb moisture. Commercial
desiccants generally absorb several times their own weight in
water. While desiccants are usually noted for their ability to
absorb moisture, they also desorb moisture if the water vapor
pressure of the ambient air is less than the vapor pressure of
water in the desiccant. In that respect, desiccants can be a
form of seasonal storage for latent cooling.
Desiccants can be liquid or solid. Liquid desiccants ABsorb
water vapor. Solid desiccants ADsorb water vapor. The differ-
ence is that the ABsorbed water goes into solution with the liq-
uid desiccant. ADsorbed water attaches to the surface of solid
desiccants. Solid desiccants have irregular surfaces with numer-
ous pores that provide sites for water vapor molecules to attach.
Liquid desiccants absorb water because they have a stronger
attraction for water molecules than does water itself. Expressed
scientifically, the vapor pressure of water in the desiccant is less
than the vapor pressure of water in the air. The vapor pressure
difference drives water molecules into the desiccant solution. The
vapor pressure of water in the desiccant solution increases as the
solution absorbs water and becomes more dilute. When the va-
por pressure of water in the desiccant equals the vapor pressure
of the ambient air, the desiccant stops absorbing water.
7
Solid desiccants have numerous small passages or capillaries
that attract water. Water is attracted to the surface of the desic-
cant, collects into droplets, and condenses in the capillaries. As
with liquid desiccants, water sitting on the surface of the desiccant
has a lower vapor pressure than water in the ambient air.
8
Stated
another way, the force attracting water vapor to the desiccant sur-
face is greater than the force attracting water vapor into the air.
Desiccants can achieve much lower specific humidity than
mechanical refrigeration without over cooling the space or
requiring a defrost cycle. As a practical matter, desiccant systems
tend to be economical when the desired dew point is below about
40F (4C).
Static Electricity
Static electricity results when charges accumulate on a body.
The problem occurs when those charges jump across an air gap
on their way back to their source. People can pick up charges
from walking across carpets. They carry those charges around
with them until they get close to an object that has a conductive
path back to the carpet. If the charges discharge through a com-
puter or other electronic device, the discharge can scramble data
or damage components.
Indoor static electricity discharges are often associated with
dry, winter weather. However, some of the biggest static electric-
ity discharges in human experience occur during humid summer
weather. They are thunderstorms. Even though people associate
static electricity with low indoor humidity, broader observations
show that static electricity discharges are not a function of rela-
tive humidity.
The dielectric constant of a substance is a measure of its abil-
ity to hold a charge. The dielectric constant of air does not change
very much with humidity. The reduction in static electricity dis-
charges attributed to increasing humidity has little to do with
moisture in the air. Rather, it is the influence of moisture on the
electrical conductivity of materials.
9
Static electric charges can-
Ap r i l 1999 AS HR AE J o u r n a l 7 9
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not accumulate on conductive materials. The electrical conduc-
tivity of most common materials increases in proportion to their
moisture content. Materials such as plastics, rubber, and ma-
chine drive belts that do not readily absorb moisture can accumu-
late static charges at 100% relative humidity.
10
Previous editions of the ASHRAE Handbook implicitly rec-
ognize that increasing relative humidity does not necessarily elimi-
nate static electricity. The 1983 and 1988 Handbooks state that
under some conditions, and with certain materials, maximum
electrostatic charging occurs at relative humidities of 25% to 35%
or higher.
11
That statement disappeared from the same chap-
ters in the 1992 and 1996 editions of the Handbook.
Adding moisture to the air affects static electricity only indi-
rectly. If the materials in the room absorb moisture from the air
and increase their conductivity, the risk of static electricity dis-
charge decreases. However, simply adding moisture is not reli-
able. NFPA 99-1996, Health Care Facilities, calls for hospital
operating rooms that utilize flammable anesthetics to be humidi-
fied to 50% relative humidity. Even with 50% relative humidity,
the same standard calls for additional precautions against elec-
trostatic discharge.
12
The need for additional precautions dem-
onstrates that room air relative humidity does not necessarily
have a cause and effect relationship with static electricity dis-
charges. Controlling static electricity discharges seems to depend
on surface conductivity, static dissipating clothing, conductive
flooring, and grounding as opposed to humidifying the air.
13
Rust
Atmospheric corrosion (rust) is uncontrolled oxidation of
a metal. In the case of stainless steels, oxidation produces a
thin, protective coating on the metal surface. That oxidation
is part of what makes stainless steel stainless. Aluminum
and copper also form protective oxide coatings. On the other
hand, carbon steel forms a loose oxide that readily separates
from the base metal. The loose oxide particles fall off as scale,
exposing new base metal to oxidize. The process continues
until the metal rusts away.
Plain carbon steel reportedly remains uncorroded when ex-
posed to air at a relative humidity less than about 30%.
14
The
reference does not indicate whether 30% RH at 85F (29C) is
any more aggressive to carbon steel than 30% RH at 25F
(4C). The increase in corrosion with increasing humidity is
attributed to an increase in the electrical conductivity of the envi-
ronment contacting the metal surface.
15
All corrosion is electro-
lytic in nature, so the increase in conductivity almost certainly
plays a part. However, moisture content does not affect the elec-
trical conductivity of air. Any increase in conductivity associated
with increased moisture can only be due to the interaction of
water vapor with pollutants in the air.
The ASM Metals Handbook describes the influence of sur-
face condition on rust. Rust forms on surfaces with small pores
at lower humidity than on surfaces with large pores. Small pores
draw moisture out of the air by capillary condensation due to
differences in vapor pressure.
16
Vapor pressure and capillary condensation make more sense
than relative humidity as a driving force for rusting. If the vapor
pressure of water in the surrounding air is higher than the vapor
pressure of water in small capillaries in the iron/iron oxide sur-
face, the capillaries draw moisture out of the air. Moisture in the
capillaries reacts with contaminants in the air or on the surface,
increasing conductivity and resulting corrosion. Because rust
tends to be irregular, more rust forms more capillaries, fostering
even more rust.
This analysis suggests that preventing corrosion appears to
have more to do with surface finish and dew point than relative
humidity environment. A smooth, polished surface provides few
capillaries and few sites for capillary condensation. At high tem-
peratures, low dew point results in a low relative humidity. How-
ever, as temperature goes down, relative humidity can increase
without necessarily promoting rust if the vapor pressure of mois-
ture in the air is below the vapor pressure required for capillary
condensation.
Figure 2: Equilibrium moisture content of wood.
Figure 3: Dimensional change of wood with change in moisture
content.
8 0 AS HR AE J o u r n a l Ap r i l 1999
Practical Guide
Dimensional Changes
Cellulosic materials like paper and
wood readily take on and give up mois-
ture from the air. Wood holds water in cell
cavities and within its cell walls. Green
wood can start out holding more moisture
than the weight of the wood itself (more
than 100% moisture content). When
dried, wood first gives up water from cell
cavities until the moisture content reaches
about 30%. Further drying removes mois-
ture from the cell walls. As the cell walls
lose water, they shrink. The resulting
stresses cause warping and checking.
17
After the water in the cell cavities is
gone, the cell walls give up moisture only
until the wood reaches an equilibrium
moisture content. The equilibrium mois-
ture content depends on species, tempera-
ture, and relative humidity. Relative hu-
midity is the strongest of those three influ-
ences. Figure 2 shows how the equilibrium
moisture content for wood varies with tem-
perature and relative humidity. Changing
moisture content makes the wood expand
or shrink. Figure 3 shows the magnitude
of these changes.
Like wood, paper also shrinks and grows
with changes in moisture content. A 1933
study by Weber and Snyder for the National
Bureau of Standards showed the effects of
changing moisture content on the physical
properties of printing papers.
19
Figure 4
shows one of the findings from that study.
Although the dimensional changes are small,
they are enough to cause misalignment in
multi-color printing processes.
While the Weber and Snyder study
confirms that relative humidity affects di-
mensions of wood and paper products, it
is important to put these findings into per-
spective. First, the analysis relates to equilibrium moisture con-
tent. Depending on size, thickness and how it is stored, the ar-
ticle may take hours or days to reach a new equilibrium moisture
content when the ambient temperature and humidity change.
For these materials, temperature and humidity at any one mo-
ment or even over short periods are much less important than the
long-term average over time.
Second, unless a process requires extreme precision, fairly broad
changes in temperature and relative humidity are required before
the dimensional changes become significant. Figure 2 shows that a
rather broad room temperature and humidity window of 59F to
87F (15C to 30C) and 25% to 50% relative humidity results in
a 4 percentage point change in equilibrium moisture content of wood.
Figure 3 shows that a 4 percentage point change in moisture
results in less than 1% change in dimension.
Figure 5 shows the results of recent testing by the
Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education
on a page from an 1804 law book. The paper was allowed to
reach equilibrium moisture content at various relative humidi-
ties at constant room temperature. The dimensional changes
were then measured. Figure 4 and Figure 5 taken together
relate room relative humidity to equilibrium moisture content
for paper. In Figure 4, a 2 percentage point change in mois-
ture content from 0.5% to 2.5% causes a dimensional change
of 0.18% or a strain of 0.0018. Figure 5 shows that a rather
extreme relative humidity change of 40 percentage points
(20% to 60%) to achieve that dimensional change. As a re-
sult, unless extreme precision and dimensional stability are
required, paper and wood can tolerate fairly broad changes
in environmental conditions with minimal impact.
Figure 4: Influence of moisture content on dimensions of lithographic papers.
Figure 5: Moisture isotherm of 194-year-old paper.
Ap r i l 1999 AS HR AE J o u r n a l 8 1
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Summary and Conclusions
Except for avoiding condensation, controlling indoor relative
humidity does not necessarily protect materials. Relative humid-
ity at best contributes indirectly to control of static electricity, and
mold growth. The moisture content of the materials exerts a much
greater influence and should be the parameter of interest for pre-
serving books, papers and artwork. Other authors address the
effects of moisture content on materials in greater detail.
Stored materials can take weeks or months to reach their
equilibrium moisture content. In a humidified environment,
books and papers do not release moisture
during the winter, so they start the me-
chanical cooling season loaded with mois-
ture. If the environment is not humidified,
stored books and papers give up moisture
during the winter and go further into the
cooling season before they have absorbed
enough moisture to support mold growth.
Also because hygroscopic materials take
time to absorb and desorb moisture from
the air, fairly wide variations in tempera-
ture and relative humidity over the course
of a day or even a week most likely do not
have a significant impact on the stored ma-
terials.
On the other hand, the risk of conden-
sation may make the building structure (in-
cluding historic buildings) more sensitive to
the effects of humidity than the stored ma-
terials. In northern climates, winter humidi-
fication adds moisture that can lead to con-
densation and increased mold growth. In
hot, humid climates, over cooling can also result in condensa-
tion. Attempting to dehumidify without adequate vapor retard-
ers will be expensive and ultimately unsuccessful.
Using humidity wisely requires understanding the operative
parameter: relative humidity, specific humidity, or dew point.
Over cooling a room in the name of dehumidification raises
relative humidity and may be counter productive for some mate-
rials. Allowing materials to absorb and desorb moisture slowly
in response to seasonal climate changes may be a successful at
maintaining long term stability in the materials and the build-
ings that house them.
References
1. For a more detailed discussion of this topic, see 1997
ASHRAE, HandbookFundamentals, p. 22.19 and
Acker, William G., Water Vapor Migration and Conden-
sation Control in Buildings, Heating/Piping/Air Condition-
ing, 70(6):7281.
2. The former term vapor barrier has fallen out of favor
because barrier can imply an absolute block. Vapor re-
tarders slow water vapor transfer just as thermal insulation
slows, but does not eliminate, heat transfer.
3. For a thorough discussion of design for hot, humid climates,
see CH2M Hill, Preventing Indoor Air Quality Problems
in Hot, Humid Climates: Design and Construction Guide-
lines, Orlando, Fla, 1996.
4. See Technical Leaflet Protecting Books and Paper Against
Mold, Northeast Document Conser vation Center,
Andover, Mass.
5. See Motylewski, Karen, Insect and Fungus Management
Conference Notes citing Florian, Mary-Lou, Mold and
its life cycles, http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/bytopic/pest/
pestnote.html, Nov. 1994.
6. Ibid.
7. 1997 ASHRAE, Handbook
Fundamentals, Chapter 21.
8. Ibid.
9. NFPA 921-1988, Guide for Fire
and Explosion Investigations, section
14-12.5.1.
10. Ibid.
11. ASHRAE HandbookEquip-
ment, p. 5.1.
12. NFPA 99-1996, Health Care Fa-
cilities Annex 2, Flammable anes-
thetizing locations, section 2-6.3.8:
Reduction in Electrostatic Hazard.
13. Kassebaum, J. H. and R. A.
Kocken, Controlling static electric-
ity in hazardous (classified) loca-
tions, IEEE Transactions on Indus-
try Applications, 33(1):209215.
14. United States Steel. 1971. The Making, Shaping and Treat-
ing of Steel, 9th edition, p. 981.
15. Ibid.
16. American Society for Metals, Handbook Vol. 13Corro-
sion, p. 82.
17. Hoadley, R.B., As dries the air, so shrinks the wood,
Fine Woodworking, The Taunton Press, 39(2):9295.
18. Weber, C.G. and Snyder, L.W., Reactions of lithographic
papers to variations in humidity and temperature, National
Bureau of Standards Journal of Research, vol. 12, paper
no. RP633, January 1934.
Kenneth M. Elovitz, P.E., Member ASHRAE, is an engi-
neering consultant and in-house counsel for Energy Economics,
Inc., in Foxboro, Mass. Ken received a bachelors degree in met-
allurgy and materials science from Lehigh University. He received
a JD from Suffolk University Law School and has been admit-
ted to practice in state and federal courts. He develops and edits
these special supplements to ASHRAE Journal. =
Using humidity wisely
requires understand-
ing the operative
parameter: relative
humidity, specific
humidity, or
dew point.