Choo Zheng Chen

TOURISM
International tourism
International tourism is increasing in terms of revenue generated and number of travellers. By 2020,
more than 1.6 billion international tourists will spend US$2.1 trillion every year. Europe remains the
most popular destination, but its share will drop due to Asia-Pacific and Middle East capturing more
of the market.
Domestic tourism
The average spending of domestic travellers are increasing. In some countries like China, domestic
tourism has increased in terms of proportion of travellers and tourism revenue. The trend in some
countries like Australia, has been one of fewer domestic trips, lower proportions of income spent on
domestic tourism activities and a declining appeal of domestic travel.
Evolution of mass tourism to niche tourism
In the past 20 years, more specialised types of tourism have become increasingly popular. An
important factor seems to be a general re-assessment of work-life balance. An increasing number of
people are determined not to let work dominate their lives. One result of this has been the
development of niche tourism. One in every twelve package holidays booked in early 2009 was for a
cruise.
Reasons for the growth of global tourism
Developments in technology
The development of technology is one of the most important factors that have affected global
tourism in the last 50 years. As technology has developed, the opportunities for tourism around the
world have expanded dramatically. It has allowed the transport of large numbers of people in a short
time to places of interest, thereby facilitating ease of travel.
The first, and probably the most important, factor is technological improvements to transport. The
development jet planes enabled travelling to places otherwise inaccessible by other modes of
transport. In 1970, when Pan Am flew the first Boeing 747 from New York to London, scheduled
planes carried 307 million passengers. By 2006 the number had reached 2.1 billion. Needless to say,
the rate of growth of global tourism also expanded similarly rapidly. Furthermore, the advent of
budget airlines was also critical in the development of tourism. Cheaper flights meant that anybody
could now afford to travel to virtually anywhere in the world. This caused global tourism to become
much wider spread, rather than travelling to nearby areas people could travel to other countries and
other continents instead.
Another form of technology which has influenced tourism is media and communication. There were
raised expectations of international travel with increasing media coverage of holidays, travel and
nature. The heavy marketing of various forms of tourism also contributed to the growth of global
tourism as a whole.
Lastly, as it is easier for people to travel people, high levels of international migration is becoming
prevalent. This means that more people have relatives and friends living abroad, and by visiting
them, they contribute to international travel receipts and also the growth of tourism.
Reduction of political barriers
The erosion of political barriers has boosted tourist travel into and out of countries which previously
had strict travel restrictions. For example, the collapse of the Iron Curtain led to the increased
tourism in Eastern Europe countries.
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The EU, established in 1993, is made up of 27 European countries. It has a single market between
member states with a common trade policy, and a common currency. EY citizens can freely invest,
live, travel and work in other member states, thereby encouraging domestic travel within Europe for
EU citizens.
Demand factors
In the case of tourism, demand factors refer to the factors that affect the demand for goods and
services provided by the tourism industry. The amount of disposable income, leisure time and
changing lifestyle are factors that affect the demand for tourism.
Disposable income is the amount of money left by an individual to spend. This figure is influenced by
the economic conditions of a country. As the economic conditions improve in many countries
around the world, people generally earn much more and have an increased disposable income. With
this increase, more money is available to spend on leisure activities, which includes tourism. For
example, the strong economic growth of Asian economies such as China and India in the past decade
has resulted in greater disposable income for its citizens, in turn leading to increased demand for
travel. This can be seen from the fact that between 2000 and 2007, international tourist arrivals rose
over 40%, which is an average of 4.5% a year, marking it out as a high-growth industry. Within those
7 years, tourists originating in Asia and the Pacific also increased substantially from 114.8 million in
2000 to 166.5 million in 2006, a total of 19.3% of the worlds total. Over the past decade, tourism
also grew on average 1.3% faster than GDP, once again reflecting how economic growth, which leads
to higher average disposable income in the country, will lead to growth in tourism.
Leisure time refers to time available outside the demands of work or duty. People with more leisure
time are more inclined to travel as it can act as a getaway from the stress of modern living, and this
is statistically proven. In 1936, the International Labour Organisation Convention provided for one
weeks leave per year for workers in developed countries. In 1970, this was expanded to 3 weeks,
and in 1999 to 4 weeks. In this same timeframe, international tourist arrivals increased from 230
million in 1970 to 680 million in 1999. Evidently, there is a positive correlation between the increase
in leisure time as well as the growth of global tourism.
A fast-paced lifestyle and the associated stress of modern living has given some people reason to
travel as a form of relaxation. Moreover, as people become more educated and well-informed, they
will also have an increasing desire to experience different culture and landscapes.
Destination factors
To meet the tourists needs and demands, governments supply what is lacking or needed to make
travel and tourism in their countries a positive and pleasant experience. Supply destination factors
refer to the factors that affect the willingness and ability of businesses to provide goods or services
to satisfy a demand for them. Thus, in order to attract tourists, governments provide better
amenities and subsidiary services, ensure accessibility and affordability within their countries.
The presence of attractions within a country generally encourages international as well as domestic
tourism. For example, China has a variety of attractions such as the Great Wall in Beijing and the
ancient city of Dali in Yunnan. This allows the Chinese to gain varied experiences just by travelling
within their country, as well as attracts international tourists. In 1996, there were 640 million
domestic travellers in China, and the number rose to 740 million by 2000, representing a 16%
increase. In 2005, international tourism receipts were at an all-time high of US$29.3 billion,
according to the China National Tourist Office. Evidently, attractions does indeed boost tourism,
both domestically and internationally.
Attractions alone cannot bring in tourists. The ease with which a tourist can reach them is just as
important. Having better accessibility means having a well-developed transport network. A negative
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example of this case can be seen in Cambodia. An inadequate transport network has held back its
tourism industrys development despite having well-known attractions like Angkor Wat. Cambodias
transport system was severely damaged by the civil war and only 10 airlines fly to and from airports.
With air travel becoming more frequent, not having an easily accessible airport hinders tourism
growth. In contrast, Singapores Changi Airport plays host to over 80 airlines from 50 countries, and
with efficient road and rail networks, provide tourists with greater incentives when deciding on their
tourist destination.
The cost of travel also influences an individuals travel plan. In recent years, air travel has become
cheaper, especially with the entry of low-cost carriers offering low ticket prices. For example, a
round trip between Perth and Singapore costs around $400, as compared to $600 previously.
Impact (positive and negative) of the growth of tourism on a country
Economic
Leo Hickman, in his book The Final Call, claims: The net result of a widespread lack of government
recognition is that tourism is currently one of the most unregulated industries in the world, largely
controlled by a relatively small number of Western corporations such as hotel groups and tour
operators. Are they really the best guardians of this evidently important but supremely fragile global
industry?
Multiplier effect
The multiplier effect of the tourism industry will lead to the cascading of tourists money being
circulated throughout different sectors of the national economy, resulting in overall growth,
development and stimulation of the national economy. The multiplier effect is an economic concept
that results in the money spent by tourists to permeate throughout the economy at three different
levels: direct, indirect and induced, all of which have a role to play in economic development. For
example, in this process, direct multiplier refers to an individual tourists expenditure. The tourism
industries and businesses that directly receive this money generate subsequent rounds of
expenditure, and its economic activity is known as the indirect multiplier effect. Finally, money will
be paid to local residents and businesses, and their expenditure sets off yet more rounds of
economic activity called the induced multiplier. As can be seen, with the raised input and generation
of tourist dollars into the local economy, it would eventually have an increased reach into the
incomes of the local population, thereby raising the GDP per person criterion, which is one of the 11
main indexes under the Economic Intelligence Units quality-of-life index.
Increase in foreign investment
Furthermore, with a more stable and progressive economic environment brought about by the
multiplier effects of tourism, this condition would attract large international corporations, business
chains and investors to the country, bringing employment opportunities and better infrastructure as
they seek to expand their operations there. This would meet yet another criteria (unemployment
rate going down) of the EIUs quality-of-life index, which in turn proves that this will lead to
economic development of the country. One such example would be Jamaica. Tourism is the largest
source of foreign exchange for Jamaica. In terms of the relative contribution of tourism to its
economy, the World Travel and Tourism Council ranks Jamaica 19th out of 176. The revenue from
tourism and its multiplier effects play a significant part in helping central and local governments fund
economic policies, which aids in overall economic development. This can be seen from the recent
paper (2007) on tourism by the Peoples National Party, which stated that the momentum
generated by the current round of investment from tourism has created an enormous pull factor in
terms of investor confidence. This has set the stage for an even more powerful wave of investment
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in the next 10 years. Evidently, this statement highlights the fact that the tourism industry and its
positive multiplier effects have helped to incentivise investors and businesses to shift towards that
country, and helps develop the economy of many other industries and sectors substantially.
Development of infrastructure
To attract more tourists to visit a country, the government will need to further develop the countrys
infrastructure, such as building a better and more efficient transport network. Such developments
will improve accessibility and make it easier for tourists to move around the country.
Creation of jobs and diversification of economy
The tourism industry is labour-intensive as it requires a large number of workers to provide services
for the tourists. The tourism industry can also create jobs in other industries such as primary and
secondary industries. For example, hotels buy food from local farmers, which may increase the
demand for local products. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, the industry
employed 76.1 million people directly, while the wider travel and tourism economy employed 231.2
million, representing 8.3% of total employment worldwide, making it the worlds largest service
industry. As the tourism industry grows, it encourages the growth of supporting industries, which
creates an economy with a variety of businesses and industries. In other words, the tourism industry
also diversifies the economy of the country and helps to reduce overdependence on particular types
of industry. For example, many rural Tibetans, who traditionally make a living out of farming and
animal husbandry, have benefitted economically from the growth of tourism. According to the China
Tibet Information Centre, tourism in Tibet has improved the standard of living of rural families. By
providing food and hospitality services, Tibetan farmers can earn US$250 more each year than
Tibetans who only engaged in farming and animal husbandry.
Economic leakages
Problems such as economic leakages will nullify the positive outcomes from the multiplier effects.
These leakages can come in many forms, firstly, the money borrowed to invest in the necessary
infrastructure for tourism. Many developing countries do not produce, for example, the materials or
expertise required to build hotels and transportation facilities that are essential in the tourism
industry. A second form of leakage occurs through transfer pricing. Here, profits and taxes accruing
to a destination area are reduced when payments are made in the country of the tourists origin
rather than the destination. For example, many tourists purchase packages from international tour
operators who use foreign owned hotels, attractions and services in the destination area. These
tourists thus leave very little new money and input into the destination area, therefore limiting the
multiplier effect of tourism as stated earlier. Local banks might also not be able to generate income
when tourists rely on credit card usage and travelers checks for purchases, rather than cash. Also,
for developing countries, many of them would be more likely to exempt foreign owned companies
from paying duties and taxes as an incentive to attract investment. This is more common during the
early stages of tourism development in developing countries when tourism infrastructure needs are
high and the country is unable to produce sufficient resources to supply them. All of these forms of
leakages would result in a significant portion of the tourist dollars leaving the destination country to
foreign-owned investors and companies. The local people of the country would also not receive
much of the aforementioned benefits of tourism.
For example, Kenya has been renowned for winning the Best Leisure Destination in 2008, but behind
that successful and attractive faade to tourists lies the suffrage of the local people. As Sindiga
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(1999) mentioned, the international distribution of Kenyas tourism is skewed to the advantage of
multinational corporations and tourism leakages are very high. This is because in the recent past, as
Kenyas tourism industry was still developing; there was huge pressure to bring in revenue and
profits quickly to offset the initial costs involved in developing its tourism infrastructure. And since
Kenya do not have access to such resources needed to establish tourism, it had to depend heavily on
foreign investments then, which is now reaping the benefits of a flourishing tourism industry. By
1988, there was foreign direct investment in approximately 78% of major hotels in coastal areas,
67% of hotels in Nairobi and 66% of lodges in national parks. This has resulted in the leakage of
money generated from Kenyas tourism industry into these foreign-owned investor corporations,
leaving behind very few for the locals. This is reflected in the poverty headcount ratio at national
poverty line (45.9%) according to the International Fund for Agricultural Development. The people of
Kenya have not received the full benefits from that of tourism and therefore do not fulfill any criteria
of the EIUs quality-of-life index, as can be seen from the lowly 177
th
position of Nairobi, the capital
of Kenya, in the rankings, implying that Kenya has not attained significant economic development
from tourism industry. From this case study, we can see how tourism may not necessarily be an easy
route to economic development in developing countries, as leakages may offset the potential
economic gains from the tourism industry.
Vulnerability to unforeseen events
Tourism is a highly volatile industry. This means that if a country is reliant on tourism industry as a
means for economic development, it would be extremely susceptible to events which are difficult to
control exchange rate fluctuations, natural disasters and political unrest. This is very obvious in the
2007-2008 Kenyan crisis, which adversely affected the tourism sector of Kenya. Tourism is the 2
nd

largest source of foreign exchange revenue in Kenya. Following the controversial 2007 Kenyan
presidential election, whereby there were claims of fraud and manipulation, political strife ensued,
causing tourism revenues to fall 54% from 2007 to 2008. The tourism revenues declined sharply by
about US$150 million over the course of 2 months, and tourist arrivals were reduced by 143000.
From this example, we can see how easily the economy that is reliant on tourism can be affected by
both internal and external influences, and this could have reverberating effects towards its people.
Since tourism is rather labour-intensive, such a crisis could reduce the income of the people as well
as lay off some jobs resulting in heightened unemployment rates. Another prominent example
would be the SARS outbreak in 2003 that severely affected the tourism industries of Hong Kong and
Singapore, whereby there was a drop of 41% in tourism-related income and a loss of 27000 in the
former and 43% and 17500 in the latter.
Increase in prices
The influx of tourists may result in competition for local demand for basic goods and services. The
result is an increase in prices of goods and services, which applies to both tourists and locals.
However, the impact differs for the two groups of consumers. For tourists, the increase in prices
does not affect them as much since most of them would have higher purchasing power as they are
able to afford travelling as compared to the local people.
Socio-cultural
Preservation of heritage
Heritage refers to culture and traditions that are passed down from preceding generations.
According to the Hollinshead, cultural heritage tourism is the fastest growing segment of the tourism
industry because there is a trend toward an increase specialization among tourists. Therefore,
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tourism provides an economic incentive for destinations to maintain their culture as a means of
attracting tourists and thereby generating the tourist receipts and income. An apt case study would
be that of Kenya. Among the most popular historical sites in the country include Fort Jesus, a 16
th

century Portuguese fortress. It was originally scheduled to make way for other natures of tourist
attractions as the government wanted to focus mainly on beach and wildlife tourism with the total
exclusion of cultural tourism. However, UNESCO appointed it as a World Heritage Site recently, and
this status enhanced the Forts reputation as a heritage attraction, bringing in many tourists from
around the world. Fort Jesus was ranked the most visited heritage tourist attraction in 2011 in
Kenya, and the government thus decided against its abolishment. As can be seen, tourism can bring
about positive impacts with regards to a countrys culture by preserving heritage.
Commodification of culture
In its forecast Tourism: 2020 Vision, the World Tourism Organization predicts that cultural tourism
will be one of the five key tourism market segments in the future, and notes that growth in this area
will present an increasing challenge in terms of managing visitor flows to cultural sites. Indeed,
tourism can damage heritage when not well managed as it is a double-edged sword. As noted by
UNESCO: Cultural tourism can encourage the revival of traditions and the restoration of sites and
monuments. But unbridled tourism can have the opposite effect. Here there is a real dilemma. Is
there not a risk that the boom in cultural tourism, by the sheer weight of numbers involved, may
harbour the seeds of its own destruction by eroding the very cultures and sites that are its stock in
trade? In other words, tourism can cause change or loss of local identity and values when the
demand for crafts, entertainment, or other commodities start to exert influence on the local people.
Local people may be compelled to discard their traditional activities for tourism-related ones in
order to make a living. In essence, it is the commodification of culture that results in the loss of
authenticity of a cultural heritage site. For example, the Masaai is a proud warrior tribe located in
Kenya. They have retained their ways over the centuries, but the growing tourism industry have
forced them to discard their traditional practices for tourism-related ones. Some Masaai try to make
a living by dancing and performing for tourists, but such a lifestyle is deemed improper and
unacceptable. Evidently, a loss of the true and original authenticity of the culture is eroded as a
direct consequence of tourism.
Resource use conflict
The growing demand for tourism facilities may result in competition for resources such as water and
electricity between tourists and local people. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, tourists
and tourism facilities in Spain use up to 850 litres of water per person per day, four times the daily
consumption of an average city dweller. The competition for resources may result in local
communities having to pay higher taxes to increase water supply.
Crime generation
The growth of tourism may also encourage vices and inappropriate activities in some countries. For
instance, tourists may be attracted by the availability of drugs in certain countries. As a result, the
drug trade in these countries may flourish due to tourist demand.
Environmental
Conservation of natural areas
Natural environments such as beaches, forests and mountains are potentially valuable tourist
destinations, which encourages conservation of these areas by the local people and governments.
Conservation of a natural area is the protection and management of such areas to prevent
deterioration. For example, the Malaysian government has set up the Pulau Payar Marine Park in
Kedah and Terengganu to attract tourists keen on activities such as snorkelling and diving. At the
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same time, tourists are taught to abide by rules imposed to protect the coral reef ecosystem.
Environmental awareness is also increased through education and conservation programmes at
these national parks.
Environmental degradation
Negative environmental impacts can result when the environment is not able to cope with a great
influx of tourists. This happens when the number of tourists exceeds the carrying capacity of the
area. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people that the environment can accommodate
or support without undermining the quality of the environment. If the increasing presence of
tourists is not regulated, the quality of the environment begins to deteriorate. Tourism development
in fragile ecosystems can also degrade the environment. For example, the Alps in Europe have about
40000 ski runs and 14000 ski lifts. In the process of building them, trees were removed and
mountain slopes were reshaped, increasing the likelihood of avalanches.
How tourism can be made sustainable
Sustainable tourism meets the present needs of tourists and the host country while protecting and
enhancing opportunities for future generations.
The World Tourism Organisation outlined 3 main principles for sustainable development of tourism:
Make optimal use of environmental resource Conserving the natural heritage and biodiversity at
tourist destinations
Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities Conserving the cultural heritage and
traditional values of locals / Contributing to inter-cultural understanding and tolerance
Provide economic benefits to all stakeholders Distributing economic gains among all stakeholders
fairly / Ensuring stable employment and income-earning opportunities for host communities /
Contributing to poverty alleviation
Roles of various stakeholders in taking care of tourist areas
Tourists
In 1999, the UNWTO released the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, a document containing a code
of conduct for the sustainable development of world tourism. In this code, the active part tourists
have to play is highlighted.
Responsibility has been placed upon tourists planning to visit an area to first gather information on
the area and local population before they depart. Learning about the culture, traditions and
background of a destination would enable tourists to better appreciate the locals way of life, as well
as the problems they face. For example, trekkers aware of the problem of deforestation in the
Annapurna regions in Nepal would be able to help manage the environmental impacts of tourism by
using less wood for hot water baths that would further deplete scarce wood resources there.
Tourists can also play their part by paying attention to the local customs at their travel destinations,
such as the need to remove footwear at certain places of worship. This would help to minimise the
possibility of conflict. In addition, tourists can refrain from causing disturbances to the wildlife in
natural environments. For example, when watching turtles lay eggs at the beaches of Turtle Island in
Malaysia, tourists should avoid shining torches at the turtles.
NGOs
In many cases, independent pressure groups or campaigning organisations that are usually non
profit-oriented are formed to defend or promote a specific cause. These groups are known as NGOs.
These groups are among the first to realise the threats of and opportunities for tourism in an area.
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Being interested in conserving natural areas, they normally conduct research and evaluate whether
an area will be subject to any potential harm by tourists. If an area is under threat of development
by government or corporations, NGOs may conduct campaigns, petitions or protests to exert
pressure against unfavourable plans.
The International Ecotourism Society is the largest and oldest ecotourism organisation in the world.
As an international organisation, it seeks to educate tourists, as well as to influence the tourism
industry, governments and other key organisations to integrate the principles of ecotourism into
their operations and policies.
Businesses
These stakeholders provide employment, generate revenue and act as frequent points of contact
between the tourist and the destination. For long term success of tourism, economic gains should
not be the only motivation for businesses. For example, the International Tourism Partnership, a
worldwide membership organisation for commercial businesses in the tourism sector, provides
practical guidelines for hotels to adopt, with measures to conserve energy and water, educate
people on environmental management and to purchase local products and employ locals whenever
possible.
International tour operator organisations such as the Tour Operators Initiative advice tour operators
on implementation of the principles of sustainable tourism in tour packages. For example, TOI
encourages tour operators to brief tourists on responsible behaviour at destinations. As tour
operators act as the intermediaries between tourists and the various service providers in tourist
areas, they can help local communities make preparations for visitor arrivals, improve sustainability
of their activities etc. In this way, tour operators play a role in maintaining healthy interactions
between tourists and locals.
Planning authorities
The role of planning authorities, which could include local governments or national government
agencies, is crucial in controlling the rate and scale of development in tourist areas. For example, the
establishment of the Bunaken National Marine Park, a scuba diving spot in Indonesia, has helped to
conserve coral and marine life and to ensure continued tourist arrivals in the long term. Threats to
marine life, such as overfishing, as previously practiced by the locals, were banned. 30% of tourist
entrance fees were channelled to help develop the local community.
Planning authorities may also restrict or control tourism development and arrivals. Bhutan, with a
fragile mountainous environment, accepted only 18000 visitors in 2006 as the government has a
policy to guard against the negative experience of tourism. Its policy of high-value, low-volume
tourism seeked to maximise economic benefits and minimise environmental damage.
Governments may also choose to develop a certain aspect of tourism as part of their national
development strategy. In Singapore, the drive to become a regional medical hub has led to the
government encouraging tourism in areas such as healthcare and medical tourism.
Planning authorities are often inadequate to make tourism sustainable. Some countries face
difficulties in enforcing laws and regulations on proper tourist behaviour. At times, a balance
between environmental protection and other aspects of tourism may be hard to find. For example,
the nomadic Penan people living in Malaysia had been displaced when the government declared the
area as protected. The Penan people lost their rights to live and make use of the natural resources
there. By resettling into a different environment, they also had to adjust their traditional customs
and lifestyle. When tourism was developed in the area, the Penan became a form of attraction.
Strategies for sustainable tourism
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Ecotourism
Ecotourism is defined by TIES as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment
and improves the well-being of the locals. It aims to ensure that part of the revenue earned is put
back into maintain and protecting the area. Ecotourism activities normally revolve around places
with natural attractions that are under careful management of planning authorities.
International tourism is Ecuadors 3
rd
largest source of foreign income with increasing numbers of
tourists over the years. The majority of tourists are drawn to the countrys great diversity of flora
and fauna as Ecuador boasts 10% of the worlds plant species. As visitor numbers rose, Ecuador was
anxious not to suffer the negative externalities of mass tourism evident in many other countries. The
countrys tourism strategy was to avoid becoming a mass market destination and to market quality
and exclusivity instead, in an eco-friendly way as much as possible. Tourist industry leaders were all
too aware that a very large influx of tourists could damage the countrys most attractive ecosystems
and harm its image as a green destination for ecotourism-seeking tourists. As such, much of the
country is protected by national parks and nature reserves. Ecotourism has helped to bring needed
income to some of the poorest parts of the country, providing locals with a new alternative way of
living, and raising their standard of living.
Limitations
According to UNWTO, ecotourism is considered one of the fastest expanding markets in the tourism
industry, with an annual growth rate of about 10%. However, the effectiveness of ecotourism might
suffer in areas where laws are not strictly enforced to conserve the environment. For example,
Gabon has a large area of pristine forests and wildlife, which makes it ideal of ecotourism, but the
lack of regulations to protect these places has resulted in frequent hunting and poaching of animals.
Some tour operators might also view large numbers as a source of higher income. Consequently,
visitor numbers are not controlled while many tour operators are reluctant to impose rules of
appropriate behaviour on their customers, for fear of losing business. For example, as firefly-
watching became increasingly popular in the Kuantan mangroves in Malaysia, motorised boats
replaced manually powered ones to cater to larger crowds, and some guides allow tourists to catch
fireflies. This caused disturbances to the fireflies and their habitat, threatening the sustainability of
the area.
There has been growing concern that as ecotourism continues to become more popular, countries
may compete to position themselves as ecotourism destinations. Many previously untouched
natural environments or places with unique cultures and traditions would be opened up as
alternatives to mass tourist attractions, and the flood of human activities would threaten these
areas sustainability. This would defeat the purpose that ecotourism had set out to achieve in the
first place.
Community-based tourism
Mass tourism is often planned and carried out without involving locals, often resulting in the
exploitation of local communities and the erosion of their cultures and traditions. Hence, a more
sustainable alternative to mass tourism is community-based tourism. It refers to the process of
tourism development that includes consults, and benefits to the locals, especially in the context of
LDCs. There are several ways in which locals can participate in community-based tourism. One such
way is giving them control over tourist activities, thereby enabling the local community to promote
their authentic culture. Tourists who join these activities are better able to experience the
communitys lifestyle, hence gaining more knowledge and appreciation of the place, as compared to
mass tourism.
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Community-based tourism is thus socially sustainable because the locals can benefit economically
when they earn and share the revenue received from tourists. More jobs for locals are created, more
money can be used to raise their standard of living. Tour operators and planning authorities may
also consult local communities on tourism projects. The different parties involved work towards
agreeing on guidelines to manage the impacts of tourism on the community, thus allowing locals to
actively participate in the project to make the place a tourism success.
An example can be found in the Phou Khao Khouay nature reserves in Laos. Together with the
National Tourism Authority of Lao, meetings are regularly conducted with local communities inside
or near the reserves to make key decisions on various tourism projects.
Limitations
If certain parties fail to share in the ideals of community-based tourism, the environment and
livelihood of others may be jeopardised. For example, in Phuket, Thailand, there are reported cases
of locals hunting down gibbons in their natural habitat to train them as performers for tourists.
Hence, while community-based tourism encourages the participation of the local people, these
communities may lack the knowledge to manage the development of sustainable tourism.
As community-based tourism is conducted small-scale, there is relatively less revenue for local
communities to earn from tourists compared to mass tourism. Only a small portion of expenditure
goes to the local communities to fund tourism projects.
DEVELOPMENT
Indicators
Economic
The performance of a countrys economy affects the standard of living and quality of life of its
citizens. If a countrys economy does well, its people are likely to earn more money.
Income per capita is the average income each worker in a country receives in a year. It is an
indicator of the wealth of people in a country by taking into consideration the GDP of a country. GDP
refers to the total income generated by a country in one year. When comparing wealth of different
countries, GDP cannot be used since each country has a different population size. GDP per capita
refers to the economic wealth of a country measured in terms of the total value of the goods and
services produced by each person of a country. GDP per capita = total income generated in a country
in one year/total population
Employment structure shows the proportion of the workforce in primary, secondary and tertiary
industries. Generally, primary industries contribute relatively little to a countrys wealth because
activities such as the extraction and sale of raw materials do not generate much income. Activities in
secondary and tertiary industries tend to generate more.
Employment opportunities refer to the availability of jobs in a country. When there are more
employment opportunities, the income per capita of the country increases. More people would then
be able to afford more goods and services, raising the standard of living and quality of life. With
higher SOL and QOL, demand for goods and services will further increase. This means that more jobs
will be created to produce the goods to meet the demand, hence increasing employment
opportunities in the country.
Health
Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a person is expected to live. The more
developed a country is, the higher the countrys life expectancy. This is because as a country
develops, the more likely it is that people have better access to healthcare, safe drinking water,
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proper sanitation and a clean living environment. Poor health limits development by lowering
productivity of workforce. This will affect production of goods and services and hence, GDP. Without
sufficient national income, the government cannot set up an adequate public healthcare system.
Thus, many LDCs are trapped in this vicious cycle that prevents them from improving health
conditions.
Infant mortality rate refers to the rate at which the number of babies less than one years old die for
every 1000 live births in a year. DCs have lower rates because of better access to healthcare.
Access to water supply refers to the provision of clean water for people in a country. Most people in
LDCs cannot afford pipe water, and have to collect water from wells. If it is not treated properly, it is
unsafe for drinking. Many people in LDCs are prone to water-borne diseases as a result of consuming
contaminated water.
Access to sanitation facilities allow people to dispose of waste hygienically. If sanitation is poor,
people will be exposed to bacteria in the waste, which causes contamination of the environment and
water, leading to widespread diseases.
Education
Literacy rate refers to the percentage of adults (15 and above) in a country who can read and write.
Core-periphery relationships between DCs and LDCs
On an international scale, core and periphery refer to DCs and LDCs respectively. The core country
imports raw materials from the periphery country. As these raw materials are not processed, they
are sold to the core country at very low prices. The core country in turn processes the raw materials
to make useful products, thus adding value to it. These useful and finished products are then sold to
the periphery country at a higher price than the cost of the raw materials, and thus the core country
makes a profit.
Many people in the periphery country purchase the finished products imported from core countries
because they are cheaper than buying the same products produced in their own country. Due to the
lack of necessary skills and technology for efficient and cost-effective manufacturing, production
costs of manufacturing the same goods in periphery countries are usually higher. For periphery
countries, the sale of raw materials is not sufficient to contribute significantly to economic growth,
so while the core country continues to develop, the periphery country remains relatively less
developed.
Reasons why uneven development exists between DCs and LDCs
The Least Developed Countries Report in 2009 identified 49 countries as LDCs. With 10.5% of the
worlds population, these countries generate 0.1% of its income.
Historical
Colonialism is the domination of a more powerful country over another country. There is a trend
that countries which were colonial powers in the past tend to be more developed currently than
countries which were colonised. One reason for colonialism was that colonial powers wanted to
obtain raw materials which could not be found in their own country. These raw materials refer to
natural resources used to manufacture products, and were thus very valuable. For example, the
Portugese colonised Angola in the 16
th
century and set up plantations to exploit the favourable
physical conditions and the availability of labour there. Unlike Portugal, the climate and soil
conditions in Angola were suitable for growing cash crops such as cotton. The Portugese realised
that these cash crops would fetch a high price in Europe and began exploiting them there for sale.
This resulted in a strong trading relationship between the colonial powers and their colonies.
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Workers in the colonies would harvest cash crops for export to the home countries of the colonial
powers to be processed for sale. With the advancements of technology, especially during the period
of industrialisation in the 1800s, the colonial powers had the means to add value to these raw
material by converting them into useful products which would then be sold for a higher profit. For
example, cotton would be processed into clothing and sold at a higher price. The colonial powers
thus became richer from the sale of these products, allowing them to develop their economies.
Therefore, many countries which used to be colonial powers achieved DC status quickly. On the
other hand, development was slow in many colonies. Although colonial powers developed
infrastructure such as roads to facilitate movement of cash crops, other aspects of development like
education were stagnant. As a result, many colonies remained poor. This disparity continued to
widen as DCs developed technology and industrialised further, while former colonies continued to
export low-value raw materials from which they gained little profit.
Physical
Presence of raw materials
In general, countries with plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries lacking. This is
because the money earned from selling the raw materials can be spend on projects to develop the
country, such as improving infrastructure and education. For example, Norways high level of
development (ranked 1
st
in 2003 HDI) could be attributed to its vast array of resources which include
timber and crude oil. They can be used to make products like petrol and furniture, which could then
be sold to earn a higher profit.
However, it is not a given that countries with plenty of raw materials will always develop quickly. For
example, Nigeria started extracting and selling overseas crude oil for large sums of money since the
1950s. Yet, the majority of people in rural areas remain poor, because the money earned from oil
exports has been mainly used to develop urban areas instead of improving the lives of the rural
poor. Several aspects of a countrys development were also neglected, such as accessibility to
education. Furthermore, over the years, Nigerias environment has been severely damaged by oil
exploration, and local water supplies have been contaminated by oil spillage. As a result, the
standard of healthcare deteriorated and the overall standard of living remained low. This is due to
the lack of proper enforced guidelines and regulations for oil companies to adhere by from the
government, and it could also thus be inferred that the proper management of resources is also vital
in addition to the abundance of it, in order for a country to develop quickly.
Climate
Climate refers to the atmospheric conditions at a specific place over a long period of time. When
looking at the 2005 HDI, the top 10 DCs are all located in the temperate climate zone, while the
bottom 10 LDCs are located in the tropical climate zone. Evidently, there is some degree of
correlation between climate and development.
Firstly, climate plays a major role in influencing the type of natural vegetation that grows in a
particular place. For example, the cool and moist climate of Canada and USA is suitable for growing
many important crops such as wheat and oat. People are able to grow these crops on a large scale
for sale domestically and internationally. In contrast, in countries like Ethiopia and Mali, high
temperatures and low rainfall make climatic hazards such as droughts extremely common. Droughts
pose a major problem to development because they result in insufficient water for agricultural
activities, which then affects many peoples source of income and livelihoods. Although detractors
might argue that advancements in technology can overcome the many limitations of climate, not all
countries have access to modern technology, especially LDCs. For example, it is possible to control
the physical conditions of greenhouses where crops are grown. But this form of technology is not
available in LDCs due to their inability to afford them.
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Next, climatic disasters also play an important role that affects development of countries. LDCs are
generally more vulnerable and susceptible to such disasters like floods than DCs because they lack
the money and resources to manage them as well as rebuild damaged areas. Hence, when disasters
occur in LDCs, it takes a longer time to recover, which in turn slows down the countrys
development. For example, China experiences floods every year along major rivers like the Yangtze
and Yellow River. In 2005 alone, floods killed 1000 people and caused damage to infrastructure
worth US$12.6 billion. With such extensive destruction of homes and buildings, people have to
constantly rebuild their lives and livelihoods, resulting in them continuing to experience a low
standard of living. On the other hand, the Netherlands, which is mostly flat and low-lying, is also
flood-prone. However, after a series of flood management programmes implemented by the
government, floods are no longer a serious threat to the country. The Zuider Zee Project involved
reclaiming land from an inland sea. These land, called polders, could help reduce flood occurrences.
Economic
Cumulative causation is the process of how movement of people and resources from the periphery
area increases the wealth of the core area. A core area often receives new investments for
development of industries. This creates employment, which attracts workers from the periphery
area to the core area. The flow of labour and raw materials from the periphery to core, leaving the
periphery at a disadvantage, is known as the backwash effect. With more people living and working
in the core area, there is an increased demand for goods and services. This encourages further
investments, leading to the expansion of existing industries and the establishment of new
businesses. As more jobs are generated and wages increase as economy improves, the general
wealth of the people increases as well. In response, the core are further improves its infrastructure
and services to meet the needs of the people. This entire process of the growth of the core after
initial development is known as the multiplier effect. As can be seen, cumulative causation results in
uneven development. Areas with better potential to develop will attract investments and labour
compared to other areas with less potential. For example, when Singapore began to develop quickly,
it attracted workers from periphery countries like the Philippines and Bangladesh. This results in
periphery countries being drained of labour and its development hindered. With such a disparity
between core and periphery countries, cumulative causation could thus be used to explain why such
uneven development exists.
On the other hand, however, such uneven development may disappear over time due to the spread
effect, where the spread of wealth and knowledge from the core would permeate throughout the
periphery. In other words, the benefits gained from development will spread from core to periphery.
This form of centrifugal growth counteracts the effects of uneven development from cumulative
causation. For example, the development of the automobile industry in Thailand helped the country
develop at a fast rate since 1990. During that time, manufacturing costs in core countries such as
Japan were increasing. As such, car manufacturing companies from Japan were moved to factories in
Thailand to reduce production costs. In doing so, locals were employed where they learned
knowledge and skills from the Japanese. The investments from these Japanese companies helped
Thailands economy to expand. At the same time, Japanese car manufacturers also benefitted from
the cheaper labour costs by employing Thai workers, compared to Japanese workers in their home
country. This is a prime example of centrifugal growth which to some extent, can alleviate uneven
development.
Social
DCs generally have higher literacy rates than LDCs. This could be attributed to the high levels and
quality of education available in these countries. As such, with more people being able to read and
write, they are more likely to work in secondary and tertiary industries and contribute to a higher
standard of living within the country. This is because as economies progress to secondary and
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tertiary industries, more value is added to the product, and greater profits can be generated from
these sectors. Primary product dependents are also very vulnerable to changes in world markets,
and as such, do not have a stable economy when compared to other countries further up the chain
in secondary and tertiary industries. Moving back to the issue of literacy rates, according to the 2005
United Nations Development Programme Report, Italy had a high GDP per capita of US$27119. From
that same report, Italy also had one of the highest rates of literacy. In contrast, Sierra Leone has the
rank of 176 in terms of literacy rate. This is mainly because Sierra Leone has little money to spend on
education as the countrys GDP per capita is only US$548. Most of its population, having little
education, are involved in agriculture, a primary industry.
Political
Another reason for the uneven development between DCs and LDCs is the occurrence of political
conflicts in many LDCs. Conflicts may occur in the form of wars or political instability. For example,
Cambodia had been a successful country developing fast since the time of the Khmer Empire.
However, due to the 1970 civil war, Cambodias economy suffered greatly. The instability led to
businesses being disrupted and investors being deterred from these countries. Investments from
overseas businesses can help a country develop, such as the automobile industry in Thailand.
Foreign companies would be wary of venturing into war-torn countries for fear of businesses being
disrupted and profits lost. An example of such a country would be Sierra Leone. Plagued by civil wars
since 1990, it has resulted in it being one of the least developed countries in the world second
from bottom in the 2005 UNDP Report. Switzerland, in comparison, ranked 7
th
that year with a high
GDP of US$30552. This is because of its long history of political and societal peace. Local businesses
flourished and foreign investors had confidence in setting up operations there.
Also, another political dimension that affects development is leadership. Countries that are well-
developed or are progressing well generally are run by governments that are efficient. For example,
Norway has had a stable and forward-looking government to guide its development for many years.
Since petroleum is a major source of income for Norway, the government recognises that this can
benefit not just the petroleum companies, but also its people. They thus set a profit cap for
petroleum producers so that the rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway. This is to
ensure that wealth generated from this industry is shared among its people, thereby raising the
standard of living. The Norwegian government hence played a significant role in helping Norway
achieve a high level of development. Compared with corrupt and indifferent governments of
Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, just to name a few, it is clear as to why such uneven development exists
between DCs and LDCs.
DISEASE
Factors contributing to spread of HIV/AIDS
Poverty
Sub-Saharan Africa is the worlds most affected HIV/AIDS region with two-thirds of the worlds HIV-
positive individuals living there. According to the World Health Report (2003), it states that HIV and
AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa is the leading cause of death in adults aged 15-59 years, killing almost
5000 men and women and almost 1000 children daily. It has long been said that AIDS is a disease of
poverty, and it is not hard to see why. Poverty sets the stage for the spread of the disease in a
multitude of ways, namely forcing people to focus on immediate survival rather than long-term
health, making people more vulnerable to AIDS due to their lack of education stemming from
poverty, enabling access to health services and preventive measures difficult.
Firstly, that of the poor becoming more vulnerable to AIDS because of poverty itself. Being in
poverty, they live under considerable pressure to meet immediate needs just for survival, such as
obtaining food and clean water. This pressure they experience in fulfilling their daily living
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requirements make it unrealistic and difficult for the poor to be concerned about a disease that may
not affect them until later in life. When faced with the prospect of starvation now or illness later, it is
this sheer pressure that forces millions of people, women in particular, into sex work just so as to
choose the former and keep their families alive by earning that little bit of quick money. And since
they are already poor, it is unlikely that they would have access to condoms during their sex work,
resulting in unprotected sex that may lead to HIV infection. Even if they are HIV positive, many
people continue with their jobs in this industry just so as to make ends meet, in spite of the threat of
spreading the disease to others. In Kenya, for example, the prevalence of HIV among sex workers
was 75% and in that same year, the country had a high overall adult prevalence rate of 6.2%.
Next, poverty-stricken people of Africa likely do not even have the means to purchase or obtain food
and clean water, let alone education. Without proper education about the disease, the poor are
more likely to lack information on how deadly the disease is, its symptoms, and its preventive
measures. Without which the poor would continue to engage in unprotected promiscuous
behaviour, unaware of how and what the disease is about. Even if they had the means to buy a
condom, a lack of education could result in them not knowing how to use it properly, equally
exposing them to the deadly disease. The secondary school enrolment rate for Swaziland is only 29%
for males and 37% for females in 2011, and this has corresponded to high rates of AIDS in the area,
as high as 38.8% in 2004. The correlation between education and the prevalence of AIDS is thus
evident.
Lastly, access to health services is also hard, given the poverty rates among countries in Africa. This
would in turn increase the possibility of people having untreated sexually transmitted infections, a
factor that greatly increases the risk of HIV infection. If they were infected with the HIV virus, an
inability to receive medical treatment will proliferate the speed of spread within the body, making
their conditions worse day by day. When they are too sick to work, income in the family drops and
other members may have to resort to sex work to make ends meet. This vicious cycle between
poverty and AIDS undoubtedly contributed to the high prevalence rates of the disease throughout
Africa.
Socio-cultural beliefs and practices
Cultural practices, also associated with sex, can further spur the spread of AIDS. In Africa, polygamy
is a social practice used to ensure the continued status and survival of widows and orphans within an
established family structure. This window inheritance is a practice whereby the widow acquiesces
to marry her husbands brother to continue as a member of the family. Demographic and Health
Surveys in Ghana and Kenya showed that the proportion of women in a polygamous union was 31%
and 23% respectively. Having more sexual partners thus increases a persons susceptibility to the
disease. In urban settings where traditional polygamy is no longer the norm, men tend to have many
sexual partners and engage in promiscuous behaviour by employing the services of sex workers. And
since poverty rates are extremely high, people would have limited access to condoms and have
unprotected sex, leading to increased HIV infection risks, a risk which is further heightened by having
different partners. This would increase the spread of the disease the moment one partner gets
infected by it. The high mobility of specific social groups proliferates their promiscuous behaviour,
leading to higher rates of infection. These groups of workers might be away from home for long
periods of time and this can encourage the exchange of sex for favours, goods or services, and most
commonly, HIV.
Gender issues
Gender issues that tolerate and perpetuate male dominance and disempower women in sexual
decision-making puts both genders at risk. Women are taught never to refuse their husbands
demands for sex regardless of the number of extra-marital partners he may have or his non-
willingness to use a condom. Just under half of the people living with HIV are women, and this figure
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is higher in sub-Saharan Africa, where 57% of people infected with HIV are women. Their lack of
power and low status in society also means that they are more likely to be victims of sexual violence.
According to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Office, at least 15 women in the country are raped
daily. This figure is likely to be much higher given that most rape cases go unreported. As such, it is
unsurprising to find that Zimbabwes HIV prevalence rate is 24.6%, one of the highest in sub-Saharan
Africa. Also, according to a Ministry of Health of Zambia survey in 2002, young women aged 15-24
years are 3.5 to 4 times more likely to be infected with HIV as compared to male counterparts in the
same age group. Such statistics highlight the fact that AIDS is very much a gender issue as well.
Stigma
HIV-associated stigma is yet another factor crucial to the spread of the disease throughout sub-
Saharan Africa. This form of discrimination has been described by UNAIDS as when a distinction is
make against a person that results in them being treated unfairly and unjustly on the basis of their
HIV status. It results in rejection, denial and discrediting, a violation of human rights. With such
consequences of being labelled HIV-positive, it would lead to people not accessing or delaying
remedial actions such as diagnosis or treatment. This could then lead to infected mothers exposing
their children to HIV infection through delivery or breast-feeding. Many also contribute to the
pervasive silence and continue to engage in promiscuous behaviour, thereby spreading the disease
exponentially to countless other partners.
Impact of the spread of HIV/AIDS on the development of a country
Education
The most evident impact of HIV and AIDS on the education sector is the loss of teaching staff due to
teacher mortality or absenteeism. Statistics from Zambia show that while 680 teachers died in 1996,
that number had risen to over 1300 just 2 years later. Without properly trained staff, widespread
education to the children about AIDS would also be impeded, resulting in them not knowing what
the disease is and how to prevent it by using condoms. Rural schools suffer the most, as teachers
who are HIV positive tend to request a transfer to more urban areas, where ART is easier to access.
Coupled with the already scarce and poor quality and accessibility to education in these rural areas,
people would remain unaware about the disease and its preventive measures. In addition, school
enrolments also suffer the loss of one or both parents to AIDS means that children lose the
necessary financial support to continue with schooling. They would most likely have to drop out to
work and add to the household income or take care of the sick family member. A Human Rights
Watch study in Zambia has shown that it is generally the girl-child who is withdrawn from school in
order to care for sick relatives.
Health
An estimated 50% of hospital beds in Zambia are occupied by people with HIV/AIDS related illnesses.
High AIDS casualties amongst health care workers have also led to personnel shortages Zambia
only has 1 doctor for every 19,000 people. Zambias ARV programme is amongst one of the largest in
the world, reaching more than 40% of those in need. Even with that large-scale project, there are an
estimated 153,000 Zambians requiring ARVs and just 64,000 receiving treatment. Governments in
HIV/AIDS-stricken countries will face trade-offs along 3 dimensions: treating AIDS versus preventing
HIV infection, treating AIDS versus treating other illnesses, and spending for health versus spending
for other objectives. Maintaining a healthy population is an important goal and is crucial to the
development of a productive workforce essential for economic development. The government of
Zambia decided in its trade-off to focus on treating AIDS by making ARVs free of charge in public
health facilities, and this has resulted in a high rate of HIV infection and slow economic
development, with its growth rate declining from 7.6% in 2010 to 6.6% in 2011. Prevention has
proven to be 28 times better than cure, but by making this choice in its trade-off, other aspects of
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development in Zambia would be put to a standstill, as resources would have to be taken away or
diverted from other aspects so as to treat AIDS in the country. Such is the situation faced by every
government with high prevalence of AIDS in its country.
Economic
The majority of people living with HIV tend to be young and of working age essentially the
economic backbone of a nation. Widespread HIV infection can eliminate an entire generation of
workers, thereby rendering an already difficult development task that such nations face practically
impossible to achieve. This is because the increased mortality in AIDS-stricken countries will result in
a smaller skilled population and labour force. This smaller labour force will be predominantly young
people, with reduced knowledge and work experience leading to reduced productivity. An increase
in workers time off to look after sick family members or for sick leave will also lower productivity. A
shortage of workers also leads to higher wages, in turn leading to higher domestic production costs.
This can be explained using the theory of supply and demand. With great demand for able workers,
supply is not meeting up with demand due to the workforce being reduced by AIDS. Higher
production costs lead to a loss of international competitiveness, a problem which is exacerbated
given that being LDCs, most countries in Africa would have a high proportion of primary industries.
According to UNAIDS, HIV/AIDS has reduced annual economic growth in some African countries by
up to 2%. UNAIDS also documented a correlation between decreasing life expectancies and lowered
GDP in many African countries with prevalence rates of 10% or more. It is estimated that by 2015,
the South African economy will be 22% smaller than it would have been without HIV/AIDs,
amounting to US$17 billion of loss.
Furthermore, the prevalence of AIDS has resulted in cuts in government spending on services such
as education, and pushed costs onto users, whom majority are already living in poverty. This is due
to the decline in capital formation and economic growth since human capital and productivity
decline. Efforts and scarce resources would hence be diverted to tackling the AIDS situation instead
of other aspects of the country key to ensuring development such as its economy and education.
Demographics
Most of the people dying of AIDS are often in their most productive years and the sole breadwinners
for the immediate and extended family. The resultant loss of income into the household exacerbates
their poverty situation. With limited or no expenditure potential, malnutrition increases among
family members. In Zambia, two-thirds of families where the fathers die of AIDS experience an 80%
drop in income. The weakening of the family as the basic social unit has led to the overwhelming
increase of street kids and the new phenomenon of child-headed households given the increased
rates of both parents dying. As a result of this poverty and social instability, many orphans do not
attend school or are forced to drop out. By 2002, over 15% of children in Zambia under the age of 15
had lost one or both parents. Without the next generation of healthy individuals acquiring the
necessary knowledge and skills, it would be hard for a country to progress in its development or
move to secondary or tertiary industries as they simply do not have the needed human capital and
resource.
The loss of income in the household also leads to increased poverty, which is one of the main factors
contributing to the prevalence and spread of AIDS.
Implications of uneven development on health and diseases
Variation in health of people between DCs and LDCs
Usually, the more developed a country is, the higher the countrys life expectancy. Infant mortality
rate is also lower.
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The health conditions of people in a country depend on social (diet, lifestyle choices, education),
economic (poverty/affluence, investment in healthcare and access to health services) and
environmental (living conditions, access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation) factors.
Social
Diet and lifestyle choices have a profound impact on the health conditions of people in a country. In
LDCs, accessibility and affordability of food to meet the average minimum daily energy requirement
of 1800 kilocalories is difficult. This is due to the comparatively lower affluence, wealth and
purchasing power. In DCs, many people have the means to obtain sufficient amounts of nutrition
daily, leading to better health. In France, the average daily dietary energy consumption per capita is
3550 kilocalories, more than double the minimum. In contrast, Zambias average is 1890, barely
meeting the minimum amount. As such, more of the people there are undernourished and thus have
increased susceptibility to disease. Therefore, its life expectancy remains low at 49 years in 2011,
whereas Frances stands at 82 years.
Higher standards of education also lead to better health conditions. It has been established that an
additional 4 years of education lowers 5-year mortality by 1.8% and reduces the risk of heart disease
by 2.16%. Having more education leads to a stable job and income. Having income allows one to
obtain the necessary calories daily as well as being able to afford medical care when the need arises.
Environmental
Many people in LDCs lack access to clean water. People living in LDCs usually have to walk long
distances to collect water from a well as they cannot afford piped water. When water is not treated
properly, it is unsafe for drinking. Many people living in LDCs are thus prone to water-borne diseases
such as cholera and polio as a result of consuming contaminated water. The lack of clean water
supply in LDCs reflects the poor standard of living and poor quality of life of people living in such
countries. In LDCs such as Swaziland, its population with sustainable access to improved drinking
water sources and sanitation is only 60% and 50% respectively. As such, this has corresponded to a
low life expectancy of 49 years. In contrast, Japans data show 100% rates for clean water and
sanitation, resulting in a comparatively higher life expectancy of 83 years. In general, better access
to safe drinking water and sanitation would lead to better health amongst the population and
consequentially, a higher life expectancy.
Another aspect regarding environmental factors is that of living conditions. The World Health
Organisation states that over 10% of all preventable ill-health today is due to poor living conditions.
Examples of poor living and environmental conditions include overcrowding, which has exacerbated
the problem of insufficient access to clean water and sanitation. Overcrowded areas also increase
the risk of the spread of infectious diseases like tuberculosis and respiratory infections. It is
estimated that about 700 million people in developing countries are increasingly at risk of such
diseases. These sub-standard living conditions are usually more commonly found in LDCs, as a result
of lack of proper planning by the government, and thus the variation of health between DCs and
LDCs could be explained.
Economic
Poverty is another key factor that affects health in a country. There are two types of poverty:
absolute and relative. Absolute poverty is defined by the World Bank as people who live under $1.25
a day, while relative poverty is a comparison with people in the country or society and hence differs
from country to country. To describe the disparity between DCs and LDCs in terms of affluence, it is
a fact that the poorest 40% of the world accounts for 5% of global income. The richest 20% accounts
for of world income. This highlights the huge gap in wealth between DCs and LDCs. Similarly,
absolute poverty is also more prevalent in LDCs. In Zambia, 69% of population live under the
absolute line, and hence its life expectancy is low at 49 years. With low income and hence low
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purchasing power, people in poverty cannot obtain the necessary food and water for basic daily
requirements, leading to malnutrition over time. In 1997, an estimated 160 million children were
under nourished, and this condition when combined with diseases such as malaria or pneumonia,
more often than not leads to death.
Investment in healthcare and the populations access to health services is also important in
determining the health standards of a country. The ability for proper medical care in the country and
for people to easily access and make use of it is vital in ensuring a healthy nation with low infant
mortality rates and high life expectancy. One way of gauging the amount of investment and the
accessibility is to look at the doctor to patient ratio. In Kenya, a LDC, there is only 1 doctor per
10,000 people, a ratio that is below average for the Africa region. In comparison, the USA has 26
doctors per 10,000 people. As such, the infant mortality rate of Kenya is at 42 deaths per 1000 live
births and is significantly higher than the USA, who only has 6 deaths per 1000.