Volume14 Number 1 2014

The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research Vol. 14 No.
1, 1-4 (2014)
Received November 2013; Acceptance March 2014
Socio-economic characteristics of member and non-member Families of dairy
cooperatives in Semi- Arid Rajasthan
P.S.TANWAR
1
AND YOGENDRA KUMAR
Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying Kisan (P.G), College, Simbhaoli.CCS,
University, Meerut
Abstract
The present study was conducted to find out the Socio-economic profile of member and non-
membeSocio-economic characteristics of member and non-member Families of dairy coopera-
tives in Semi- Arid Rajasthanr families of dairy co-operatives. The study was based on primary
cross section data collected by survey from 120 member and 120 non-member families of dairy
cooperatives by personal interview method. An analysis of data revealed that majority (51.67%
and 52.50%) of member and non-member families belonged to other backward caste. About 63
% heads of the member families were in middle age group (26 to 50 years), while in case of non-
member 51.67% were in middle age group. Average number of members per family were 6.14
and 7.18 in member and non-member families, respectively. The number of female per thousand
of male were 880 in members while in case of non-member it was 888 on per thousand of male.
Number of earner per family were (2.78) higher in member families than non-member families
(2.14). However number of helper and dependant were higher in case of non-member than mem-
bers families. Proportion of literate and illiterate person per family were 3.15 (46.74%) and 3.59
(53.6%) in member families, while in case of non-member proportion were 2.56 (35.65%)
and 4.62 (64.35%), respectively. Majority of farm families (46.67 and 51.67%) were marginal
in both the category. Average size of land holing was 1.17 hac. in member families , while 0.83
hac. in non-member families. Buffalo was more liked by farmers of both the categories due to
higher Fat and SNF percentage in milk than cow. Average number of milch animals per family
was 3.51 and 2.62 in member and non-membersfamilies. Significant higher percentage (60.33)
of buffalo was murrah in member families while in case non-member murrah buffalo were 41.08%.
Key words: Families, member, non-member, Socio-economic characters
Introduction
India is predominantly an agrarian economy with
more than 75 percent of population in villages
depending on agriculture, animal husbandry and allied
activities for their lively hood. Among many livestock
enterprises, dairying is the most ancient occupation
established in rural setting of our country. Livestock
forms one of the components of the backbone of the
Indian economy and an important sub sector of
agriculture, forming an integral part of crop farming
.Livestock farming is the most suitable production
system that has enormous potential to improve the
socio-economic status of the large percentage of the
rural population. Currently dairying provides 70-80
million farmfamilies the triple benefit of nutritive food,
supplementary income and productive employment,
while setting right the seasonal imbalance in
employment. Dairy animals, apart fromtheir role in
milk production and contribute huge quantity of organic
manure.
India is blessed with huge bovine population of
199.10 millions cattle and 105.30 millions buffalo
accounting 16.24 percent and 56.90 percent,
respectively in world bovine population and stand first
in the world in number of bovine population. (Livestock
census 2007. GOI). Before independence milk
production in India was below 20 million tones and the
quality was also very poor, owing to the white
revolution, India has emerged highest milk producer in
the world i.e. 112.5 million tones with per capita
availability of 263 gm/day .The state Rajasthan
consists 121.20 lakh cattle and 110.92 lakh buffaloes
contributing 6.08% and 10.53% in national population
and stand at 6th and 3rd rank in cattle and buffalo
population, respectively. The J aipur district having 5.08
lakh cattle and 9.46 lakh buffaloes contributing 4.19%
and 8.53% in the state population. Rajasthan Stand at
3
rd
rank in the country with annual milk production
9.56 million tones and per capita availability is 395 gm.
1
Deputy Director(Training), Krishi Vigyan Kendra,
Barnala, GADVASU, Ludhiana
2 THE JOURNAL OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
per day ( Dept. of A.H. ,Dairying & Fisheries , Ministry
of Agriculture, GOI, 2007).
The socio-economic feature of the family play a
important role in adoption of various livestock
management practices. Therefore, in this paper an
attempt has been made to find out the socio-economics
characteristics of member and non-member families
of dairy co-operatives in J aipur district of Rajasthan
Materials and Method
J aipur Zila Dugdh Utpadak Sahakari Sangh Ltd.
J aipur was selected purposely, because development
facilities are well developed for increasing the milk
production in the district .Out of total thirteen blocks,
one block i.e. Govindgarh having maximumbovine
population was selected purposely for the study. A list
of functional milk producers co-operative societies was
prepared, out of themten co-operatives were selected
randomly and a separate list of milk producer members
and non-members (keeping mich animals) of weaker
section community was prepared from the selected
co-operative societies. Thus, 120 milk producers from
members and 120 milk producers fromnon-member
were selected for the purpose of comparison. The milk
producers were selected on the basis of probability
proportionate to the number of household in each
category. The final selection of the cases of weaker
section were made purely on random basis from
different categories of members and non-members viz.
landless, marginal, small farmers. The data related to
milk production, consumption and disposal of milk were
collected with the help of pre-tested schedule by
personal interview method. Data were analyzed with
the help of tabular analysis, mean, percentage for
drawing the results.
Results and Discussion
Socio-economic prolife of the member and non-
member families have been found out and the data
furnished in Table 1. Focused that majority (51.67%)
of member families belonged to other backward caste
followed by general (22.50%), schedule caste (14.17%)
and schedule tribes. While corresponding percentage
of non-member families were 52.50%, 18.33%,
12.50% and 16.67%, respectively. Thus it is concluded
that majority (51.67 and 52.50%) of families in both
the categories belonged to other backward caste. These
findings similar to Sinha and Rangnathon (1989).
Age wise distribution of heads of the selected
families shows that majority (63.33%) respondents
were in middle age group, 23.33% were in young age
group (up to 25 years) and 13.34% were in old age
group. In case of non-member 51.67%, 25.0% and
23.33% were in middle age group, young and old age
group, respectively. So it is concluded that majority of
the respondents were in middle age group in both the
categories. These findings were similar to Tiwari et
al. (2002), who reported that majority (64.16%)
belonged to middle age group, Sinha and Rangonathan
(1989), observed that majority of the sample members
of dairy cooperatives were middle age. Composition
of the families revealed that on an average number of
members per family were 6.74 and 7.18 in member
and non-member, respectively. The number of male
members were 2.09 (31.01%), female were 1.84
(27.30%) and children were 2.81 ( 41.69%) in member
families, while in case of non-member families male,
female and children were 2.14 (29.81%), 1.90
(26.46%) and 3.14 (43.73%), respectively It was
conclude that size of family was higher in non-member.
in comparison to member. These findings were
accordance to Singh et al. (2005).
The number of female per thousand of male were
880 in members families, while 888 in non-member
families. This indicates that sex ratio was lower in the
members and non-member families than state ratio.
The number of earner, helper and dependents
in member families were 2.78 (41.25%), 1.94 (28.78%)
and 2.02 (29.97%), respectively, while corresponding
figures in non-member families were 2.14 (29.81%),
2.04 (28.41%) and 3.0 (41.78%), respectively. It was
concluded that number of earner were higher in
member families, while helper and dependents were
higher in non-member families. These findings similar
to earlier worker Singh et al. (2005), Yadav, (2007).
Data related to education presented in Table 2.
It revealed that the proportion of literate and illiterate
person per family came to 46.74% (3.15) and 53.26%
(3.59) in members families, while in case of non-
member families the proportion were 35.65% (2.56)
and 64.35% ( 4.62), respectively. It was concluded
that number of literate person were higher in member
families in comparison to non-member families. These
findings similar to findings of Singh et al. (2005), Yadav,
(2007). It was observed that among literate person
33.33% (1.05) having primary, 28.89% (0.91) having
middle standard, 21.59% (0.68) having
secondary,10.48% (0.33) having higher secondary,
4.44% (0.14) were graduate and 1.27% (0.04) having
post graduate education in member families, while in
case of non-members overall number of literate person
per family were 54.30% (1.39), 24.61% (0.6), 10.16%
(0.26), 8.56% (0.22), 1.56% (0.04) and 0.78% (0.02)
having primary, middle , secondary, higher secondary,
graduate, post graduate education, respectively. It was
conclude that more number of person per family having
higher education in member families in comparison to
non-member families.
Distribution of farmers according to landholding
revealed that 46.67% families were marginal followed
by small (36.66%) and landless (16.67%) in member
families, while in case of non-member marginal, small,
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMBER --------------- SEMI- ARID RAJASTHAN 3
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Characteristics Member Non-member
No. % No. %
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Caste
General(GN) 27 22.50 22 18.33
Other Backward Caste (OBC) 62 51.67 63 52.50
Schedule Caste(SC) 17 14.17 15 12.50
Schedule Tribes (ST) 14 11.66 20 16.67
Total 120 100 120 100
Age
Up to 25(Young ) 28 23.33 30 25.0
26-50Yrs(Middle) 76 63.33 62 51.67
More than 50 yrs.(old) 16 13.34 28 23.33
Total 120 100 120 100
Family Composition
Male 2.09 31.01 2.14 29.81
Female 1.84 27.30 1.90 26.46
Children 2.81 41.69 3.14 43.73
Total 6.74 100 7.18 100
Economic Status of family members
Earner 2.78 41.25 2.14 29.81
Helper 1.94 28.78 2.04 28.41
Dependent 2.02 29.97 3.0 41.78
Total 6.74 100 7.18 100
Table 1: Distribution of families according to caste, age, family composition and economicstatus.
Table 2: Distribution of families according to education and land holdings
_____________________________________________________________________________________
No. % No. %
Proportion of literacy level per family
Illiterate 3.59 53.26 4.62 64.35
Literate 3.15 46.74 2.56 35.65
a. Primary 1.05 33.33 1.39 54.30
b. Middle 0.91 28.89 0.63 24.61
c. Secondary 0.68 21.59 0.26 10.16
d. Hr. Secondary 0.33 10.48 0.22 8.59
e. Graduate 0.14 4.44 0.04 1.56
f. Post graduate 0.04 1.27 0.02 0.78
Total 6.74 100 7.18 100
Distribution of families according to landholding
Landless 20 16.67 24 20.0
Marginal 56 46.67 62 51.67
Small 44 36.66 34 28.33
Total 120 100 120 100
Distribution of bovine according to breed
Buffalo
Murrah 254 60.33 129 41.08
Non-descript/Local 160 38.0 179 57.0
Cow
Cross bred 6 1.43 5 1.59
Non-descript/Local 1 0.24 1 0.33
Total 421 100 314 100
Table 3: Distribution of families according to caste, age, family composition and economicstatus.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
No. Av. herd size No. Av. herd size
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Average herd size
Landless 52 (12.35) 2.60 56 (17.83) 2.33
Marginal 204 (48.46) 3.64 152 (48.41) 2.45
Small 165 (39.19) 3.75 106 (33.76) 3.12
Total 421 (100) 3.51 314 (100) 2.62
(Figure in parenthesis is percentage to total)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
and landless families were 51.67 %, 28.33% and
20.0%, respectively. It was concluded that majority
of families in the both categories were marginal
followed by small and landless. Average size of
landholding was 1.17 hac. and 0.83 hac. in members
and non-members families, respectively.
It was observed that buffalo were more liked by
the farmers in both member and non-member families
due to higher Fat and SNF percentage in the milk.
Buffalo accounting nearly 98.0% of the milch animal
in both the categories these findings similar to finding
Raju and Bose (2006). About 60.33% buffalo reared
by members families were murrah and rest were local
while in case of non-member murrah buffalo were
only 41.08%. It clearly indicates that member families
were more aware regarding breed of buffalo than non-
members families.
On overall basis the average number of milch
animals per family were 3.51 in member and 2.62 in
non-member groups. In different categories shows that
small, marginal and landless farmers were having 3.75,
3.64 and 2.60 milch animals, respectively, while
corresponding figure in non-members families were
3.12, 2.45 and 2.33, respectively. It is concluded that
in all categories of member families were rearing more
number of milch animals than non-member families.
It may also be concluded that socio-economic
character of member families was better than non-
member resulting member families having better quality
of animal and adopting scientific management practices
for their livestock, getting higher income fromdairy
farming. Therefore it is suggested to cover more
number of villages under dairy cooperative societies.
References
Bhardwaj, S.R., Bhardwaj, A., Yadav, M.C . and Dixit,
V.B. (2003). Adoption of buffalo husbandry practices
by the members and non-members of dairy
cooperatives societies in Haryana.
Proceedings of 4
th
Asian buffalo congress New Delhi.
Pp 69.
Livestock census.(2007). Government of India.
Raju, D.T. and Bose, C.S. (2006). Buffalo farming in
cotton producing areas of Andhra Pradesh.
Indian Vet. J.83(11):1198-1200.
Singh, S.P., Singh, M. and Kumar, Y. (2005). A
comparative study of milk marketing through dairy
cooperative and other agencies in Etah district of U.P.,
J. Rural and Agricultural Research5(1&2) : 23-25.
Sinha, M.N. and Rangonathan, K.(1989). Socio economic
profile of dairy cooperatives, Rural India .52(8):
187-189.
Tiwari, R.K., Bisen, P.J. and Sharma, P.N. (2002). A
study on knowledge and adoption of i mproved
cattle rearing practices by the farmers in Chhattisgarh
plain. Indian Research Journal Ext. Edu. 2(2): 43-45.
Yadav, B. ( 2007). Role of dairy cooperatives in
development of milk Producers economy in Meerut
district of Western Uttar Pradesh. Ph.D thesis, CCS,
University, Meerut.
because of poor plant growth. Under such situation
plant population may play an important role in improving
the productivity of crop (Kumar et al. 2003).
As for as the chickpea cultivation in Umaria
district of M.P. is concerned, it is grown on 8000 ha
area (47.3% of total rabi pulse area i.e. 16900 ha
area) but productivity far below (498 kg/ha) than the
national productivity (859 kg/ha). The reasons of low
productivity of chickpea in Umaria district are lack of
suitable varieties (seed replacement rate of the district
in rabi season is only 12%), lack of irrigation facilities
(only 25% in rabi season), low fertilizer consumption
(49 kg NPK/ha), poor agronomic management
(broadcasting method of sowing, higher seed rate and
delayed in sowing) and poor plant protection measures
are responsible for the low productivity of chickpea.
Singh and Bajpai (1996) reported that fertilizer and
plant protection are most critical inputs for increasing
seed yield of chickpea. Hence, an effort made by the
KVK scientists by introducing the recommended
technologies of chickpea production with HYV J AKI-
9218 through front line demonstration on farmers field
during rabi season of 2010-11 and 2011-12.
Materials and Methods
The present study was carried out by the Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Umaria during rabi season of 2010-
11 and 2011-12 (two consecutive years) in the farmers
field in five adopted villages viz., Lorha, Chhoti pali,
Dogargawan, Kohka and Chandia of Umaria district
The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research Vol. 14 No. 1, 5-8 (2014)
Received December 2013; Acceptance April 2014
Yield gap analysis of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) through front line demonstration
on farmers fields
B.K.TIWARI AND P.N.TRIPATHI
1
SMS (Soil Science) KVK Harda (M.P.)
Abstract
The present study was carried out at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Umaria to know the yield gap
between improved package and practices (IP) under Front Line Demonstration (FLD) and farmers
practice (FP) of chickpea crop under limited irrigation conditions. The study found, the yield of
chickpea in IP under limited irrigated conditions ranges from 11.20 to 12.53 q/ha whereas in FP
it ranges between 8.20 to 9.30 q/ha. The per cent increase in yield with IP over FP was recorded
in the range of 34.7 to 36.5. The extension gap and technological index were ranging between
3.0-3.23 q/ha and 30.3-37.7 per cent, respectively. The trend of technology gap reflected the
farmers cooperation in carrying out demonstrations with encouraging results in subsequent years.
The cost benefit ratio was 2.25 to 2.42 under demonstration, while it was 1.88 to 1.97 under FP
plots. By conducting front line demonstration of proven technologies, yield potential of chickpea
crop could be enhanced to a great extent with increase in the income level of the farming
community.
Key Words: Front Line Demonstration, Chickpea, J AKI-9218, Yield, BC ratio
Introduction
Chickpea is the premier food legume crop in India,
covering about of 8.56 M ha area with production of
7.35 Mt and productivity of 859 kg/ha (AICRPC,
2010). India is contributing highest share in area
(65.3%) and production (67.2%) in the world (FAO,
2009). Poor agronomic practice such as seed rate, date
of sowing, selection of suitable varieties, fertilizer
management, pest management etc. are responsible
for low productivity of chickpea in India. In central
part of India, chickpea is normally sown during second
fortnight of October. Sometimes, its sowing is delayed
depending upon the withdrawal of monsoon and late
harvest of proceeding kharif crop like rice, which
ultimately results in poor seed yield (J ettner et al.
1999). Within the genetic limits, time of sowing is an
important agronomic factor affecting the productivity
of most of the arable crops, owing to changes in
environmental conditions to which phenological stages
of crops are exposed. A good genotype under modified
environment of different dates of sowing and
maintenance of plant population may help in realizing
optimumyield level. With the development of new
genotypes, it becomes essential to test themat different
sowing dates to exploit their full production potential.
Genotypes may behave differently due to their plant
architecture particularly under late sown conditions
1
J NKVV, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Umaria, Madhya
Pradesh-484661
of Madhya Pradesh. During these two years of study,
an area of 4.8 ha was covered with plot size 0.40 ha
(1 acre) under front line demonstration with active
participation of 12 farmers in different villages were
conducted. Before conducting FLDs, a list of farmers
was prepared fromgroup meeting and specific skill
training was imparted to the selected farmers regarding
different aspects of cultivation etc. were followed as
suggested by Choudhary, 1999 and Venkattakumar et
al., 2010. In case of farmers practice plots, existing
practices being used by farmers were followed. In
general, soils of the area under study were sandy loam
and lower in fertility status. In demonstration plots,
use of quality seeds of improved variety J AKI-9218,
line sowing and timely weeding, use of balanced
fertilizers (using micro nutrient sulphur) and applied
irrigations (2 no) on critical growth stages of irrigation
as suggested by Chattopadhyay et al. (2003) was used
as technical interventions. For the control of pod borer,
Indoxacarb @ 500 ml/ha was used in demonstrated
plots given in package and practices for the Umaria
region were emphasized and comparison has been
made with the existing practices. Visit of farmers and
the extension functionaries was organized at
demonstration plots to disseminate the message at large
scale. The demonstration farmers were facilitated by
KVK scientists in performing field operations like
sowing, fertilizer application, pest management, weed
management, harvesting etc. during the course of
training and visits. The necessary steps for selection
of site and farmers, layout of demonstration etc. were
followed as suggested by Choudhary (1999). The
traditional practices were maintained in case of local
checks. The data output were collected fromboth FLD
plots as well as farmers practice plot and finally the
extension gap, technology gap, technology index along
with the benefit cost ratio were worked out (Samui et
al., 2000) as given below:
Technology gap=Potential yield-demonstration yield
Extension gap=demonstration yield-farmers practiceyield
Technology Index
=(Potential yield-demonstration yield) x 100
Potential yield
Results of 12 front line demonstrations conducted
during 2010-11 to 2011-12 in 4.8 ha area on farmers
field on five villages of Umaria district indicated that
the cultivation practices comprised under FLD viz.,
used of improved variety recommended under semi
irrigated conditions i.e. J AKI-9218, line sowing,
balanced application of fertilizers (20:60:20:20 kg
NPKS/ha) and management of pod bored at economic
threshold level, produced on an average 35.6 % more
yield of chickpea as compared to farmers practices
(8.75 q/ha). The data of Table 1 revealed that the
yield of chickpea fluctuated successively over the year
in demonstration plots. The maximum yield was
recorded (12.53 q/ha) during 2011-12 and minimum
yield was recorded in year 2010-11 (11.20 q/ha) and
the average yield of two years study period was
recorded 11.87 q/ha over farmers practices (8.75 q/
ha). The increase in per cent of yield was ranging
between 34.7 to 36.5 during two years of study. The
results indicated that the front line demonstrations has
given a good impact on the farming community of this
district as they were motivated by the improved
agricultural technologies used in the front line
demonstrations. The results clearly indicates the
positive effects of FLDs over the existing practices
toward in enhancing the yield of chickpea in Umaria
area, with its positive effect on yield attribute (Table1).
The benefit cost ratio was recorded higher under
demonstration against FP in both the years of study.
The findings revealed that a gap exists between the
actual farmers yield and realizable yield potential of
the variety. Use of improve variety carry potential to
enhance the present level of chickpea productivity
which is not percolating down at desired pace due to
lack of confidence among the farmers. Hence, to
exploit the potential of improved production and
protection technologies efforts through FLDs ought to
be increased awareness among the farmers. The
extension gap showed an increasing trend. The
extension gap ranging between 3.0-3.23 q/ha during
the study period emphasizes the need to educate the
farmers through various means for adoption of
improved agricultural production technologies to
reverse the trend. The trend of technology gap (ranging
between 5.47-6.80 q/ha) reflects the farmers
cooperation in carrying out such demonstrations with
encouraging results in subsequent years. The
technology gap observed might be attributing to the
dissimilarity in soil fertility status and weather
conditions. Mukharjee (2003) have also opined that
depending on identification and use of farming situation,
specific interventions may have greater implications
in enhancing systemproductivity. Similar findings were
also recorded by Mitra et al. (2010) and Katare et al.
(2011). The technology index showed the feasibility
of the evolved technology at the farmers field. The
lower the value of technology index, the more is the
feasibility of technology. The wider gap in technology
index (ranging between 30.3-37.7 %) during the study
period in certain region, may be attributed to the
difference in soil fertility status, weather conditions,
non availability of irrigation water and insect-pests
attack in the crop .
The benefit cost ratio of front line demonstrations
have been presented in Table 2 clearly showed higher
BC ratio of recommended practices was greater than
YIELD GAP ANALYSIS OF CHICKPEA (CICER ARIETINUM)------------FARMERS FIELDS 7
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FP plots in both the year of study. The benefit
cost ratio of demonstrated and FP plots were
2.25 and 1.88, 2.42 and 1.97 during 2010-11
and 2011-12, respectively. Hence favorable
benefit cost ratios proved the economic
viability of the interventions and convinced
the farmers on the utility of interventions.
Similar findings were reported by Sharma
(2003) in moth bean and Gurumukhi and Mitra
(2003) in sorghum.
References
AICRP 2(010). Proceeding of Recommenda-
tions- Annual Group Meet of All India Co-
ordinated Research Project on Chickpea,
Indian Council of Agriculture Research.
August 29-31, 2010 held at College of Ag-
riculture, Indore (RVSKVV, Gwalior) India
pp-7.
Chattopadhyay, C., Meena, P.D., Sastri, R.K.
and Meena, R.L. (2003). Relationship among
photological and agronomic attributes for soil
borne diseases of three oilseed crops.
Indian J. Plant Protec.. 31 :127-128.
Choudhary, B.N. (1999). Krishi vigyan
Kendra-A guide for KVK mangers.
Publication, Division of Agricultural
Extension, ICAR; 73-78.
FAO, (2009). FAOSTAT Production Statistics,
Food and Agriculture Organization,
Rome.
Gurumukhi, D.R. and Mishra, Sumit (2003).
Sorghum front line demonstration-A
Success story. Agril. Extension Review. 15
: 22-23.
Jettner, R.J., Siddique, K.H.M., Loss, S.P. and
French, R.J. (1999). Optimumplant density
of desi chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
increasewith increaring yield potential in South
Western Australia, Australia Journal of
Agricultural Research 50 (6): 1017-25.
J oshi, A.K., Mishra, B.,Chatrath, R., Ortiz
Ferrara, G. and Singh, R.P. (2007). Wheat
improvement in India: Present status,
emerging challenges and future prospects.
Euphytica 157 (3): 457-64.
Katare, Subhash, Pandey, S.K. and Mustafa,
Mohd.(2011). Yield gap analysis of
rapeseed-mustard through front line
demonstration. Agric.Update 6 : 5-7.
Kumar, M., Singh, R.C., Kumar, R. and Singh,
S. (2003). Effect of date of sowing and row
spacing on performance of chickpea geno-
types. Haryana Journal of Agronomy 19
(2):140-41.
Mitra, Biplab and Samajdar, T. (2010). Yield gap
analysis of rapeseed-mustard through front line
demonstration. Agric. Exten. Review, (April-June):16-
17.
Mukharjee, D. (2008). Effect of tillagepractices and fertility
levels on theperformance of wheat (Triticum aestivum)
under mid hill conditions of West Bengal. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences 78 (12):1038-41.
Mukharjee, N. (2003). Participatory Learning and
Action. Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi,
India. Pp 63-65.
Nagarajan, S. (2005). Can India produce enough wheat
even by 2020? Current Science 89: 1467-71.
Samui, S.K., Mitra, S., Roy, D.K., Mandal, A.K. and
Saha, D. (2000). Evaluation of front line
demonstration on groundnut. J. Indian Soc. Coastal
Agric. Res. 18 (2):180-183.
Sharma, O.P. (2003). Moth bean yield improvement
through front line demonstrations. Agril. Extn. Rev.
15 : 11-13.
Singh, V.K. and Bajpai, R.P. (1996). Effect of crop
production inputs on gram(Cicer arietinum L.) in
north eastern hills zone of Madhya Pradesh. Indian
J. Agron. 44 (4):655-656.
Venkattakumar, R., Ramana, Rao, S.V., Padmaiah, M.
and Madhuri, P. (2010). Production constraints and
information needs of growers in Andhra Pradesh.
Agric. Extn. Review, (April-June) : 21-24.
Received October 2013; Acceptance March 2014
Storage related changes in sensory profile of paneer spread
BALRAM DWIVEDI
1
, B.L. YADAV AND M.P. GUPTA
2
Department of Diary Science, U.P. Pt. D.D. Upadhyay Veterinary University, Mathura 281001
(U.P.)
Abstract
Paneer was first prepared from standardized buffalo milk containing 6% fat and 9% SNF
using one percent citric acid as coagulant at 80
0
C coagulation temperature. Such paneer was
used for making paneer spread by blending it with 10% whey and varying concentrations of salt
(1.0, 1.5 and 2.0%) and preservatives (0.2% sodium benzoate or potassium metabisulphite) into
a smooth paste consistency. The product was evaluated for sensory attributes when fresh (0 day)
and on 05, 10 and 20 days to assess storage related changes in flavour, body and texture,
appearance and overall acceptability of the product on a 9 point hedonic scale. The studies
revealed that the paneer spread was at its best when fresh but started losing sensory score as the
period of storage advanced. The use of preservatives, viz potassium metabisulphite and sodium
benzoate extended the shelf life of paneer spread to over 10 days. The use of salt had additive
effect. It was inferred that 1.5% salt level and potassium metabisulphite were found superior to
sodium benzoate and 2.0% salt concentration.
Key Words: Shelf life, paneerspread, ensory quality
Introduction
Traditional dairy products have played a
significant role in economic, social, religious and
nutritional well being of people and are gradually
becoming popular throughout the world. In the context
of present policy of globalization, the business leaders
of the multinations are eliciting keen interest in the
vast unexplored resources of Indian traditional wealth
of knowledge in science and technology blended with
the art and literature of the people of India.
Milk and milk products are the main and often
the only source of animal protein in the Indian vegetarian
diet. Milk products besides being an important source
of protein also add variety to the diet. Dairy products
also constitute a family of natural functional foods due
to their established health related benefits. Nutritive
value of paneer is fairly high as it contains almost all
protiens and fats present in milk besides being a rich
source of minerals and vitamins. Variety of culinary
dishes and snacks are prepared frompaneer in addition
to its direct consumption. Although , the buffalo milk is
best suited for paneer manufacture but good quality
of paneer has also been made from cow or mixed
milk with suitable modifications (DharamPal and
Agrawala, 2007; Yadav etal, 2009 and Dwivedi etal
2010a).
Recently, a spread has been developed from
paneer, which has pleasant taste and preferred over
other spread on account of its nutty flavour. Presently,
mainly two types of spread are available in market,
namely butter and cheese spread, which are used along
with bread in the breakfast. Butter spread is avoided
by obese persons or those suffering fromcoronary
heart diseases. Cheese spread is suitable for
consumers of all age groups but is highly expensive.
Contrarily, paneer spread would be cheaper but equally
nutritious. The authors have recently reported
standardization of methods for manufacture of paneer
spread frombuffalo milk (Dwivedi etal., 2010b). The
present study was aimed at determining the changes
in sensory attributes of paneer spread during storage
at refrigeration temperatures.
Preparation of Paneer Spread: The paneer
prepared fromstandardized buffalo milk containing
6.0% fat and 9.0% MSNF using critic acid (1%) as
coagulant at 80
0
C coagulation temperature was
adjudged as the best quality paneer fromstand-point
of sensory attributes and chemical and microbiological
qualities (Dwivedi etal., 2009; Dwivedi etal., 2010a).
Hence, paneer made as above was only used for
preparation of paneer spread.
The paneer blocks were sliced into small pieces
and blended with 10% of whey water. Salt (1.0, 1.5,
2.0%) and preservative (sodiumbenzoate or potassium
1
Deptt. of Animal Husbandary & Dairying, Nehru P.G.
College, Lalitpur (U.P.)
2
Ex-Professor & Head, 26, Kailash Nagar, Tiwaripur,
Kanpur 208010
Table 1: Changes in flavor score of paneer spread during storage
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
X
1
Y
1
8.20 7.00 5.60 4.00
Y
2
8.40 7.20 5.80 4.20
X
2
Y
1
8.60 7.40 6.00 4.40
Y
2
8.80 7.6 6.20 4.60
X
3
Y
1
8.00 6.80 5.40 3.80
Y
2
8.20 7.00 5.60 4.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
X
1
, X
2
and X
3
1%, 2% and 3% salt ; Y
1
sodiumbenzoate, Y
2
potassiummetabisulphite; Z
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
and Z
4
0,
5, 10 and 20 days of storage.
metabisulphite, 0.2% each) were added to the paneer
mass and blended thoroughly into a smooth paste like
consistency. The product (paneer spread) was
packaged in polystyrene cups and stored at 5
0
C.
Sensory evaluation of Paneer spread: A 9-
point hedonic scale was used to evaluate the flavor,
body and texture, appearance and overall acceptability
of the product by a selected panel of five experienced
judges as per BIS (1971). The changes in sensory
attributes were monitored on 0, 5, 10 and 20 days of
storage of the product.
Effect of storage period on sensory attributes of
paneer was studied at predetermined intervals, as
delineated above, to assess the acceptability of the
product.
Flavour Profile: The results (Table 1) indicated
that the fresh product prepared with 1.5% added salt
and potassiummetabisulphite as preservative elicited
the highest flavor score (8.80) than the product
prepared using sodiumbenzoate preservative (8.60).
At one and two percent levels of added salt, the flavour
scores were somewhat lower in the products preparing
using sodiumbenzoate or potassiummetabisulphite
preservatives. The preservatives sodium
metabisulphite, however, elicited slightly better score
than sodiumbenzoate at all levels of added salt. With
advancement in storage period, the flavour score
declined consistently. On fifth day, although the flavour
score diminished, but it remained in good condition.
Again, the paneer spread prepared from1.5% added
salt and potassiummetabisulphite preservative obtained
better scores that other treatments. On 10
th
day, the
flavour score decreased further to around 6.0,
indicating the acceptability of the product. On 20
th
day,
the product was not acceptable on basis of flavour, as
it declined to about 4.0.
Body and texture: The mean interactions
between x (levels of added salt), y (preservatives) and
z (storage period) on body and texture score of paneer
spread, it was observed (Table 2) that the maximum
body and texture score (8.60) was noted in samples
prepared by using 1.5% salt, potassiummetabisulphite
and 0 day (fresh) storage period (x
2
y
2
z
1
). Sodium
benzoate elicited a little lower score than potassium
metabisulphite in all treatment combinations. The
scores for body and texture decreased consistently as
the period of storage elapsed. The product remained
acceptable upto 10 days, as far as body and texture
was concerned. On 20
th
day, the body and texture of
paneer spread was unacceptable.
Appearance: The mean interactions between
xyz on colour and appearance of score of paneer
spread (Table 3) revealed that the maximumscore
(8.70) was noted in samples made using 1.5% salt
level, potassiummetabisulphite as preservative and 0
day storage period (x
2
y
2
z
1
). Similar combination using
sodiumbenzoate obtained a little lower score (8.50)
for appearance. As the period of storage elapsed, the
scores for appearance of the product declined but the
trend remained almost the same. The 2% level of added
salt elicited lower scores for appearance than 1% level
of added salt, irrespective of preservatives and period
of storage. The product remained acceptable upto 10
days.
Overall acceptability: The scores for overall
acceptability of paneer spread based on appearance,
flavour and texture recorded in Table 4, suggested that
the maximumoverall acceptability score (8.70) was
perceived in samples prepared by using 1.5% salt,
potassiummetabisulphite as preservative on 0 day
storage (x
2
y
2
z
1
). A slightly lower overall acceptability
score was observed for samples made with sodium
benzoate preservative (8.50). Other salt and
preservative combinations yielded products with lower
scores.
The overall acceptability score diminished with
advancement in storage period. On fifth day, the
product elicited lower scores for overall acceptability
but it was in good condition and liked by panelists. On
10
th
day, the overall acceptability further declined but
remained in fairly acceptable condition. The product
was, however, not acceptable on 20
th
day as evidenced
by overall acceptability scores declining around 4.0.
The results suggested that the paneer spread was
at its best when fresh but started losing sensory scores
as the period of storage advanced. The use of
preservatives, viz. potassiummetabisulphite and sodium
benzoate extended the shelf life of paneer spread. The
use of salt had additive effect.
Table 2: XYZ mean for body and texture of paneer spread
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
X
1
Y
1
8.00 6.80 5.50 3.80
Y
2
8.20 7.00 5.60 4.00
X
2
Y
1
8.40 7.20 5.80 4.20
Y
2
8.60 7.40 6.00 4.40
X
3
Y
1
7.80 6.60 5.20 3.60
Y
2
8.00 6.80 5.40 3.80
_____________________________________________________________________________________
X
1
, X
2
and X
3
1%, 2% and 3% salt ; Y
1
sodiumbenzoate, Y
2
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
and Z
4

0, 5, 10 and 20 days of storage.
Table 3: XYZ mean for colour and appearance of paneer spread
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
X
1
Y
1
8.10 6.90 5.50 3.90
Y
2
8.30 7.10 5.70 4.10
X
2
Y
1
8.50 7.30 5.90 4.30
Y
2
8.70 7.50 6.10 4.50
X
3
Y
1
7.90 6.70 5.30 3.70
Y
2
8.10 6.90 5.50 3.90
_____________________________________________________________________________________
X
1
, X
2
and X
3
1%, 2% and 3% salt ; Y
1
sodiumbenzoate, Y
2
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
and Z
4
0,
Table 4: XYZ mean for overall acceptability of paneer spread
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
4
X
1
Y
1
8.10 6.90 5.50 3.90
Y
2
8.30 7.10 5.70 4.10
X
2
Y
1
8.50 7.30 5.90 4.30
Y
2
8.70 7.50 6.10 4.50
X
3
Y
1
7.90 6.70 5.30 3.70
Y
2
8.10 6.90 5.50 3.90
_____________________________________________________________________________________
X
1
, X
2
and X
3
1%, 2% and 3% salt ; Y
1
sodiumbenzoate, Y
2
1
, Z
2
, Z
3
and Z
4
0,
STORAGE RELEATED CHANGES IN SENSORY PROFILE TO PANNER SPREAD 11
References
Dharam Pal and Agrawala, S.P. (2007). Paneer
manufacturing. Monograph of the IDA: 002/TE/2007.
Indian Dairy Association, R.K. Puram, New Delhi.
Dwivedi, Balram; Singh, J.B.; Yadav, Y.N. and Gupta,
M.P. (2010a). Effect of type of milk, coagulants with
concentration and coagulation temperature on quality
of paneer. J. Rural and Agric Rs 10(1):4-6.
Dwivedi, Bal Ram; Singh, Hari and Gupta, M P (2010b).
Standardization for methods of manufacture of paneer
spread. J. Rural and Agric Res. 10(2): 17-19
Yadav, Y.N. ; Singh, C.; Dwivedi, B.R. and Gupta, M.P.
(2009). Effect of various coagulants on sensory,
chemical and microbiological quality of paneer. J. Rural
and Agric Res. 9(1) : 11 14.
Received February 2013; Acceptance Januuary 2014
Pathogenicity and Characterization of Rhizoctonia solani Khn Inciting Wet
Root Rot in Chickpea
JAGDISH PRASAD, V. K. GAUR, AND SANGEETA MEHTA
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan
Agricultural University, Bikaner 334006, Rajasthan, India. e-mail: jpbishnoi2015@gmail.com
Abstract
Eight isolates of Rhizoctonia solani Khn, the incitant of Wet root rot of chickpea were
assessed for pathogenicity. Pathogenicity of these isolates varied both in sterilized and unsterilized
soils when tested on chickpea variety C-235. All the isolates were pathogenic and isolate Bikaner
was highly virulent. The mortality of plant in sterilized soil was higher. There was no correlation
between the cultural characters and virulence in any of the isolates.
Key words: Chickpea, Rhizoctonia solani, Variation, Pathogenicity
Introduction
Wet root rot of chickpea caused by Rhizoctonia
solani Khn is one of the serious disease in chickpea
growing region of Rajasthan and adjoing states of
India. The disease symptoms are characterized by
sudden and complete wilting of the plants. The infected
plants can easily be pulled out. No information is
available with regards to pathogenicity in R. solani
isolates in terms of variability. In India, use of molecular
markers in characterization of plant pathogens have
been recently reviewed (Monga et al., 2004). The
present investigations is aimed at differentiation of
isolates of Rhizoctonia solani collected fromvarious
regions of Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana by using
pathogenicity studies.
Collection of isolates
Out of eight isolates of R. solani, Four isolates
were collected fromchickpea infested field of different
districts of Rajasthan viz. Bikaner, Hanumangarh,
Nagaur, Sriganganagar and one each fromHaryana
viz. Choudhary Charan Singh, Haryana Agricultural
University, Hisar, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Karnal,
Agricultural Research Station, Gurgaon and one from
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Pure
culture of these isolates obtained through single hyphal
tip method, were maintained on potato dextrose agar
slants for further investigation.
Isolation, Purification and Identification
The samples collected fromdiseased plants were
used for isolation. The roots were thoroughly washed
with tap water to remove soil. Small pieces of about
0.5 cmlength were surface sterilized with 0.1 per cent
mercuric chloride solution for 2 minutes, three
washings with sterilized distilled water were given,
placed on PDA slant under a laminar flow and
incubated at 28 1
0
C temperature for seven days.
To maintain the pure culture of R. solani single
hyphal tip isolation technique was adopted. One ml of
suspension having 5-6 pieces of hypha per 10 x
microscopic field were spread over 2 per cent plain
agar in Petri dishes evenly by tilting the Petri dishes
clockwise as well as anticlockwise. The excess
amount of suspension was decanted and Petri dishes
were incubated at 28 1
0
C for 24 hours. The single
piece of hypha was demarcated under low power of
microscope (10 X) and cut with the help of mechanical
cutter. Individual piece of hypha was transformed on
PDA slants with the help of an inoculating needle. The
inoculated slants were kept in B.O.D. incubator for
growth at 28 1
0
C for 7 days. Thus, the purified
cultures were maintained by periodical transfers on
PDA slants and used for further studies.
Pathogenicity test
Pathogenicity of these isolates was tested both
in sterilized and unsterilized soil on Cicer arietinum
L. variety C-235. Inoculum of each isolate was
multiplied on sterilized sand maize flour medium
(partially broken maize grains 10g, sand 10g, and 20ml
distilled water in each 250 ml Erlenmeyers flask). The
flask containing the sterilized media was inoculated
with mycelial disc of R. solani (5 mmdiameter) and
inoculated at 281
0
C for 15 days. These inocula were
used for soil inoculation in ratio of 1: 200 w/w basis
and was added in disinfected burnt earthen pots (25
cm) maintained in triplicates. Seed samples were
surface sterilized with 0.1 per cent mercuric chloride
for 30 second. Five seeds of susceptible variety C-
235 were sown in each pot. Observations were
recorded after 40 days of sowing.
Wet root rot of chickpea, caused by R. solani is
an important disease mainly in Bikaner and
Sriganganagar districts of Rajasthan. The affected
seedlings showed gradual yellowing and the petiole
leaflets droop without collapse of seedlings. The stems
and roots near the lesions show rotting frequently with
pinkish mycelial growth. Sclerotia were usually seen.
Pathogenicity of isolates
All eight isolates tested for their pathogenicity
towards C-235 variety of chickpea were found virulent
in sterilized and in unsterilized soil. Kochs postulates
were proven for each isolate. Symptoms of disease
showed gradual yellowing and the petiole leaflets droop
without collapse of seedlings (Plate.1). The stems
and roots near the lesions show rotting frequently with
pinkish mycelial growth. Sclerotia were usually seen.
Symptoms of wet root rot appeared after 40 days of
germination in sterilized soil while it was delayed upto
52 days in unsterilized soil. The root rot incidence (%)
in sterilized and unsterilized soil varied from40.00 to
86.67 and 46.67 to 66.67, respectively (Table.1). Isolate
Bikaner was highly virulent, followed by isolates Delhi,
Hisar, Karnal, Sriganganagar, Hanumangarh, Gurgaon
and Nagaur. In unsterilized soil the reaction of isolates
was less and delayed as compared to sterilized except
isolate Gurgaon and Nagaur was at par in both type of
soil.
Root rot was found as a major disease of
chickpea in different districts of Rajasthan state, as
reported by Singh and Sirohi (2003) in Madhya Pradesh
in India. Aghakhani and Dubey (2009) differentiated
23 isolates of Rhizoctonia bataticola incitant of root
rot of chickpea and observed variability in their
morphological, cultural characteristics and
pathogenicity as found in present investigations. In
unsterilized soil the reaction of isolates was less and
delayed as compared to sterilized one. The mortality
of plants in unsterilized soil was reduced except isolates
Gurgaon and Nagaur where mortality found increased
over sterilized soil. There was practically no direct
correlation between the cultural characters and
virulence in any of the isolates. Prameela Devi and
Singh (1998) categorized 56 isolates of M. phaseolina
obtained from blackgram and greengram crops
collected from11 different location of North, South,
North-East and central India. They observed higher
incidence of root rot in sterilized soil than in unsterilized
soil in both the crops as investigated in the present
studies.
Table 1: Pathogenicity of eight isolates of Rhizoctonia solani on C-235 variety of chickpea in sterilized and
unsterilized soil.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Disease incidence in per cent
Isolate Sterilized Unsterilized Mean
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Bikaner 86.67 66.67 76.67
(72.29) (54.99) (63.64)
Sriganganagar 60.00 46.67 53.33
(50.77) (43.08) (46.92)
Hanumangarh 53.33 46.67 50.00
(46.92) (43.08) (45.00)
Nagaur 40.00 53.33 46.67
(38.86) (47.30) (43.08)
Hisar 60.00 46.67 53.33
(51.14) (43.08) (47.11)
Karnal 60.00 46.67 53.33
(50.77) (43.08) (46.92)
Gurgaon 40.00 60.00 50.00
(39.23) (50.77) (45.00)
Delhi 73.33 46.67 60.00
(59.21) (43.08) (51.14)
Mean 59.17 51.67 55.42
(51.15) (46.06) (48.60)
S.Em CD (P=0.05) CD (P=0.01)
Isolates 3.38 9.58 12.75
Soil types 1.69 4.79 6.37
Isolates x s 4.78 13.54 18.03
oil types
CV (%) 3.38 9.58 12.75
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Figure in parenthesis are mean angles corresponding to percentage
PATHOGENICITY AND CHARACTERIZATION OF -------ROOT ROT IN CHICKPEA 14
References
Aghakhani M. and Dubey S.C. (2009). Morphological
and pathogenic variation among isolates of
Rhizoctonia bataticola causing dry root rot of
chickpea. Indian Phytopath. 62(2):183-189.
Monga, D.; Rathore, S.S.; Mayee, C.D. and Sharma
T.R. (2004). Differentiation of isolates of cotton rot
pathogens Rhizoctonia solani and R. bataticola
using pathogenicity and RAPD markers. J. Pl.
Biochem. Biotech. 13(2):135-139.
Prameela Devi T. and Singh R.H. (1998). Studies on
virulence of Macrophomina phaseolina isolates from
balckgramand greengram. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 28(2):
196-201.
Singh A. and Sirohi A. (2003). Status of chickpea
diseases in Himachal Pradesh, India. Review Plant
Pathology. 82(12):1476.
Received April 2014; Acceptance May 2014
Extention & Development Activities for Enhancing Adoption of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) Technologies among Chilli Farmers of Karnataka-India
N., KUMARA, A.C., JNANESH
1
, B. SHANUMANTHE GOWDA
2
, S.N. SACHIDANANDA
3
,
AND R. MANOJ
4
Research Scholar, IGNOU, New Delhi
Email;nkumar278@gmail.com
Abstract
The study was conducted in Chickmagalore and Kadur taluks of Chickmagalore District of
Karnataka state. Integrated Pest Management Practices in Chilli during 2013 and 2014. Study
reveals that use of drip irrigation, fertigation technology, and management of pests & Diseases,
Drying & grading for marketing and use of foliar nutrition in Chilli brought the benefit cost
ratio for Chilli IPM farmers compared to farmers of traditional practice, from 1.47 to 1.83.
Whereas increasing yield in farmers who were under Extention & Development Activities Team
was 810 Kg of Red Chilli per acre compared to 750 Kg of red Chilli in non-IPM farmers.
Adoption of IPM technologies was increased to 65.42 percent among the farmers who were under
Extention & Development Activities.
Key Words; IPM, Drip Irrigation, Chilli, Extention, Pest Management.
Introduction
Vegetables constitute about 55 per cent of
horticultural crop production in the country with a total
production of 85 million tonnes which is estimated to
cross 100 million tonnes in near future. Successful
cultivation of vegetables is hampered due to the
incidence of several insect pests. Cultivation of hybrids,
improved varieties, intensive agronomic practices, off
season cultivation and indiscriminate use of insecticides
has changed the pest complex in these crops.
Chilli is considered as one of the
commercial spice crops. It is the most widely used
universal spice, named as wonder spice. Different
varieties are cultivated for varied uses like
vegetable, pickles, spice and condiments. In daily
life, chilies are integral and the most important
ingredient in many different cuisines around the
world as it adds pungency, taste, flavor and color
to the dishes. Indian chilli is considered to be the
world famous for two important commercial
qualities its colour and pungency level.
The largest producer of chillies in the world is
India accounting for 11 lakh tons of production annually
followed by China with a production of around 4 lakh
tons. Mexico and Pakistan produces 3 lakhs tonnes
each of chili every year.In India, Chilli was grown on
an area of 8.82 Lakh ha and annual production of 11.0
lakh tones and with an average productivity of 1200
kg/ha (Anon., 2002). Among Chilli producing states in
the country Andhra Pradesh stands first in the list of
leading chilli-producing states in India and also
constitutes the maximumacreage for chilli cultivation
in the country. It occupies 49% share in the Indian
total production and produces around 2.7 lakh tons of
chillies followed by Orissa (18%), Karnataka (15%),
Maharashtra (6%), West Bengal (5%), Rajasthan
(4%) and Tamil Nadu (3%) (www.ikisan.com).
Karnataka state stands 3rd in contribution of
Chilli production to country. We have different chilli
varieties such as Byadagikaddi, Byadagidabbi,
Guntur(G-4) , Pusa jwala, KDSC-1, etc. are cultivated
by farmers, however Byadagi & Guntur varieties has
been recommended for cultivation. These varieties
gaining the popularity among the farmers of the state
also, because of chillies are famous for red colour
because of the pigment capsanthin, others are known
for biting pungency attributed to capsaicin.
Among themoccurrence of viral diseases as well
as ravages caused by insect pests are significant ones
(Gundannavaret al2007). The pest spectrumin chilli is
complex with more than 293 insects and mite species
debilitating the crop in the field as well as in storage
(Anon, 1987). Amongst these, aphids, Myzus persicae
Suler.,Aphis gossypii Glover., thrips, Scirtothrips
1
Visiting Scientist, ICRISAT, Hyderabad
2
SMS, KVK, Hirehally, HHR Bangalore
3
PGDMM, Sakrepatna Chickmagalore
4
SRF, Agriculture College, Mandya Karnataka
Research Methodology
A study on enhancing IPM technology in Chilli
was conducted in two predominantly
Byadagikaddi,variety of Chilli growing Taluks
Chickmagalore and Kadur taluks of chickmagalore
District in Karnataka fromfrom J une 2013. The
Training programmes and field advisory visits on IPM
in Chilli was conducted in 9 villages of the two Taluks
with 50 Chilli farmers. The selected farmers were
briefed about, the IPM technology and its importance
in initial group meetings with the selected farmers.
Continuous field visits was done by the Extention team.
Regular feedback on progress of the crop, pest and
disease incidence was collected fromthe field. Regular
interaction meetings were conducted with farmers to
integrate appropriate IPM technologies into their
existing cultivation practices.
IPM technology for Chili: The schedule for
Integrated Pest Management in Chilli has been
standardized at International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) Hyderabad. By
following the IPM, the disease and insect pest incidence
were reduced to negligible. The number of sprays of
pesticides was reduced to about 4 (botanical+
chemical) as compared to 6 chemical sprays in non-
IPM plots. Among various insect pests, thrips, aphids,
mites and fruit borers in chilli, are of prime importance.
Thrips;These minute and soft bodied insects are
polyphagous, cosmopolitan, and occur throughout the
year. Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaf tissues
and feed on the oozing sap. Usually young leaves are
preferred, but buds and flowers also get infested. The
infested leaves become shortened, curl upwards, and
crinkle. Under severe infested conditions the leaves
shed and hence plant growth is affected. Buds, when
infested, become brittle, petals of the flowers become
brown and drop off. Infested fruit have light brown
scars.
Management: Seed treatment with imidacloprid
(Gaucho) @ 5 grams per kg seed. In the field, spray
with imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters of water or fipronil
@ 2 ml per liter
Mites; These are tiny insects that live on tender
foliage, buds and fruits by sucking the plant sap. These
are found mostly on the lower surface of leaves in a
protective web. Under severe infestation of chillies
the leaves curve downwards and fruit turns brownish
with hardened skin.
Management: Spray with miticides such as
dicofol @ 5 ml per liter or wettable sulphur 3 grams
per liter or Pegasis @ 1 gmper liter or Vertemic @
0.5 ml per liter. Use overhead irrigation with sprinklers
for effective management of mites wherever possible.
Aphids; These tiny insects can infest the crops
at any time during the growing season. They look like
minute dark specks and tend to gather around the shoot
tips, flower buds and all over young foliage. Aphids
also leave sticky excreta on leaves that they have been
feeding on, which could help in the development of
fungal molds. Aphid infestation results in stunted or
deformed growth.
Management: An easy solution is to spray a very
weak soap solution. This works well, although frequent
application may affect crop growth. Ladybird beetles
and hover flies are natural predators of aphids. Trying
to attract them into these fields is the best way to
naturally control the pests. Planting bright flowers such
as marigolds around the chilli plots is a novel way to
attract these natural enemies. In case of severe
infestation, application of dimethoate @ 2 ml or
acephate @ 1 gramper liter or imidacloprid @ 1 ml in
3-4 liters can effectively manage aphids.
Fruit borers; Fruit borers are highly polyphagous
and cosmopolitan in distribution. These normally start
infesting chilli crop around flowering time. Young larvae
feed on leaves by scraping chlorophyll, while grown-
up larvae feed on leaves and fruits resulting in holes.
Well grown Spodoptera larvae are nocturnal in habit
and hide in the soil during the day time.
Management:Installation of pheromone traps for
Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera are of
doraslis Hood., yellow mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus
Banks and fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
are the most vital production constraints. A total of 39
and 57 insect pests were recorded in chillies in
Karnataka on nursery and field crops, respectively
(Reddy and Puttaswamy, 1983 and 1984). During the
last two decades insecticidal control of chilli pests in
general and especially in irrigated crop characterised
by high pesticides usage, has posed problems of
residues in the fruits (Nandihalli 1979 and J oiaet al
2001). Besides pest resurgence, insecticide resistance
and destruction of natural enemies (Mallikarjuna Rao
and Ahmed, 1986), both domestic consumption and
export of chilli necessitate production of quality chillies
devoid of contamination of pesticides, industrial
chemicals and aflatoxins. The pesticide consumption
is in down trend in cotton with the introduction of Bt
cotton but not the case of chilli. Many instances the
dry chilli exports fromIndian market were rejected
because of pesticide residue problem. Hence, the need
of the popularization of IPM technology in Chilli is felt.
The project was started with the special objective of
educating chilli farmers of nine selected villages in
Chickmagalore & Kadur Taluks of Chickmagalore
district of Karnataka on rational use of crop protection
chemicals in an integrated pest management approach
and thereby reduces the problemof pesticide residues
in the harvested produce.
ICRISAT Hyderabad IPM module
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Activity Stage of crop Management option
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Seed treatment Sowing time Imidacloprid (Gaucho) @ 5 grams per kg seed
Management of sucking pests Nursery Imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters of water or fipronil
@2 ml per liter.
Sowing trap crops At the time of transplanting Sunflower and marigold as border crop .
Installation of pheromone At the time of transplanting Two traps per location for each species About
traps and bird perches 25 perches/ha
Management of thrips in Transplanting to one month Overhead irrigation with sprinklers wherever
possible .Imidacloprid @ 1 ml in 3-4 liters of
water or fipronil @ per Ltr of Water
main crop before harvest
Management of mites In the nursery and main Overhead irrigation with sprinklers wherever
crop possible. Spray one of these chemicals once in
the nursery and second time in the main
crop dicofol @ 5 ml per liter or wettable sulphur
3 grams per liter or Pegasis @ 1 gmper liter
or Vertemic @ 0.5 ml per liter
Management of fruit borers Flowering stage Application of neemfruit powder extract @ 25
kg ha-1 NPV @ 500 LE/ha, Bt 4 ml per liter.
Management of pod borers Fruiting stage Setting poison baits for Spodoptera Spray
indoxacarb @ 1 ml per liter or spinosad @ 0.3
ml per liter
Arresting immigrating Crop maturity stage Erecting polythene fence around the field
Spodoptera (4 inches above ground)
Management of pod borers During crop maturity NPV @ 500 LE/ha, Bt (dipel @ 4 ml per liter) or
spinosad @ 0.3 ml per liter
Anthracnose Green fruit stage Thiophonate methyl 1 g per liter /Mancozeb 2.5 g
per liter / Tilt 1ml per liter / Antrcol 2g per liter
Powdery mildew Flowering and fruiting Stage Dinocap 1 ml per liter/ wettable sulfur 3g per liter
_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
S. No Village / Taluk Taluk Number Total Cultivable Are Chilli Area
of Farmers (Acre)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1 Kunnalu Chickmahalore 10 20.50 17
2 Sirabidagi Chickmahalore 5 22.98 14
3 Uddeboranahally Chickmahalore 5 15.35 9.20
4 Karisiddanahally Chickmahalore 5 13.71 9.33
5 Kenganahally Chickmahalore 5 11.36 7.30
6 Govindapura Kadur 5 14.20 10
7 Chikkangla Kadur 5 28.34 16
8 Shakunipura Kadur 5 22 11
9 Yammedhoddi Kadur 5 27.30 17.20
Total 9 50 175.74 111.03
_____________________________________________________________________________________
EXTENTION & DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES -----------OF KARNATAKA-INDIA 17
immense value in monitoring this pest. Planting
sunflower along the borders can attract ovipositing
moths, thereby saving the main crop frominfestation.
Use of poison baits (8:1:1 bran, jaggery and
chloripyriphos) and placing themclose to the plants
proved effective in controlling immigrating Spodoptera
caterpillars (25 kg bait is sufficient for one ha). Foliar
spray with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) at recommended.
application of indoxacarb @ 1 ml per liter or spinosad
@ 0.3 ml per liter will be effective. Also, for Spodoptera
and Helicoverpa, application of nuclear polyhedrosis
virus (NPV) @ 500 LE per ha at the early stage of
the pest infestation proved to be an effective control.
A. Sampling area
Total Nine villages (Five Villages from
Chickmagalore Taluk & Four Villages fromKadur
Taluk) in Chickmagalore district where the project
activities carried were purposively selected.
B. Selection of the Respondents;
50 farmers fromnine villages having 175.74 Acre
cultivable land & growing Byadagikaddi variety of Chilli
Table 1: Enhance in adoption of IPM technologies. (N=50)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Sl. Technology components enhance in Adoption of technology
No. Before project implementation After one year of project
implementation
Freq (n) Percent Freq (n) Percent adoption
adoption
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Mulching in Chilli 14 28 24 48
2 Use of drip for irrigation 24 48 39 78
3 Fertigation technology 26 52 37 74
4 Use of NPV for control of fruit 6 12 19 38
borer
5 Management of pests & diseases 28 56 38 76
at various stages
6 Preparation on enriched FYM 23 46 33 66
7 Drying & Grading of fruits for 27 54 39 78
marketing
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2: Farmers Participation in Trainings of IPM on Chilli (N=50)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Sl. 1-2 times More Than 2 times
No. Freq (n) % Freq (n) %
1. 12 24 39 78
____________________________________________________________________________________
in 111.03 Acre were selected.
C. Data collection tools and procedures;
A questionnaire was developed for the purpose
was used for the survey. The questions were asked in
Kannada and were used for collecting responses from
the project farmers. The data were collected fromthe
respondents through personal interview with the help
of interview schedule. Necessary precautions were
taken to ensure that the questions in the schedule were
unambiguous, clear, concise, complete, and
comprehensive. The respondents were contacted in
person mostly at the common place in the village.
D. Statistical Analysis;
The data collected for the study was tabulated,
processed and analysed using simple statistical tools
like frequency and percentage.
Table 1 indicates that a majority of farmers (78
%) started using drip irrigation for the improvement of
crop when compared to only 24 % before the
implementation of the project. Also a considerable
improvement in parameters like fertilization technology,
management of pests & Diseases at various stages,
drying & grading of Red Chilli for marketing were
improved over the before implementation of the
project. The use of NPV for control of fruit borer
showed 38 per cent adoption compare to 12 % before
the project. Technology like mulching in Chilli was
adopted by 14 % of the farmers before the
implementation of the project. But a drastic
improvement (48 %) has been achieved in adoption of
mulching technology through IPM technology project
once the farmers realized its importance in water, weed,
and labor and pest management. This achievement
could be possible because of the Extention &
Development Activities of Extention Team.
It is implied fromTable 2 that the 78 % of the
farmers attended more than two training programmes
conducted by the Extention Teamon IPM in Chilli with
extension agents and scientists was good. This is
because extension agents and scientists showed the
importance of the technologies, and its timely
application in the field to achieve more economic
returns. It has been realized by the farmers that regular
contact with scientists will definitely paves the way
for gaining a lot fromthem.
It is evident fromthe table 3 the components of
IPM technologies like reduction in chemical sprays,
considerably reduction in the environmental pollution,
health hazards and improves the marketability of the
Red chilli achieving higher economic returns. Reduction
in usage of chemicals, frequency of sprays and
unnecessary usages of chemicals has been thoroughly
communicated to the farmers to achieve more
economic returns. Accordingly project area farmers
could get Rs 1.83 for every rupee invested compared
Table 3: Economic improvement in Chilli cultivation through IPM
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Sl. No Particulars Non IPM farmer IPM farmer
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1 No. of plant protection chemical sprays 06 4
2 Reduction in no. of chemical sprays - 2
3 No. of biological sprays 0 1
4 No. of micronutrient sprays 0 1
5 Yield Kg per acre 750 810
6 Cost of plant protection chemicals/acre Rs 2544 Rs 1696
7 Rate obtained per kg of Red Chilli Rs 80 Rs 90
8 Total Revenue per acre Rs 60000 Rs 72900
9 Total cost per acre Rs 40541 Rs 39693
10 Net profit Rs 13459 Rs 24709
11 Benefit cost ratio 1.47 1.83
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Specific for the Red Chilli Kaddi variety grown during August 13 to April 2014,
Economics have been worked out for the district of Chickmagalore.
EXTENTION & DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES -----------OF KARNATAKA-INDIA 19
to only Rs 1.47 in case of farmers earlier practices. A
considerable improvement in economic returns as well
as awareness regarding hazardous chemicals among
the farmers has been achieved in this project. This in
turn a lesson for fellow farmers of same villages as
well as neighboring district Chilli farmers. chilli are
without chemical residues(Analysis report fromSpices
Board, Ministry of commerce Govt of India Kochi
India enclosed) and preferred by the consumers in the
market.
References
Bentley, J .W. (2009). Impact of IPM Extension for small
holder farmers in the tropics. In Integrated Pest
Management: dissemination and impact. Pub.
Springer, Chapter 8, pp 333-346.
George, S., Hegde, M.R. and Doijode, S.D. (2012).
Adoption of integrated Pest management practices in
vegetable crops in Karnataka. Pest management in
horticultural ecosystems, Vol. 18 (1):118-119
Rajur, B.C., B.L. Patil and Basavraj, 2008. Economics
of chilli production in Karnataka, Karnataka J. Agric.
Sci., 21(2): 237-240
Singh, A and Singh, L. (2004). Yield gap assessment of
Lentil under front line demonstration Uttar Pradesh.
Indian J. of Extn. Education. 4 (1&2): 58-59.
Tiwary, K.B and Saxena, A. (2001). Economic analysis
of FLD of oilseeds in Chindwara. Bharathiya Krishi
Anusandhan Patrika, 16 (36/4): 185-188.
Received January 2014; Acceptance May 2014
Backyard nutritional garden for improving health status of farm families
SHOBHANA GUPTA, S.S.TOMAR AND NEERAJ HADA
Directorate of Extension Services, RVSKVV, Gwalior (M.P.)
Abstract
Madhya Pradesh is one of the vulnerable states with only 122.52 gm vegetables and 153.15
gm fruits available per person per day. A large population is dependent on agriculture, who works
on their farms as cultivators or labourers. As the shift of agriculture is changing to market driven
economy and our farm families too need to purchase a range of cereals, pulses, vegetables and
fruits from the market as their daily needs are not met from their farm. It was; therefore, felt that
the farm women should be made aware about the importance of nutritional garden to fulfill their
daily demand of vegetables. KVKs under RVSKVV, Gwalior demonstrated 82 demonstrations
during the year 2010-11, 154 demonstrations during the year 2011-12 and 107 demonstrations
during the year 2012-13. The main purpose of these FLDs was to plan a layout of backyard
nutritional garden to obtain a continuous supply of nutritionally rich vegetables within the
available space. The improved variety vegetable seeds and seedlings were provided with
emphasis on integrated pest management. The results showed that earlier the beneficiaries were
growing only 2-3 vegetables in unorganized way but after intervention of KVKs they started
growing more than five vegetables in an organized way. Also with small affordable investment in
backyard nutritional garden they are able to get seasonal vegetables throughout the year with
an approximate reduction of 47% in malnutrition and 26.45 to 58.38% increase in yield over
local check within these three years. The B: C ratio ranged between 2.34 to 3.70 within these
three years. The results also revealed that the average family saving is around Rs 1650 per year
from the vegetables. This monetary saving can further be diverted to improve economic status of
the farm families, in turn, improving their health status.
Key words: KVKs, RVSKVV, FLDs, demonstrations, B: C ratio
Introduction
Food is very essential in the humans life. It
provides energy, protein, vitamins, minerals fats, fibers
and essential amino acids. There are seven main food
groups. Among themvegetables are richest source of
vitamins and mineral as well as contains good amount
of fibers. Vegetables occupy an important place in our
daily life particularly for vegetarians. Vegetables are
the only source to increase not only the nutritive values
of foods but also its palatability. For a balanced diet,
an adult should have an intake of 85 g of fruits and
300 g of vegetables per day as per the dietary
recommendation of nutrition specialists. But the
present level of production of vegetables in our country
can permit a per capita consumption of only 120 g of
vegetables per day.
It is surprisingly quite true that in rural
area consumption of vegetable in daily diet is very
negligible amount or it can be said that once in a week.
Hence, the maximum symptoms and deficiencies
related to vitamins are observed in rural area. The
adverse effect could be observed more in women and
children- malnutrition, eye deficiencies, anemia, under
weight, weakness, constipation problem and so on
problemrelated to vitamins and minerals which are
due to the lack of vegetables in daily diet. The farm
women are mostly engaged with farmwork which is
available in particular crop season. Majority of farm
women have lack of knowledge about health &
nutrition, dietetic blueprint of pregnant & lactating
women and complementary feeding for children. Due
to poor economic condition, they are unable to
purchase fruits & vegetables frommarket for their
daily dietary need. This has resulted in poor health
and imbalance nutritional status of farmers, farm
women and children.
As per the Aparana Sharma (2010) farm
women should develops the nutritional garden which
was not only the source to empower the individual but
also households to take ultimate responsibilities over
the quality of their diet through their own production
of nutrient rich foods and informed consumption
choices.
Nutritional garden is helps in dual way; first it
provides fresh vegetables for round the year and can
be a source of entrepreneurship among the rural youth
and farmwomen which can be sustainable for life
long. Nutritional Park slowly removes the malnutrition
problemand also increases the health status of the
farmwomen and children.
Cultivation of organic vegetables in the nutritional
garden can be an excellent and qualitative source of
income generation as these days maximumhealth
problems and diseases arise due to the abundant use
of harmful pesticides on vegetables. Organic
vegetables can be sold in higher price and it can
provide a good economic stand to the cultivator.
Considering the above facts, strong need was
felt to motivate the farmwomen for cultivating the
nutritional garden at house hold level and plan to
produce their own vegetable requirements in their
backyards using the available fresh water as well as
the kitchen and bathroomwastewater. This will not
only facilitate prevention of stagnant unused water
which will be hazardous to their health through
environmental pollution, but can be useful for
successful production of their own requirement of
vegetables cultivation in a small area. It was seen that
the farmwomen were growing one or two vegetable
crops of local variety in their backyard in traditional
way. Hence, to motivate the farm women towards
growing improved varieties of different vegetables to
accomplish their nutritional requirement, it was decided
to conduct Front Line Demonstrations on Nutritional
Garden by the KVKs under RVSKVV, Gwalior with
major objective of planning a layout of backyard
nutritional garden to obtain a continuous supply of
nutritionally rich vegetables within the available space,
thus, improving the health & nutritional status of Farm
families; in turn increasing the income of farmfamilies.
Before conducting the FLDs a list of farmwomen
was prepared fromgroup meeting and specific skill
training was imparted to the selected beneficiaries
regarding different aspects of cultivation etc. were
followed as suggested by Chaudhary (1999). KVKs
under RVSKVV, Gwalior demonstrated 82
demonstrations during the year 2010-11, 154
demonstrations during the year 2011-12 and 107
demonstrations during the year 2012-13. The improved
variety vegetable seeds and seedlings were provided
with emphasis on integrated pest management.
The results showed that earlier the beneficiaries
were growing only 2-3 vegetables in unorganized way
but after intervention of KVKs they started growing
more than five vegetables in an organized way. Also
with small affordable investment in backyard nutritional
garden they are able to get seasonal vegetables
throughout the year with an approximate reduction of
47% in malnutrition and 26.45 to 58.38% increase in
yield over local check within these three years. The
B: C ratio ranged between 2.34 to 3.70 within these
three years (Table 1). The results also revealed that
the average family saving is around Rs 1650 per year
fromthe vegetables. Farmwomen feed their families
first and then sell, barter or give away surplus. This
monetary saving can further be diverted to improve
economic status of the farmfamilies, in turn, improving
their health status. In rural area it can become good
source of income generation for farmwomen. In spite
of these entire facts, still backyard nutritional gardening
is not a very successful venture in most of the rural
families. The predominant reasons for the poor adoption
may due to lack of technical guidance, lack awareness
BACKYARD NUTRITIONAL GARDEN FOR IMPROVING HEALTH------------FAMILIES 21
Table 1: Performance of Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) on Nutritional Kitchen Garden
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Year No. of Area (ha) Average Yield Increase in Average Net B:C Ratio
Demo (q/ha) yield (%) Return
Demo Local Check Demo Local Check
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2010-11 82 6.06 135.59 107.22 26.45 72076 47769 2.81
2011-12 154 5.68 172.53 114.85 50.22 57605 32172 3.70
2012-13 107 3.29 223.16 140.90 58.38 58575 41055 2.34
_____________________________________________________________________________________
and knowledge factors such as seed, water, protection,
measures, storage, processing and so on.
The study indicated that KVKs should try to work
on measures to eradicate the constraints in adoption
of backyard nutritional garden so that the rural women
get a regular supply of fresh vegetables throughout
the year in turn, improving their health status.
Acknowledgment
Authors are indebted to the KVK Programme
Coordinators and Staff who were instrumental in
providing information for this study.
References
Aparana Sharma (2010). Nutritional Gardens to Fight
Hidden Hunger. Intensive Agriculture.Vol.49 No.3
July-September, 2010.1-59.
Chaudhary, B.N. (1999). KVK-A guide for KVK
managers. Publication Div. of Agril. Ext., ICAR. pp
73-78.
Received November 2013; Acceptance April 2014
Productivity and profitability of pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (l.) millsp.] genotypes
as influenced by phosphorus and sulphur fertilization
SUBODH KUMAR AND B. P. SINGH
Department of Agronomy, Raja Balwant Singh College, Bichpuri, Agra (U.P.) 283105
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted on pigeonpea during kharif season of 2004 and 2005 to
study the productivity and profitability of pigeonpea genotypes as influenced by phosphorus and
sulphur fertilization. Four levels of P (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P
2
O
5
/ha), three levels of S (0, 20 and
40 kg S/ha) and three genotypes (UPAS-120, Pusa-992 and Pusa-855) were used in the study.
Pusa-855 was found significantly better in respect of yield and economics as compared to all
other genotypes. Application of phosphorus @ 60 kg P
2
O
5
/ha gave significantly higher seed and
straw/stalk yield over its lower doses. 40 kg sulphur per hectare gave significantly higher seed
yield over control and 20 kg S/ha. However, application of sulphur only up to 20 kg/ha increased
straw/stalk yield significantly as compared to control. Genotype Pusa 855 gave maximum net
return (Rs./ha 15888) among all three genotypes.
Key words: Genotypes, productivity, net return, yield
Introduction
Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] is a
premium pulse crop in India. Its ability to produce
economic yield under limited moisture condition makes
crop of dryland agriculture. Despite being the largest
producer in the world, the country is in short supply of
pulses. To make the nation self sufficient in pulses,
productivity levels of pulses need to be increased
sustainability from598 kg/ha to 1200 kg/ha by 2020
(Ali and Kumar, 2005). Although various factors are
responsible to enhanse the production of pulses
including pigeonpea.
Pigeonpea is one of the major food legume crop
of the tropics and sub-tropics. In India, pigeonpea is
the second most important pulse crop next to chickpea.
It is mainly eaten in the formof split pulse as dal.
Besides this, in the tribal areas of various states, the
use of pigeonpea as green vegetable is very common
(Saxena et al. 2010). The crushed dry seeds are feed
of animals, while green leaves are used as a quality
fodder. The dry stems of pigeonpea make an excellent
fuel wood.
Pulses are wonderful gift of nature. Pulses are
the rich source of protein, specially for vegetarian.
Being rich in protein (22-23%) pigeonpea is a good
source of nutrition to the pre dominantly vegetarian
population in our country. It is mostly consumed in the
form of dal (split cotyledons). Pigeonpea is an
important pulse crop. The evoluation of short duration
varieties to pigeonpea have provided the opportunity
for multiple cropping in irrigated as well as rainfed
areas. Even its short duration varieties responded highly
to phosphorus and sulphur. Recently some short
duration varieties of about 130-160 days have been
developed which have high yield potential (20-30 q/
ha) and harvested by end of November. These
varieties fit very well under double cropping system
with wheat and other rabi crops. In India, pigeonpea
among the kharif grain legumes, occupies first place
is the second most important pulse crop next to
chickpea as a whole.
Pigeonpea is the fifth prominent grain legume
crop in the world and holds second position in India
after chickpea. The low yield of pigeonpea is not only
due to its cultivation on marginal land, but also because
of inadequate and imbalanced fertilization. Phosphorus
is required mainly for root development, nodule
formation, seed development and quality improvement
of crop. Phosphorus in an important plant nutrient and
it affects seed germination, cell division, flowering,
fruiting, synthesis of fat, starch and infact most
biochemical activities. It also induces root proliferation
and nodulation.
Sulphur is an important essential secondary plant
nutrient. Importance of sulphur in Indian agriculture is
being increasingly emphasized and sulphur has been
considered 4
th
important nutrient has a great impact
on production of legumes as most of Indian soils are
being reported sulphur deficient in extensively
cultivated tracts. In fact, a major factor responsible
for sustaining soil productivity in India has been the
The experiment was conducted during the kharif
seasons 2004 and 2005 at Agricultural Research Farm
of R.B.S College, Bichpuri, Agra. The soil was sandy
loam, having pH 7.90, electrical conductivity (EC) 1.86
dS/m, organic carbon 0.34% and available N, P
2
O
5
,
K
2
O and S 182.0, 29.50, 253.0 and 15.0 kg/ha,
respectively. The treatments consisted of three
genotypes (UPAS-120, Pusa-992 and Pusa-855), four
levels of phosphorus (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P
2
O
5
/ha)
and three levels of sulphur (0, 20 and 40 kg S/ha).The
experiment was conducted in split plot design, where
genotypes and levels of phosphorus kept in main plot
and sulphur levels in sub plot, replicated three times.
Full dose of phosphorus and sulphur as per treatments
through dia-ammonium phosphate and elemental
sulphur, respectively were applied just before sowing
of crop. Supply of 20 kg N ha
-1
and 40 kg potassium
K
2
O ha
-1
were applied for the crop as basal. A uniform
dose of nitrogen and potassium@ 20 and 40 kg ha
-1
were applied through urea and murate of potash. The
seed of pigeonpea varieties were treated with thiram
@ 3 g/kg seed. The pigeonpea seeds were sown @
15 kg ha
-1
by kera (dropping the seeds in furrows
behind the plough). The light hoeings with khurpi were
done at 15 and 30 DAS to remove weeds along with
thinning operations maintaining plant spacing row to
row and plant to plant 60 cm X 20 cm. The next
operation was done at 60 days after sowing.The plants
fromnet plot were harvested fromthe ground level
and were left for sun drying in-situ. The pigeonpea
were threshed manually. Grains were cleaned and
weighed for expressing yield in q ha
-1
. The weight of
straw/stalk was recorded separately and used for
estimating straw/stalk yield. Number of pods/plant,
number of seeds/pod, grain weight/plant, pods weight/
plant, 1000-seed weight, seed yield and straw/stalk
yield etc. were recorded. Economics was calculated
by using prevailing market prices of inputs used and
outputs.
Genotypes
The yield attributing characters (number of pods
per plant, weight of pods per plant, seed weight per
plant, seeds per pod and 1000-seed weight) record
significant variation among genotypes. Puse-855
produce more number of pods per plant and grain
weight per plant over others. The higher values of these
yield attributes resulted in higher seed yield per plant
and seed yield per hectare. Genotype Puse-855
produced significantly more number of pods per plant,
weight of pods per plant, 1000-seed weight compared
with Pusa-992 and UPAS-120. Genotype Pusa-855
scored significantly higher seed productivity over
UPAS-120. UPAS-120 was short duration genotype
over Pusa-992 and Pusa-855. The seed and straw/
stalik yield obtained with Pusa-855 was significantly
higher than same noticed with Pusa 992 and UPAS-
120. Higher yield could be obtain with the application
of phosphorus 90 kg/ha and sulphur 40 kg/ha. General
longer the duration, yielding ability would be higher.
Effect of phosphorus
The yield parameters viz. number of pods/plant,
seed/pod, weight of pods per plant, seed weight per
plant and 1000-seed weight were significantly affected
by the levels of phosphorus and sulphur. Application
of 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
being at par with 30 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
significantly increased yield attributes viz. pods/plant
and grains/pod over 30 P
2
O
5
ha
-1
and control. The
maximumgrain yield was obtained with application of
90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
being significantly superior over
application of 30 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
and control. The higher
values of yield and yield attributes may be described
to the effect of P on root development, energy
transformation and metabolic processes of the plant,
which, in term, resulted in greater translocation of
photosynthates towards the sink development. These
results are in conformity with Singh and Ahlawat
(2007).
The beneficial effect of phosphorus on production
of grain and straw/stalk were observed in this
investigation. Higher seed yield was obtained with the
2
O
5
ha
-1
. Similar findings were
reported by Singh et al. (2008), Goud and Kale (2010)
and Sathe et al. (2011). This is apparently due to
increase in yield attributes. Straw/stalk yields were
also affected by levels of phosphorus and maximum
values were recorded with 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
. The
highly diversified nature of the cropping patterns which
either include a pulse or a legume crop as one of the
component. Sulphur plays an important role in many
physiological process in plant viz; synthesis of sulphur
containing amino acids (Cysteine, Cystine and
Methionine), synthesis of certain vitamins (Biotine and
Thiomine), co-enzyme A and in the metabolismof
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Sulphur also promotes
nodulation in legumes. Although not a constituent,
sulphur is required for the synthesis of chlorophyll.
Sulphur application increases drought and cold
tolerance in plants due to the process of disulfide
linkage. It also helps in the control of diseases and
pest. The sulphur deficiency has been recognized as a
factor in limiting the yield and quality of grain legumes
as around 70% of the S is found in the chloroplast and
thus plays vital role in carbon assimilation. Therefore
the present investigation was conducted to evaluate
the performances of different short duration pigeonpea
genotypes to phosphorus and sulphur fertilization in
respect of productivity and profitability.
beneficial effect of phosphorus application on yields
obtained in the present investigation, are in close
conformity with those of Kumar et al. (2007).
Phosphorus application up to 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
recorded significantly higher seed and straw/stalk yield
as compared with lower P doses. Straw/stalk yield,
pods/plant, weight of pods per plant, seed weight per
plant and seeds/pod were higher at 30 or 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
over control. Such improvement in seed yield might
be probably because of phosphorus improved in the
rate of symbiotic N fixation and, in turn, stimulates the
growth of plants thereby having beneficial effects of
yield attributes and given higher yields. These results
are in close conformity with the findings of Dass et
al. (2005).
The seed production is dependent on yield
attributes and all these traits were favorably affected
by phosphorus application. Seed yield of pigeonpea
increased significantly up to 60 kg P
2
O
5
/ha. The
maximumstraw/stalk yield were observed under 90
kg P
2
O
5
/ha followed by 60 kg P
2
O
5
/ha, their values
were found statistically at par. The greater value of
straw/stalk yield at higher dose of P is significantly
higher pace of growth in the plots enjoying surplus
phosphorus. However, the higher value of grain yield
was result of higher value of different yield contributing
characters. These findings are in the conformity with
the result of Gupta et al. (2006).
The seed yield was significantly increased by the
2
O
5
/ha as compared to 30 kg
P
2
O
5
/ha and control. This may be attributed to greater
availability of phosphorus due to these treatments and
better growth and yield attributes. Maximumseed and
stalk yield of pigeonpea was found with application of
90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
which was at par with 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-
1
and significantly superior over 30 kg P
2
O
5
/ha and
control during both the years of investigation. Similar
results have been reported by Deshbhrartar et al.
(2010) and Mahetele and Kushwaha (2011).
Effect of sulphur
Application of 20 kg S ha
-1
significantly increased
the yield attributes viz. pods/plant, weight of pods per
plant, seed weight per plant and grains/pod of pigeonpea
over no sulpher. The results are in conformity with
those of Deshbhratar et al. (2010) who also noted
increased yield by application of sulphur. Application
of sulphur up to 40 kg ha
-1
significantly increased the
number of pods/plant, number of seeds/pod, weight of
pods per plant, seed weight per plant, grain and straw/
stalk yield over control but statistically at par with 20
kg S ha
-1
. These results are in conformity with the
finding of Tripathi et al. (2011). Increase in yield
parameters under sulphur fertilization might be due to
improved availability of S, which, in turn, enhanced
the plant metabolism and photosynthetic activity
resulting into better yield (Yadav 2004).
The increase was noted in the seed yield (kg ha
-
1
) with the increase in level of sulphur from0-20 kg
ha
-1
. However, 40 kg ha
-1
of applied sulphur did not
attribute any significant change over 20 kg S ha
-1
with
regard to seed and straw/stalk yield, but the
advantageous effect of various doses of sulphur over
control was significant in both the years. The beneficial
effect of sulphur application on the yield of seed and
straw/stalk obtained in the present investigation, is in
close conformity with the findings of Meena et al.
(2005). The application of 20 kg S/ha increased the
straw/stalk yield over control. The boldness of seed
of pigeonpea is, thus, promoted appreciably under the
application of sulphur (Tripathi and Verma 2007).
Economics
Data regarding the details of economic analysis
revealed that all fertilizer treatment gave highest gross
return as compared to control. Amongst treatments,
2
O
5
ha
-1
gave the maximum
return over the cost of the treatments followed by the
2
O
5
ha
-1
. Application of either
phosphorus or sulphur alone could not produce similar
economic returns as obtained in case of their combined
application, indicating the importance of both the
nutrients for pigeonpea for obtaining higher yield and
economic return. The highest gross return, net return
and return per rupee invested was obtained with 90
kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
and 40 kg S/ha and this treatment was
significantly superior to 30 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
and 20 kg S/
ha.
Net return of pigeonpea increased up to 90 kg
P
2
O
5
ha
-1
over control and P @ 30 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
.
Return per rupee invested was also followed the same
trend. This was due to greater increase in gross return
as compared with lesser increase in cost of cultivation.
Nimje (2003) reported that application of P @ 90 kg
P
2
O
5
ha
-1
enhanced the net return of pigeonpea.
Highest gross return was found highest with 90
kg P
2
O
5
and 40 kg S/ha treatment combination
followed by 60 kg P
2
O
5
and 20 kg S/ha. Similarly
highest net return also was received with 90 kg P
2
O
5
and 40 kg S/ha followed by 60 kg P
2
O
5
and 20 kg S/
ha. Higher gross return with Pusa 855 with 90 kg P
2
O
5
and 40 kg S/ha was due to its respective higher seed
and straw/stalk yield. Whereas, higher net return was
due to relatively higher level of gross return.
On the basis of two years data, it was concluded
that the pigeonpea genotype Pusa-855 showed the
superiority over rest of genotypes UPAS 120 and Pusa
992 in respect of yield attributes, seed yield and
economics. Higher yield could be obtain with the
application of phosphorus up to 60 kg/ha and sulphur
PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFITABILITY OF PIGEONPEA-------SULPHUR FERTILIZATION 25
Table 1: Effect of phosphorus and sulphur fertilization on productivity and economics of pigeonpea genotypes.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Treatment Pods Seeds Pod Grain 1000-seed Seed Straw Cost of Gross Net Return/
/plant /pod weight weight weight (g) yield /stalk cultivationreturn return rupee
/plant /plant (g) (g) (kg/ha) yield (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) (Rs./ha) invested
(kg/ha) (Rs.)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Genotypes
UPAS120 192.31 2.95 29.23 14.71 73.40 1365 5072 23960 34794 10834 1.45
Pusa 992 180.22 2.90 27.83 13.97 70.95 1326 4492 23960 31560 7600 1.32
Pusa 855 197.14 3.32 31.15 16.64 78.80 1593 5561 23960 39848 15888 1.67
CD (P=0.05) 6.70 0.14 1.32 0.62 2.78 52 179 - - - -
P levels
(kg
P
2
O
5
/ha)
0 158.73 2.38 23.38 10.71 70.53 1103 4468 23960 35401 11441 1.48
30175.83 2.96 28.56 14.84 74.66 1403 5044 25726 46141 20415 1.79
60191.66 3.40 32.54 17.18 76.05 1583 5318 26759 50474 24715 1.88
90194.32 3.48 33.12 17.70 76.29 1619 5375 27921 53656 25725 1.93
CD (P=0.05) 7.25 0.15 1.52 0.72 3.21 60 207 - - - -
S levels
(kg S/ha)
0 158.26 2.84 27.56 13.89 72.44 1265 4793 23960 35401 11441 1.48
20180.42 3.13 30.05 15.5. 75.13 1488 5170 25159 41408 17259 1.64
40189.86 3.20 30.60 15.94 76.40 1535 5205 26359 44733 18374 1.70
CD(P=0.05) 5.57 0.10 1.01 0.48 2.20 18.25 129 - - - -
___________________________________________________________________________________
40 kg/ha to harness the existing agro-resources and to
produce the crop in their higher quantity and to explore
maximumnet return. Fromthe present study, it was
concluded that Pusa-855 was the most suitable
genotype of pigeonpea for cultivation.
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phosphorus on yield, quality and nutrient status of
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(2007). Effect of phosphorus fertilization and seed
inoculation on growth, yield attributes and yield of
chickpea. National Symposiumon Legumes for
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Opportunities held on November 3-5 at I I P R, Kanpur.
pp. 50.
Meena, S.K.; Mahendra, Sharma and H.S. Meena (2005).
Effect of sulphur and zinc fertilization on yield, quality
and nutrient content and uptake of chickpea under
semi and tropics. Ann. Agric. Res. New Series. 26(1):
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by FYM, PSB and phosphous fertilization under rainfed
condition. Journal of Food Legumes. 24:72-74.
Nimje, P.M. (2003). Effect of phosphorus fertilization on
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planting on the performance of rainfed pigeonpea.
Indian Journal of Dryland Agriculture Research
and Development. 23(2):24-27.
Tripathi, S.K. and Verma, C.B. (2007). Studies on effect
of different levels of sulphur on growth, yield and
metabolic traits in pea genotypes of semi arid zone.
National Symposiumon Legumes for Ecological
Sustainability: Emerging Challenges and
Opportunities held on November 3-5 at I I P R, Kanpur.
pp. 73.
Tripathi, H.C.; Singh, K.; Kumar, A. and Pathak, R.K.
(2011). Response of urdbean genotypes to sulphur
application in an Inceptisol. Current Advances in
Agricultural Sciences. 3:33-35.
Yadav, S.S. (2004).Growth and yield of greengramas
influenced by phosphorus and sulphur fertilization.
Haryana Journal of Agronomy. 20:10-12.
Knowledge level of contact and non-contact farmers about the activities
undertaken by the Krishi Vigyan Kendra
SUNITA KUMARI
1
, G. S. BANGARWA
2
, B. S. BADHALA AND RAMDHAN GHASWA
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Pratapgarh (Rajasthan)
Abstract
The Krishi Vigyan Kendra is the district level farm science centre established by the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for speedy transfer of technology to the farmers fields.
It serves as the light house for rapid agricultural and rural development. They act as linkers
between agricultural universities, research institutes and farmers. The aim of KVK is to reduce
the time lag between generation of technology at the research institution and transfer to farmers
fields for increasing production, productivity and income from the allied sectors. The main
purpose of KVK programme is to provide new knowledge and develop new skills for adoption of
new latest technology and build up desirable attitude among farmers, rural youth and extension
functionaries. The study was conducted in Jhunjhunu district of Rajasthan. Jhunjhunu district
comprises of total eight panchayat samities, out of which two panchayat samities namely
Jhunjhunu and Chirawa were select randomly. A list of the villages each selected panchayat
samiti, were obtained from the office of KVK. Out of these villages, three villages from each se-
lected panchayat samiti were selected by using simple random sampling techniques
1. It was found that thirty eight contact farmers (63.33 per cent) fall in the medium
knowledge groups, whereas, ten respondents (16.67 per cent) were found in low knowledge and
remaining twelve respondents (20.00 per cent) possessed high knowledge about activities under
taken by KVK.
2. In case of non-contact farmers thirty nine respondents (65.00 per cent) were found
in medium knowledge groups, whereas, fourteen respondents (23.33 per cent) were in low knowl-
edge group and remaining seven respondents (11.67 per cent) possessed high knowledge about
activities under taken by KVK.
Key words : Knowledge, KVK, contact and non-contact
Introduction
The Krishi Vigyan Kendra is the district level
farmscience centre established by the Indian Council
of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for speedy transfer
of technology to the farmers fields. It serves as the
light house for rapid agricultural and rural development.
They act as linkers between agricultural universities,
research institutes and farmers. The aimof KVK is
to reduce the time lag between generation of
technology at the research institution and transfer to
farmers fields for increasing production, productivity
and income fromthe allied sectors. The main purpose
of KVK programme is to provide new knowledge and
develop new skills for adoption of new latest technology
1
M.Sc (Ag). Department of Extension Education, S.K.N.
College of Agriculture, Jobner-Jaipur (Rajasthan)
2
Professor, Department of Extension Education, S.K.N.
College of Agriculture, Jobner-Jaipur (Rajasthan)
and build up desirable attitude among farmers, rural
youth and extension functionaries.
There are 42 Krishi Vigyan Kendra operating in
33 districts of Rajasthan. Thus, it is needless to highlight
the importance of KVKs in quick and regular transfer
of the technology among the farmers. It is therefore,
high time that impact of each KVK must be
scientifically assessed so that their activities may be
appreciated. With this view in mind the present
investigation Impact of activities of Krishi Vigyan
Kendra on contact vis--vis non-contact farmers in
J hunjhunu district of Rajasthan was conducted
Methodology
In Rajasthan, there are 42 KVKs, out of which,
21 KVKs are under the administrative control of
Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Bikaner; 11 KVKs are under MPUAT, Udaipur; 6
KVKs are under NGOs, three KVKs are under the
Table 1: Distribution of contact farmers according to their knowledge level N =60
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Knowledge level Number of Percentage
respondents
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Low (Below 20.21) 12 20.00
Medium(From20.21 to 25.63) 38 63.33
High (Above 25.63) 10 16.67
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Mean =22.92, S.D. =2.71
Table 2: Distribution of non-contact farmers according to their knowledge level =60
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Knowledge level Number of Percentage
respondents
Low (Below 14.33) 14 23.33
Medium(From14.33 to18.37) 39 65.00
High (Above 18.37) 7 11.67
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Mean =16.35, S.D. =2.02
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT------KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA 29
ICAR institutes and one KVK is under Rajasthan
University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner.
Out of these, KVK J hunjhunu was selected purposely.
The study was conducted in J hunjhunu district of
Rajasthan. J hunjhunu district comprises of total eight
panchayat samities, out of which two panchayat
samities namely J hunjhunu and Chirawa were selected
randomly. A list of the villages of each selected
panchayat samiti, was obtained fromthe office of
KVK. Out of these villages, three villages fromeach
selected panchayat samiti were selected by using
simple randomsampling techniques.
Knowledge level of contact and non-contact
farmers about the activities undertaken by KVK
Knowledge as a body of understood information
possessed by an individual is one of an important
component of adoption behaviours. It is considered as
a pre-requisite for adoption by the many authors and
scientists. At this ground, it is imperative to examine
the knowledge of the respondents about the activities
undertaken by Krishi Vigyan Kendra. The present
investigation was, therefore, carried out with one of
its objectives, to determine and knowledge level of
respondents about the activities undertaken by KVK.
1. Knowledge level of contact farmers about the
activities undertaken by KVK
The data in table 1 reveal that 38 respondents
(63.33%) fell in mediumknowledge groups, whereas,
12 respondents (20.00 per cent) were found in low
knowledge and remaining 10respondents (16.67%)
possessed high knowledge about the activities
undertaken by KVK.
2. Knowledge level of non-contact farmers about the
activities undertaken by KVK
The data in table 2 reveal that 31 respondents
(65.00%) were found in mediumknowledge groups,
whereas, 14 respondents (23.33%) were in low
knowledge group and remaining 7 respondents
(11.67%) possessed high knowledge about activities
undertaken by KVK.
3. Activity-wise knowledge level of contact farmers about
the activities undertaken by KVK
The knowledge of contact farmers about the
activities undertaken by KVK was measured in terms
of MPS. Based on experts opinion finally in the
developed structured schedule, 30 activities were
included to access the knowledge of respondents which
were given in table 3.
The data in table 3 depict that the activity Training
programme was having the highest MPS (100 MPS)
hence this was ranked first. It means most of the
respondents have good knowledge about this activity.
The second rank were assigned to the activities
Telephone help line (95.00 MPS), Kisan gosthies
(95.00 MPS), Sand safe grain storage (95.00 MPS).
The third rank was awarded to the activity Seed
production programme of KVK (93.33 MPS),
whereas, fourth rank was awarded Method
demonstration (91.66 MPS), Scientists visited
farmers field (91.66 MPS), Educational tour of
farmers (91.66 MPS). The fifth rank was awarded
Exhibition (86.66 MPS), Crop seminar (86.66
MPS), Soil and water sample analysis (86.66 MPS),
sixth rank was awarded Demonstration (86.33 MPS),
Village adoption programme (86.33 MPS), seventh
rank was awarded Discussion group /meeting (85.00
MPS), Animal relief campus (85.00 MPS), eight rank
was awarded Field day (83.33 MPS); ninth rank was
awarded Transfer of technology club (81.66 MPS);
Table 3: Activity-wise knowledge level of contact farmers about various activities of KVK =60
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.No. Name of activities MPS Rank
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Demonstration 88.33 VI
2. Method demonstration 91.66 I V
3. Front Line Demonstration 75.00 XII
4. On farmtesting 33.33 XIX
5. Training programmes 100.00 I
6. Vocational training 76.66 XI
7. Krishi Vigyan Mela 80.00 X
8. Exhibition 86.66 V
9. Radio talk 33.33 XIX
10. Discussion group / meeting 85.00 VII
11. Agricultural news papers/ magazines/ booklets/ folders 50.00 XVII
12. Poster and charts 76.66 XI
13. Diagnostic teamvisited the field 65.00 XV
14. Filmshow 56.66 XVI
15. Rat control campaign 68.33 XIV
16. Animal relief camps 85.00 VII
17. Scientists visited farmers field 91.66 I V
18. Village adoption programme 88.33 VI
19. Crop seminar 86.66 V
20. Field day 83.33 VIII
21. Telephone help line 95.00 II
22. Kisan gosthies 95.00 II
23. Educational tour of farmers 91.66 I V
24. Seed production programme of KVK 93.33 III
25. Soil and water sample analysis 86.66 V
26. Self help group 48.33 XVIII
27. Youth club 33.33 XIX
28. Safe grain storage 95.00 II
29. Van Mahotsva 70.00 XIII
30. Transfer of technology club 81.66 IX
_____________________________________________________________________________________
tenth rank was awarded Krishi Vigyan Mela
(80.00 MPS).
The critical analysis of all thirty activities in
schedule shows that the activities Self help group
(48.33 MPS) was assigned second last rank and On
farmtesting (33.33 MPS), Radio talk (33.33 MPS),
Youth club (33.33 MPS) have lowest.
4. Activity-wise knowledge level of non-contact farmers
about the activities undertaken by KVK
The knowledge of non-contact farmers about the
activities undertaken by KVK was measured in terms
of MPS. Based on experts opinion finally in the
developed structured schedule, thirty activities were
included to assess the knowledge of respondents which
were given in table 4.
The data in table 4 depict that the activity Safe
grain storage (93.33 MPS) was ranked first. The
second rank was assigned to the activity Poster and
chart (85.00 MPS).
The third rank were awarded to the activity
Training programmes (80.00 MPS), Filed day
(80.00 MPS), Soil and water sample analysis (80.00
MPS).
This was followed by the activities Animal relief
camps (76.66 MPS), village adoption programme
(75.00 MPS), Demonstration (73.33 MPS),
Telephone help line (70.00 MPS), Kishan gosthies
(68.33 MPS), Vocational training (65.00 MPS),
Method demonstration and Discussion group/
meeting (63.33 MPS) which were ranked IV, V, VI,
VII, VIII, IX and X, respectively.
The critical analysis of all thirty activities shows
that the activity Self help group (25.00 MPS) was
assigned second last rank and the activity Diagnostic
teamvisited the field (1.60 MPS) was awarded last
ranked.
Table 4: Activity-wise knowledge level of non-contact farmers about various activities of KVK N=60
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.No. Name of activities MPS Rank
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Demonstration 73.33 VI
2. Method demonstration 63.33 X
3. Front Line Demonstration 36.66 XIX
4. On farmtesting 28.33 XIII
5. Training programmes 80.00 III
6. Vocational training 65.00 IX
7. Krishi Vigyan Mela 60.00 XI
8. Exhibition 53.33 XIV
9. Radio talk 35.00 XX
10. Discussion group / meeting 63.33 X
11. Agricultural news papers/ magazines/ booklets/ folders 38.33 XVIII
12. Poster and charts 85.00 II
13. Diagnostic teamvisited the field 1.60 XXV
14. Filmshow 30.00 XXII
15. Rat control campaign 36.66 XIX
16. Animal relief camps 76.66 I V
17. Scientists visited farmers field 30.00 XII
18. Village adoption programme 75.00 V
19. Crop seminar 33.33 XXI
20. Field day 80.00 III
21. Telephone help line 70.00 VII
22. Kisan gosthies 68.33 VII
23. Educational tour of farmers 40.00 XVII
24. Seed production programme of KVK 50.00 XV
25. Soil and water sample analysis 80.00 III
26. Self help group 25.00 XXIV
27. Youth club 48.33 XVI
28. Safe grain storage 93.33 I
29. Van Mahotsva 58.33 XII
30. Transfer of technology club 56.66 XIII
_____________________________________________________________________________________
KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT------KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA 31
5. Comparison between knowledge level of contact and
non-contact farmers
Further in order to find out the impact of KVK
regarding the knowledge level, the level of contact
farmers was compared with that of non-contact
farmers and Z-test (standard normal deviation test)
was applied to find out whether there was significant
difference or not, in the knowledge level about the
activities being carried out by KVK. The data regarding
this aspect have been presented table 5.
It is seen fromtable 5 that the computed value
of Z (i.e. 8.79) was statistically significant at 1 per
cent level of probability. Thus, hypothesis (Ho
1.1
) stated
in null fromthat There is no significant difference
between knowledge level of contact and non-contact
farmers was rejected.
From the finding mentioned above, it was
observed that Krishi Vigyan Kendra has a significant
influence on the knowledge level of contact farmers
as compared to non-contact farmers about the
activities undertaken by KVK. This might be due to
the fact that the contact farmers might have regular
contact with KVK scientists and participated in
various KVK activities. KVK scientists have provided
necessary guidance, literature and training to the
farmers. Whereas, non-contact farmers might have
not had regular contact and hardly participated in KVK
activities and they might have not been provided any
type of guidance and training. This might have resulted
in higher level knowledge of contact farmers than those
of non-contact farmers.
Comparatively good knowledge level of contact
farmers about Training programme, Kishan
gosthies, safe grain storage and Telephone help
line might be due to the fact that the majority of contact
farmers had participated in training programmes and
gained knowledge or received information about
package of practices of agronomical crops, medicinal
Table 5: Comparison between knowledge level of contact farmers and non-contact farmers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Category Mean score Standard deviation Calculated Z value
Contact farmers 22.92 2.71 8.79**
Non-contact farmers 16.35 2.02
_____________________________________________________________________________________
** Significant at 0.01 level of probability
plant, horticultural crops, cash crops through
kishan gosthies, telephone help line. Due to these
reasons they were having higher knowledge level as
compared to non-contact farmers. Similarly, safe grain
storage might have helped the farmers to solve their
grain storage problems.
High knowledge level of non-contact farmers
about safe grain storage might be due to the fact that
the most of the farmers were having traditional safe
grain storage techniques such as kothari, tin boxes,
drums etc. to protect fromdifferent types of storage
grain pests. Similarly poster and chart might have
played their actively role in transfer of latest technical
know-how to the non-contact farmers, which might
have increased their knowledge.
The findings are in line with the findings of
Nainwat (2000) and Tarachand (2001). They reported
that the majority of respondents had medium
knowledge level about KVK programme.
References
Awasthi, H.K.; Singh, P.R.; Khan, M.A. and Sharma,
P.N. (2002). Knowledge and attitude of dairy
farmers towards improved diary practices. Ind. J. Extn.
Edu., 37 (1&2) : 104-105.
Dubey, A.K. and Srivastava, J .P. (2007). Effect of
training programme on knowledge and adoption
Behaviour of farmers on wheat production
technologies. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu., 7 (2&3) :
41-43.
Goswami G., Dhawan, D. and Bareth, L.S. (2004).
Knowledge of T.V. viewing and non-viewing rural
women regarding improved practices of agriculture
and animal husbandry. Ind. Res. J. Extn. Edu., 4 (3)
: 70-71.
Adoption of ICDS Practices by the Rural Families in Jhansi District of
Bundelkhand
SUSHMA SINGH, J.P.SINGH AND RAJEEV TOMAR
Deptt of Ag.Extension, RBS College,Bichpuri, Agra
Abstract
Government of India has planned and executed so many Programmes since inception of
Five years Plans to uplift the women and child development Programmes at gross root level ICDS
is one of the trainer one being implemented to inform the over all condition of children in the
country at large. The development process is not parelled in all the part of country . The present
study was being planned and conducted in Bundel khand Region still running for behind so for
the implemention of ICDS i s concerned keeping t his in mind the present study was
conducted in Jhansi District , covering one Tehsil, one C.D.Block , 05 villages and 60 families
under each selected village, Thus making total 300 families as responndants . The primary data
was gathered with the help of well structured interview schedule. The collected data was pooled,
quantified , classified, tabulated and analysed. The outcomes of the study clearly reveal that more
than 80% rural families respondents have adopted the ICDS practices to high extent. To
mention some of the practices are; Nutrition elements taken by women duing pregnancy, taking
precautions during pregnancy, getting rejection/vaccination of illitarate duing pregnancy,
going routine check-up, using breast feeding , giving colostrums to the baby just after delivery,
using mother milk , using baby complementary food, pulse polio to the child was used, regular
check-up of child health, taken precuaution for preventing malnutrition and attended the
physical hygience during birth of child.
Key words: C.D.Block, ICDS, malnutrition, pregnancy,
Introduction
Any national development strategy that
emphasizes human development essentially begins with
the welfare of children , investments made in childrens
health, nutrition and education help in reducing hunger
and malnutrition, extending life expectancy, and
lowering death rates and school drop out rate among
them , planners all over the world recognized that
access to minimumservices to children is likely to
ensure their optimal development and world help in
shaping themin to adults capable of contributing to
economic and social development of nation . India has
170 million children who are below the 6 years of age.A
majority of themare raised in families living in extreme
conditions of poverty. Consequently important
indicators of social development in India still ranks low
infant moratality rate. Further we have not been able
adhere to the target on universal primary education
and control dropout rate at primary level that continues
to be as high as 32.65%(year book 2008).
Due to the interlocking problemof the grinding
poverty of families children grew in uncongenial
environment characterized by non-availbility of civic
amentities, health care and back of access to cognitive
stimulation,skills and knowedge. These remain as the
major urgent needs of children in the country. Several
intervention programmes and services, therefore, have
emerged duing the last few decades. In order to
safeguard survival and development of disadvantaged
children , both Central Government/ state Government
and voluntary organizations need special attention to
look after the essential requirements to meet out their
demands considering the importance of contribution
of ICDS right fromCentral to grassroot level. The
researcher has selected the research area on ICDS
entitled Adoption of ICDS Practices by rural families
in J hansi District of Bundelkhand.
Specific Objectives
To study the extent of adoption of ICDS Pratices
and its impact on rural familes under study.
Expost facto type descripitive research design
mainly based on survey Method was developed .J hansi
District was selected Purposively fromBundelkhand
Region keeping in view of well acquaintancy of
investigator with the area, people and local dialect.Out
of five Tehsils in Jhansi District one Tehsil was selected
Table1: Adoption of ICDS practices by the respondents
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Sl. No. Statements High Adoption Med. Adoption Low Adoption
No. % No. % No. %
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Taking Nutrition elements 242 80.67 30 10.00 28 9.33
during pregnancy
(a) Protein 154 51.33 82 27.33 64 21.33
(b) Calories 300 Cal 141 47.60 94 31.33 65 21.67
(c) Iron-10 mg/day 193 64.33 72 24.00 35 11.67
(d) Calcium-500-600 mg 201 67.00 60 20.00 39 13.00
Eating one fruit daily 188 62.67 80 26.67 32 10.67
2. during pregnancy
3. Using milk, fruit, green 205 68.33 62 20.67 33 11.00
leaf vegatables daily in
the diet during pregancy
4. Taking iron pills during pregancy 200 66.67 70 23.22 30 10.00
5. Getting vaccination 241 83.33 38 12.67 21 7.00
of Titanus during pregancy
6. Taking precaution during 250 83.33 32 10.67 18 6.00
pregancy
randomly. Out of nine block only one C.D.Block was
selected. Five villages and three hundred respondents
consisting sixty families were selected through randam
sampling method.The primary data were collected
with the help of well structured interview scheduled.
The collected data were quantified in the formof coding
sheet, classified, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted
accordingly.
The important findings pertaining to the extent
of adoption of ICDS practices are given and discussed
in table-1
(A) Adoption of I CDS Practices by the
respondents:
It is evident fromTable 1 shows that cent-per-
cent respondents have adopted the ICDS practices to
high extent like Using breast feeding to the baby just
after delivery, The child taken for health check-up,
and Attended physical hygiene during bath on all the
organs followed by Giving food just after birth
(94.67%), Giving mothers milk (89.00%), Giving
colostrums to baby (87.00%), Getting vaccination of
Titanus during pregnancy (83.330, Taken precaution
for preventing malnutrition (82.00%), Time for baby
bath during summer (81.33%), Mother milk is
sufficient (81.33%) Taking nutrition elements during
pregnancy (80.675), Breast feeding after 4 hours
(80.6750, Baby complementary food (80.67%) Nails
cutting of child whenever required (80.00%), and
Dose of pulse polio was given to child (80.00%).
Table further reveals that more than 60.00
percent respondents have also adopted the ICDS
practices like Cleaning the teeth of child (79.33%),
Giving more nutritions food to child (77.67) One time
bath during summer (77.67%), In early symptoms
of disease (76.67%), Going for routine check-up
during pregnancy (70.33%), Taking child for health
check-up (70.00%), Getting Sweet powder of
Soyabeen fromAganwadi Kendra (70.00%), Extra
milk was given to baby(69.67%),Increasing the
quantity of grains (69.67%), Getting Daliya (69.33%),
Vaccinated the child of Deptheriya (69.00%), Taking
cow/buffalo milk (69.33), Getting the items to child
in Anganwadi Kendra (68.67%), Using milk, green
vegetables daily in the diet during pregnancy (68.33%),
An able doctor/ children specialist (68.00%), getting
Pure-vegetables (68.00%), Taking Calcium- 500-600
mg (67.00%), Taking iron pills during pregnancy
(66.67%), Getting fruits fromAnganwadi Kendra
(66.67%), Taking iron-10 mg/day (64.33%), Extra
milk was given by bottle (63.00%), Sending child to
Anganwadi School (63.00%), Eating one fruit daily
during pregnancy (62.67%), Taking the child for
routine health check-up (62.67%), Grain and pulses
as complementary food (60.67%), and Increasing the
quantity of milk (60.33%).
Table also reveals that less than 35.00 percent
respondents were observed having adopted
ICDS practices to mediumextent, while 62.33 percent,
52.33 percent, 46.00 percent, 39.33 percent, 37.67
percent, 21.67 percent and 21.33 percent respondents
have adopted the ICDS practices to Low extent
respectively.
(a) Extra rich diet 256 85.33 28 9.33 16 5.33
(b) Rest 180 60.00 81 27.00 39 13.00
(c) Give up eating hot food 165 55.00 89 29.67 46 15.33
7 Going for routine check 211 70.33 71 23.67 18 6.00
up during pregancy
8. Using breast feeding to 300 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
the baby just after delivery.
(a) After 4 hours 266 80.67 34 11.33 0.00 0.00
9. Giving colostrums to baby 261 87.00 28 9.33 11 3.67
10 Giving food just after birth 284 94.67 16 5.33 0.00 0.00
(a) Mother/s milk 267 89.00 33 11.00 0.00 0.00
11 Mother milk is sufficient 244 81.33 40 13.33 16 5.33
(a) Cow/ Buffalo milk 208 69.33 70 23.33 22 7.33
(b) Dairy milk 90 30.00 97 32.33 113 37.67
12. Extra milk was given to baby 209 69.67 74 24.67 17 5.67
(a) By bottle 189 63.00 66. 22.00 45 15.00
(b) By bowl and spoon 150 50.00 90 20.00 60 20.00
13 Baby complementary food 242 80.67 38 12.67 20 6.67
(a) Fruit 178 59.33 80 26.67 42 14.00
(b) Water and pulses 38 12.67 105 35.00 157 52.33
(c) Grain and pulses 182 60.67 77 25.67 41 13.67
14. Giving morenutritions 233 77.67 46 15.33 21 7.00
food to child
15 Vaccinated the child-
(a) T.B. 180 60.00 70 26.67 50 16.67
(b) Deptheriya 207 69.00 61 20.33 33 11.00
(c) Small Pox 158 52.67 82 27.33 60 20.00
(d) Polio drops 253 84.33 38 12.67 9 3.00
16. Vaccinated the baby 170 56.67 90 30.00 30 13.33
by all vaccine
17. Dose of Pulse Polio was 240 80.00 60 20.00 0.00 0.00
given to the child
18. Taking the child for 187 62.67 78 26.00 35 11.67
routine health check-up
19. The child taken for 300 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
health check-up
(a) Regularly 62 20.67 100 33.33 138 46.00
(b) In early symptoms of disease 230 76.67 44 14.67 26 8.67
20 Taking the child for health 210 70 61 20.33 29 9.67
check-up
(a) An able doctor/ children 204 68.00 65 21.67 31 10.33
specialist
(b) To Vaidya 80 26.67 88 29.33 112 37.33
(c) To hakim 22 7.33 91 30.33 187 62.33
21. Have taken precaution 246 82.00 38 12.67 16 5.33
for preventing malnutrition
(a) Increasing the quantity of milk 181 60.33 74 24.67 45 15.00
(b) Increasing the quantity of grains 209 69.67 55 18.33 36 12.00
(c) Increasing the quantity of pulses 148 49.33 86 28.67 66 22.00
22. First year the growth 172 57.33 90 30.00 38 12.67
and development of
child is satisfactory
23. Times for baby bath 244 81.33 32 10.67 24 8.00
during summer
ADOPTION OF ICDS PRACTICES BY-------J HANSI DISTRICT OF BUNDELKHAND 35
(a) One time 233 77.67 40 13.33 27 9.00
(b) Two times 176 58.67 0.00 26.67 4 14.67
(c) Three times 86 28.67 96 32.00 118 39.33
24. Attended the physical 300 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
hygience during bath On
all the organs
25. Nails cutting of child 240 80.00 43 14.33 17 5.67
whenever required
26. Cleaning the teeth of child 238 79.33 38 12.67 24 8.00
27. Sending child to Aganwadi 189 63.00 75 25.00 36 12.00
School
28. Getting the items child in 206 68.67 70 23.33 24 8.00
Aganbadi School
(a) Sweet powder of Soyabean 210 70.00 70 23.33 20 6.67
(b) Daliya 208 69.33 68 22.67 24 8.00
(c) Puri-vegetables 204 68.00 65 21.67 31 10.33
(d) Fruits 200 66.67 58 19.33 42 14.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
References
Rajivan, A.K. (2007). Factors affecting the knowledge,
attitude and adoption of improve practices in Health
and nutrition of ICDS beneficiaries. Indian J ournal of
Nutrition and Dietetics. 44:2, 140-147.
Sivanarayan, G., Reddy, S.J. and Reddy, G.R. (2007).
Factors affecting the knowledge, attitude and
adoption of improved practices, in halth and nutrition
of ICDS beneficiaries. Indian Journal of Nutrition and
Dietetics. 44:2, 140-147.
The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research Vol. 14 No. 1, 37-40(2014)
An interventional study on HIV/AIDS awareness among adolescent girls of Senior
Secondary School of Agra district
DOLLY RANI AND MANJU ARORA
Deptt. of Home Science Extension Education, Institute of Home Science, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
University, Agra.
Abstract
HIV/AIDS still remains a threat to development of people of all age and Nationalities. It is
pandemic, now at the beginning of its third decade, is one of the most devastating diseases,
currently. It deprives families, communities and entire nations of people at their most productive
ages. Globally, 34.0 million [31.4 million35.9 million] people were living with HIV at the end of
2011. HIV continues to profoundly affect women and girls across all regions. India was the second
largest population infected with HIV/AIDS and over 29.23% of all reported AIDS cases were
women (NACO 2005). The figures in India as well as all over the world show that HIV/AIDS victims
amongst girls will increase faster than the boys. The vulnerability of HIV infection in adolescent
girls increases due to the biological factors and due to the limited information on growing up
and sexuality issues. At such age girls are not so much aware about contracting HIV/AIDS and
its after effects, which creates the problem. This makes adolescence a crucial period in her life
time. This calls for not only health education and health promotion in general, but also for HIV
prevention and AIDS education specifically for which intervention programme should be
organized. In this context, the author made a scientific attempt to intervene adolescent girls to
protect themselves from AIDS and to find out the level of awareness and changes in the level of
awareness about HIV/AIDS which occurred as a result of intervention programme. This study
was conducted among two hundred adolescent girls of Agra district. For implementation of
intervention programme the whole sample was divided into two experiment groups. In both of the
experiment groups, lecture method was used for imparting awareness regarding HIV/AIDS.
Lectures were given with the help of computer presentation. The difference between first and second
experiment group was that at the end of intervention programme booklet was distributed only to
each of the students of first experiment group. In second experiment group booklets were not
distributed. The comparative analysis of gained awareness scores obtained by the both of the
experiment groups shows that regarding the basic facts about HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted
infections, progression stages of HIV/AIDS, symptoms of HIV/AIDS, medical tests and treatment
for HIV/AIDS, government programme and policy against HIV/AIDS and total level of
awareness regarding HIV/AIDS, the average mean of the gained awareness scores were higher
among first experiment group than the second experiment group. On the other hand the average
mean of gained awareness scores regarding causes of HIV infection and prevention against HIV
infection were higher in second experiment group than the first experiment group. Z analysis
shows that except the symptoms and total level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS, the differences
between the two means regarding all other aspects were not found statistically significant.
Regarding to the symptoms of HIV/AIDS and total level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS, the z
values were found to be significant at 0.5 level of probability. Overall level of awareness
regarding HIV/AIDS of most of the respondents was at medium level. The t figure reveals that
there were significant difference regarding total level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS between
before and after the intervention programme among both experiment groups.
Keywords: Adolescent girls, HIV/AIDS, Intervention programme, Awareness.
Introduction
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or
AIDS, as it is popularly known as, is the new scourge
of the last two decades of the twentieth century. AIDS
is a disease caused by a virus named HIV (Human
Immuno deficiency Virus). HIV weakens the immune
system or the bodies own defence system but this
process is slow. It takes years after being infected for
a person to notice that he/she has been infected.
HIV+ve means that the person has the virus and is
harboring HIV infection. Specialists have identified
four major mediums of HIV/AIDS transmission viz.
intimate sexual contact, exposure of infected blood,
shared uses of infected needles/syringes and
transmission froman infected pregnant woman to her
fetus.
HIV/AIDS still remains a threat to development
of people of all age and Nationalities. It is pandemic,
now at the beginning of its third decade, is one of the
most devastating diseases, currently. It deprives
families, communities and entire nations of people at
their most productive ages. This epidemic is deepening
poverty, affecting human development achievements,
worsening gender inequalities, and eroding the ability
of governments to maintain essential services, reducing
labour productivity, supply, and hampering economics
growth in the Countries worst affected for decades to
come (UNAIDS, 2005).
Globally, 34.0 million [31.4 million35.9 million]
people were living with HIV at the end of 2011. An
estimated 0.8% of adults aged 15-49 years worldwide
are living with HIV, although the burden of the epidemic
continues to vary considerably between countries and
regions. Sub-Saharan Africa remains most severely
affected, with nearly 1 in every 20 adults (4.9%) living
with HIV and accounting for 69% of the people living
with HIV worldwide. After sub-Saharan Africa, the
regions most heavily affected are the Caribbean and
Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where 1.0% of adults
were living with HIV in 2011(UNAIDS, 2012).
Indias socio-economic status, traditional social
ill, cultural myths on sex and sexuality and a huge
population of marginalized people make it extremely
vulnerable to the HIV epidemic. Thus the epidemic
has become the most serious public health problem
faced by the country since independence.
The first AIDS case in India was detected in
1986 and since then HIV infection has been reported
in all states and union territories. Now India has the
third largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS.
As per the 2008-09 HIV estimates, there are an
estimated 23.9 lakh people currently living with HIV/
AIDS in India with an adult prevalence of 0.31 percent
in 2009 (NACO 2011-12).
HIV continues to profoundly affect women and
girls across all regions. For example, in sub-Saharan
Africa, the region most severely affected by HIV,
women represent 58% of the people living with HIV
and bear the greatest burden of care(UNAIDS, 2012).
India was the second largest population infected with
HIV/AIDS and over 29.23 percent of all reported
AIDS cases were women (NACO 2005). The figures
in India as well as all over the world show that HIV/
AIDS victims amongst girls will increase faster than
the boys
The lower socioeconomic and political status of
female are assigned, including unequal access to
education and employment, and fear or experience of
violence compound womens greater physiological
vulnerability to HIV. Because of social and economic
power imbalances between men and women and the
associated limitations in access to services, many
women and girls have little capacity to negotiate sex,
insist on condomuse or otherwise take steps to protect
themselves fromHIV.
The vulnerability of HIV infection in adolescent
girls also increases due to the biological factors and
due to the limited information on growing up and
sexuality issues. At such age girls are not so much
aware about contracting HIV/AIDS and its after
effects, which creates the problem. This makes
adolescence a crucial period in her life time. This calls
for not only health education and health promotion in
general, but also for HIV prevention and AIDS
education specifically for which intervention
programme should be organized. Intervention approach
is very useful in carrying out educated functions. It is
a coordinated communication and educational effort,
which focuses attention on the problemof HIV/AIDS.
As quoted the World Bank (2004) by the author, it is
necessary to reinforce that AIDS education is a social
vaccine to protect people from getting infected.
Education is one of the most effective and cost
effective HIV preventive strategies. Education has
strong potential to make a difference sight against HIV/
AIDS. It has been observed fromvarious studies
relating to HIV/AIDS and related aspects that mass
media campaigns and intervention programme have
succeeded in raising the level of awareness in the
general population.
It is in this context, the author made a scientific
attempt to intervene adolescent girls to protect
themselves from AIDS and to find out the level of
awareness and changes in the level of awareness about
HIV/AIDS which occurred as a result of intervention
programme.
The design adopted for the study entitled An
Interventional Study on HIV/AIDS Awareness among
Adolescent Girls of Senior Secondary School of Agra
District was before and after without control
experimental design.
In such a design a single test group or area is
selected and the dependent variables are measured
before the introduction of the experiment. Then the
Table 1: Gain in awareness regarding different aspects of HIV/AIDS among first and second experiment groups.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.No. Aspects Gained First Second Z
Awareness experiment experiment value
Score group group
(N =100) (N =100)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Basic facts about HIV/AIDS MeanS.D. 1.681.81 1.551.46 0.56
2. Sexually transmitted infections MeanS.D. 12.093.47 12.034.76 0.10
3. Causes of HIV infection MeanS.D. 3.813.17 3.933.46 0.26
4. Symptoms of HIV/AIDS MeanS.D. 11.864.03 7.964.80 6.22*
5. Progression stages of HIV/AIDS MeanS.D. 6.111.89 5.961.61 0.60
6. Prevention against HIV infection MeanS.D. 5.103.68 5.174.61 0.12
7. Medical tests and treatment for HIV/AIDS MeanS.D. 9.372.60 9.133.02 0.60
8. Government programme and policy against MeanS.D. 4.093.47 3.002.59 0.43
HIV/AIDS
Total level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS MeanS.D. 53.9012.62 47.1215.53 3.31*
_____________________________________________________________________________________
* Significant at 5 percent level of significance
AN INTERVENTIONAL STUDY ON HIV/AIDS--------SCHOOL OF AGRA DISTRICT 39
experiment is introduced and the dependent variables
are measured again after the experiment.
A multistage sampling technique was used to
select the ultimate unit of the sample with a view to
get a representative sample of the area. The present
study was conducted in Agra district. Agra district is
divided into two areas as Agra rural and Agra urban.
The research was conducted in Agra urban. Agra
urban comprises of Nagar Nigam, Nagar Palika and
Nagar Panchayat. Agra city comes under Nagar
Nigam. Thus Agra city (Nagar Nigam) was selected
purposively for present study.
List of Intermediate colleges of Agra city were
collected fromD.I.O.S. office, Panchkuiya, Agra.
According to this list there were total 117 Hindi medium
colleges and 23 English mediumcolleges. Out of these
colleges two Hindi mediumcolleges namely Tulsi Devi
Girls Inter College and K.G. Inter College and two
English mediumColleges namely Agra Public School
and St. Anthony J unior College were selected
randomly for the study. Fifty adolescent girls of 11th
and 12th class fromeach Intermediate college were
selected for the present study randomly. Thus total
200 respondents were taken as a sample.
For the present study HIV/AIDS education was
given through a well prepared intervention programme.
For implementation of intervention programme the
whole sample was divided into two experiment groups.
In both of the experiment groups, lecture method was
used for imparting awareness regarding HIV/AIDS.
Lectures were given with the help of computer
presentation. The difference between first and second
experiment group was that at the end of intervention
programme booklet was distributed only to each of
the students of first experiment group. In second
experiment group booklets were not distributed.
The data was collected fromprimary as well as
secondary sources. Secondary data was collected from
different libraries, organization, agencies and Internet
etc. Primiary data was collected through a well
constructed questionnaire.
The results obtained were thoroughly examined,
interpreted and discussed with all care. After statistical
analysis the results have been presented under the
following heads.
Gain in awareness regarding different aspects of HIV/
AIDS.\
Level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS.
Gain in Awareness Regarding Different Aspects of HIV/
AIDS
Gain in awareness regarding different aspects
of HIV/AIDS has been presented in Table 1.
The comparative analysis of gained awareness
scores obtained by the both experiment groups of
respondents on different aspects of awareness
regarding HIV/AIDS presented in Table 4.2. appears
to be quite interesting. As evident fromthe data it can
be observed that the average mean of the gained
awareness scores were higher among first experiment
group than the second experiment group in the
following aspects:- basic facts about HIV/AIDS (1.68
against 1.55), sexually transmitted infections (12.09
against 12.03), symptoms of HIV/AIDS (11.86 against
7.96), progression stages of HIV/AIDS (6.11 against
5.96), medical tests and treatment for HIV/AIDS (9.37
against 9.13), government programme and policy
against HIV/AIDS (4.09 against 3.00) and total level
of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS (53.90 against
Table 2: Level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Level of First Experiment Group (N =100) Second Experiment Group (N =100)
Awareness Before After Before After
Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage
_____________________________________________________________________________________
High 3 3 100 100 4 4 97 97
Medium 80 80 0 0 68 68 3 3
Low 17 17 0 0 28 28 0 0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
t-value 42.49** 30.31**
_____________________________________________________________________________________
**Significant at 1 percent level of significance
47.12).
On the other hand the average mean gained
awareness scores regarding causes of HIV infection
and prevention against HIV infection were higher in
second experiment group than the first experiment
group (3.93 against 3.81 and 5.17 against 5.10
respectively).
Z-analysis shows that except the symptoms of
HI V/AI DS and total level of awareness, the
differences between the two means regarding all other
aspects were not found statistically significant. When
the means of gained scores were compared regarding
symptoms of HIV/AIDS and total level of awareness
regarding HIV/AIDS, Z-values were found to be
significant at 0.5 levels of probabilities. The mean of
gained score regarding symptoms of HIV/AIDS and
total level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS obtained
by the first experiment group were much higher than
the second experiment group. The reason for such
type of findings could be the use of different
combination of method for intervention programme
among each experiment group. The researcher found
that the respondents of first experiment group got better
understanding regarding major and minor symptoms
of HIV/AIDS than the second experiment group. They
could differentiate the major and minor symptoms of
HIV/AIDS perfectly. This may have been because
the first experiment groups respondents were
distributed booklet to take home, fromwhich they
cleared the concept better with what they had listened
selected adolescent girls of the senior secondary school
has been presented in the following table.
The analysis carried out with the data obtained
by both experiment groups of respondents on level of
awareness regarding HIV/AIDS before and after the
intervention programme presented in Table 2. appears
to be quite interesting.
First experiment group - Results reveal that 80
percent of the respondents possessed medium level
of awareness, while 17 percent and 3 percent of the
respondents possessed low and high level of awareness
respectively. But after the intervention programme all
the respondents (100 percent) shifted at high level of
awareness frommediumand low levels.
Second experiment group - More than half of
the respondents (67 percent) had medium level of
awareness, 28 percent low level of awareness and 4
percent of the respondents remained in high level of
awareness before the intervention programme. After
the intervention programme its impact reveals an
improvement of awareness level from 4 percent
(before intervention programme) to 97 percent (after
intervention programme). Only 3 percent of the
respondents remained in mediumlevel of awareness.
The t value were found to be significant at 0.1
level of probability among both experiment groups
before and after the intervention programme. Thus it
was seen that the intervention programme had an
impact on the respondents as it was successful in
creating awareness regarding different aspects of HIV/
AIDS.
References
NACO (2011-12). National AIDS prevention and
control policy: 7-8, available at http://www.naco.nic.in
UNAIDS (2012). Combating HIV/AIDS epidemic in
India. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India: 12-27.
to in the morning through lecture and computer
presentation (PowerPoint presentation).
On the whole it can be seen that due to the
variations in the score relating to symptoms of HIV/
AIDS differences can be observed in total level of
awareness also. It shows that only this aspect was
affected by the change brought in intervention method
into two experiment groups and non-other aspects were
affected.
Level of Awareness Regarding HIV/AIDS
Level of awareness regarding HIV/AIDS of the
Received December 2013; Acceptance March 2014
A Study on Growing Replacement Demand of Tractors in Central and Northern
Gujarat
BHANUPRIYA CHOYAL
College of Agribusiness Management, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University,
Gujarat-385506
Abstract
The study entitled Study on Growing Replacement Demand of Tractors in Central and Northern
Gujarat was taken up with the basic objectives of comparing the replacement or exchange sale
vis--vis new sales and replacement age of tractors in the Northern and Central zone of Gujarat.
In both the zones, the study area consisted of 10 districts and 60 villages. A total of 300 customers
and 49 tractor dealers were selected for the study through multi stage sampling technique. Both
primary as well as secondary data were used to achieve the stipulated objectives of the study. Primary
data were collected with the help of pretested and structured schedules while secondary data were
collected from the relevant publications apart from the records and data maintained by the tractor
dealers. There was both a replacement as well as new demand for tractors. Interestingly, demand
for second hand tractor was also significant. All tractor dealers in Central and Northern Gujarat
reported exchange sale of tractors to the extent of at least 40% and going up as high as more than
80%. Study revealed that 64% of the customers were observed to replace their tractors after 4 to 8
years with the minimum use of 700 to 1000 hrs per annum.
Key Words: Replacement Demand, Cyclic Factors, Exchange Sales
Introduction
Agriculture machinery and equipment industry
comprises of a large number of segments even in the
organized sector. Tractor industry is one of the most
capital intensive industries in agricultural machinery
industry with more than half a dozen major players in
the market at present.
There is both replacement as well as new
demand for tractors.The Indian tractor industry has
experienced strong volume growth during FY10-FY12
on the back of favorable cyclical and structural demand
drivers. Some of the cyclical factors that have
contributed to healthy demand side economics are good
south-west monsoons supporting farmoutput, strong
rural liquidity sustained by higher minimumsupport price
(MSP) for crops and double digit food inflation, besides
adequate credit availability driven by NBFCs and
private banks. Structural drivers like scarcity of farm
labour in light of alternate employment opportunities,
steady replacement demand and growing non-
agricultural use of tractors have also supported tractor
volumes. In addition, long-termdrivers of the industry
such as low tractor penetration, increasing budgetary
allocation towards the rural sector and government
support for farmmechanisation remain favourable.
Roughly 40% of domestic demand is from the
replacement market. The average life-cycle of a
tractor has reduced to ~8-9 years from~11-12 years.
The study covered two zones of Gujarat state
i.e. Northern and Central Gujarat. A multistage
sampling technique was adopted for the primary survey.
In these two zones, at first stage 5 districts fromeach
zone and 3 talukas fromeach sampled district where
tractors sale was more than 200 units were selected.
Further, Out of each taluka, 2 villages were selected
purposively; villages where number of households
were more than 200 and fromeach village, 5 customers
were selected randomly. Further, 49 dealers fromthese
10 districts were selected as per convenience.
Together, a total of 300 customers and 49 dealers were
selected for the study.
Primary as well as secondary data were collected
for assessing the objectives of the study. Primary data
were collected through personal interview with the use
of structured and pre-tested schedule in the FY 2013.
Secondary data as sale of tractors in each district was
collected through company dealers. Simple tabular
analysis was used to analyse the data and presentation
of the result.
All tractor dealers in Central and Northern
Gujarat reported exchange sale of tractors to the extent
of at least 40% and going up as high as more than
80% in some cases. Around 25% of dealers revealed
that replacement demand is more than 80% whereas
Table 1: Replacement Sales
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Tractors FY07 FY08 FY09 FY10 FY11 FY12 FY13 FY14E
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Domestic 3,13,941 3,02,948 3,04,622 4,02,586 4,82,262 5,59,424 6,26,555 6,89,210
tractor sales
% YoY 18.50% -3.50% 0.60% 32.20% 19.80% 16.00% 12.00% 10.00%
Non agri usage (%) 20% 25% 25% 30% 35% 40% 40% 40%
Replacement Age
(7 and 5 years)
New Sales 63,342 80,013 1,12,101 2,23,822 2,82,313 3,28,017 3,53,287 3,78,267
% YoY 31.80% 26.30% 40.10% 99.70% 26.10% 16.20% 7.70% 7.10%
Replacement Sales 2,50,599 2,22,935 1,92,521 1,78,764 1,99,949 2,31,407 2,73,267 3,10,943
% YoY 15.60% -11.00% -13.60% -7.10% 11.90% 15.70% 18.10% 13.80%
Replacement Age
(8 and 5 years)
New Sales 65,138 57,887 86,310 1,82,217 2,96,108 3,50,155 3,82,846 4,15,545
% YoY -16.50% -11.10% 49.10% 111.10% 62.50% 18.30% 9.30% 8.50%
% YoY 33.20% -1.50% -10.90% 0.90% -15.50% 12.40% 16.50% 12.30%
Replacement Age
(9 and 5 years)
New Sales 86,374 55,215 64,183 1,56,426 2,54,503 3,63,951 4,04,985 4,45,104
% YoY -14.80% -36.10% 16.20% 143.70% 62.70% 43.00% 11.30% 9.90%
% YoY 39.20% 8.90% -2.90% 2.40% -7.50% -14.20% 13.40% 10.20%
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Source: CMIE Database, ICRA Estimates
Table 2: Exchange Sales of Tractor
________________________________________
Cases of Exchange No. of Tractor %
(Exchange Sale) (%) Dealers
________________________________________
<40 1 2.04
41-50 9 18.37
51-60 2 4.08
61-70 11 22.45
71-80 14 28.57
>80 12 24.49
________________________________________
Table 3: Replacement age of the Tractors
________________________________________
Replacement of No. of %
Tractor after (Years) customers
________________________________________
4-5 117 39.00
6-8 75 25.00
9-10 60 20.00
>10 48 16.00
________________________________________
new demand of tractors is low at their outlets.
Further, 51% of dealers reported 61-80% of
replacement or exchange sale out of total annual sale.
About 23% dealers revealed the replacement sale to
be 41-60% of the total sale and surprisingly, only 1
dealer reported the replacement sale of less than 40%.
Customers are now replacing their tractors after 4 to
5 years as tractors are being used of more than 1000
hrs per annum(average tractor usage for economic
viability as per NABARD norms) in haulage and
constructional work. Now days, buying of tractors in
exchange have also become flexible and convenient
as all the dealers are replacing tractors of any brand
so customers replace their tractors once maintenance
cost starts occurring.
The study revealed that around 39% of the
customers in Anand, Kheda, Patan, Banaskantha,
Sabarkantha, Gandhinagar were observed to replace their
tractors after 4 to 5 years, 45% of the customers of
Northern Gujarat and in Ahmedabad, Panchmahal districts,
revealed that tractors were replaced by after 6 to 10
years of use. Further, 16% of the customers in
Panchmahal, Banaskantha, Sabarkantha and
Gandhinagar districts revealed that tractors were used
for more than 10 years. According to some dealers,
customers used their tractor for around 700-1000 hours
per annum and once the maintenance cost started
occurring after 4 to 5 years, changed the tractor as
purchase of a new tractor in exchange had become easier.
During the study, interestingly one thing came
up. In charotar area (Anand and Kheda districts of
central Gujarat), customers were replacing their
tractor after 4 to 5 years as farmers are comparatively
prosperous in these districts and demand for second
hand tractor is also significant so farmers get better
price for their old tractors.
References
Anonymous ICRA (2012): Indian Tractor Industry -
Cyclical moderation in growth ahead.
Murthy, N.R. (1999): Growth of Tractor Industry in
India, Agro India, December.
Singh, S. (2004): Rural Marketing-focus on agricultural
inputs, Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi.
Received June 2013; Acceptance January 2014
Effect of varieties and phosphorus levels on growth and Yield of chickpea (Cicer
arietinum L.)
V.K. GULPADIYA, B.P. SINGH, D.S. CHHONKAR AND DINDAYAL GUPTA
Department of Agronomy, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra-283105
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted during the Rabi season of 2011-12 at R.B.S. College
Agricultural Research Farm, Bichpuri, Agra in sandy loam soil , to study the effect of
phosphorus levels on growth and Yield of chickpea. The three varieties (Haryana-1, BG-7 and
PBG-7) and four levels of phosphorus (P
0
, P
30
, P
60
, and P
90
) were tested. Finding revealed that
the highest growth parameters were recorded with the variety Haryana-1 and this was found
significantly superior as compare to all other varieties. The maximum growth parameters were
recorded with 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
but this was found statistically at par with 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
. The
total bio-mass, grain and straw yields were significantly higher obtained with the variety
Haryana-1 but harvest index did not differ significantly. Total bio-mass, grain, straw yields as well
as harvest index were increased significantly with every increase in the level of phosphorus up to
60 kg ha
-1
. Although the maximum total bio-mass, grain, straw yields as well as harvest index were
recorded with 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
but these was found statistically at par 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
.
Key words: Bio-mass, grain, straw yields, harvest index, growth parameters
Introduction
Chickpea (Cicer arietetinum) is the premier
pulse crop of Indian subcontinent. It is a highly
nutritious grain legume crop and one of the cheapest
sources of protein. Many improved varieties have been
developed in India but their performance varies in
different regions. Critical evaluation and selection of
the superior varieties with high yield potential and good
quality for particular region is, therefore, always has a
good promise. Phosphorus stimulates early root
development, leaf size, tillering, flowering, grain yield
and hastens maturity. It is a constituents of certain
nucleic acids i.e. phospholipids, chromosomes and the
coenzymes nicotinamide adenine dineucleotide (NAD),
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide
adenine dineucleotide phosphate (NADP). Phosphorus
is essential for cell division, seed and fruit development.
(Masood Ali et al. 2010).
Materials and methods
The field experiment was conducted during Rabi
season of 2011-12 at R.B.S. College Agricultural
Research Farm, Bichpuri, Agra in sandy loamsoil, to
study the effect of varieties and phosphorus levels on
growth and yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.).
Experiment was conducted in Factorial RBD design
with three replications. The three varieties (Haryana-
1, BG-7 and PBG-7) and four levels of phosphorus
(P
0
, P
30
, P
60
, and P
90
) were tested. The amount of
fertilizers was calculated and applied on the basis of
amount of nitrogen and potash needed for per ha. @
35 kg N and 30 kg K
2
O as basal i.e. by urea and
muriate of potash uniformly in all the plots and
phosphorus through single super phosphate was added
as per treatment.
Growth parameters
Effect of varieties
The data summarized in Table 1 revealed that
growth parameters of chickpea (plant height, number
of branches and dry matter accumulation) were
significantly affected by the varieties. It is clear from
the table that different varieties did not affect the plant
stand significantly. The maximumplant height, number
of branches (primary and secondary) and dry matter
accumulation were recorded with the variety Haryana-
1 and this was found significantly superior as compare
to all other varieties. Similar results have been reported
by Singh and Chaudhary (2006).
A close study of Table 1 revealed that growth
parameters of chickpea were significantly affected by
levels of phosphorus. Table 1 further indicated that
application of levels of phosphorus did not show any
significant impact on plant stand. The maximumplant
height, number of branches and dry matter
accumulation were recorded with 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
(P
4
)
but this was found statistically at par P
3
(60 kg P
2
O
5
Table 1: Growth parameters and yield of chickpea as affected by various treatments
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Treatments Growth parameters Yields
Plant Plant Branches plant
-1
Dry Biological Grain Straw Harvest
stand height Primary Secondary matter yield yield yield index (%)
(cm) branches branches accumu- (Kg ha
-1
) (Kg ha
-1
) (Kg ha
-1
)
lation (g)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Varieties
Haryana-1 8.96 44.12 4.28 9.07 14.22 33.42 10.18 23.24 30.46
BG-7 8.93 41.15 3.70 8.15 12.88 30.23 8.84 21.39 29.24
PBG-7 8.78 40.13 3.63 8.07 12.44 29.50 8.40 21.10 28.47
SEm 0.24 0.94 0.08 0.21 0.34 0.93 0.33 0.60 0.73
CD (P=0.05) NS 2.70 0.22 0.25 0.99 2.67 0.94 1.72 NS
Levels of phosphorus (Kg ha
-1
)
0 8.70 36.37 2.92 7.13 9.56 24.36 6.45 17.91 26.48
30 8.83 40.78 3.72 8.21 12.68 30.38 9.22 21.16 30.35
60 9.00 44.30 4.40 9.17 15.20 34.03 10.02 24.01 29.44
90 9.03 45.85 4.44 9.21 15.28 35.43 10.87 24.56 30.68
SEm 0.28 1.08 0.09 0.61 0.40 1.07 0.38 0.69 0.85
CD (P=0.05) NS 3.10 0.25 0.71 1.14 3.08 1.08 1.99 2.43
_____________________________________________________________________________________
ha
-1
). Similar trend was noted by Singh et al (2010).
Yield
Effect of varieties
A close study of the Table 1 clearly indicated
that the yield has been expressed in terms of total bio-
mass, grain and straw (kg ha
-1
) was significantly
affected by different varieties. Maximumbiological
yield was recorded with the variety Haryana-1 and
also was significantly higher by 10.55 and 13.29 per
cent than that of BG-7 and PBG-7, respectively.
Variety Haryana-1 produced significantly higher grain
by 15.16 and 21.19 per cent than that of BG-7 and
PBG-7, respectively. Maximum straw yield was
obtained with the variety Haryana-1which was
significantly higher by 8.49 and 10.14 per cent than
that of BG-7 and PBG-7, respectively. These results
are in constituents with the findings of Bahadur et al.
(2002). Table 1 further revealed that all varieties did
not affect the harvest index significantly. However,
the maximum harvest index was obtained with the
variety Haryana-1.
The data expressed in Table 1 evinced that
yields (total bio-mass, grain and straw (kg ha
-1
) of
chickpea was significantly affected due to the levels
of phosphorus. Table 1 further indicated that total bio-
mass, grain, straw yields as well as harvest index were
increased significantly with every increase in the level
of phosphorus up to 60 kg ha
-1
. Although the maximum
total bio-mass, grain, straw yields as well as harvest
index were recorded with 90 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
(P
4
) but
these was found statistically at par P
3
(60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-
1
). This finding is in agreement with the findings of
Kumar and Sharma (2005), and Islamet al. (2011).
References
Ali, Abbas; Ali, Zulfiqar; Iqubal, Javed; Nadeem, M.A.;
Akhtar, N.; Akram, H.M. and Sattar A. (2010).
Impact of N and P on chickpea yield. J. Agric. Res.,
48(3): 221-225.
Bahadur, M.M.; Ashrafuzzaman, M.; Kabir, M.K.;
Chaudhary, M.F. and Majumdar, D.N.A. (2002).
Response of chickpea varieties on different levels of
phosphorus. Crop Research. 32 (2): 293-299.
Islam, M.; Mohsan, S.; Ali, A.; Khalid, R.;
fayyaz-ul-hassan A.; Mohmood, A. and Subhani, A.
(2011). Growth, nitrogen fixation and nutrient uptake
by chickpea in response to phosphorus and sulphur
application under rain condition in Pakistan.
International Journal of Agriculture and Biology.
Kumar, J. and Sharma, M. (2005). Effect of phosphorus
and molybdenumon yield and nutrient uptake by
chickpea. Advances in Plant Sciences.18 (2): 869-
873.
Singh, Y.P. and chaudhary, Smita (2006). Response of
varieties to sources of phosphorus and irrigation schedule
on growth, quality, yield sulphur uptake and water use
by chickpea. Research on crop. 7 (1): 84-87.
Singh, K.K.; Shrinivasarao, C. and Masood, Ali (2010).
Root, growth nodulation, grain yield and phosphorus
use efficiency of chickpea as influenced by
phosphorus, irrigation and inoculation.
Communication in Soil Science and Plant Analysis.
36 (13/14): 1919-1929.
The Journal of Rural and Agricultural Research Vol. 14 No. 1, 45- 46 (2014)
Received June 2013; Acceptance January 2014
Impact of organic manures on yield of potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) in semi-
arid condition of Western U.P.
S.B. SINGH AND S.K. CHAUHAN
Deptt. of Agronomy R.B. S.College,Bichpuri, Agra-283105
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted at Cropping System Research Project, R.B.S.College,
Bichpuri, Agra during Rabi season 2006-07 and 2007-08 with eight treatments. The results
revealed that plant per meter row length, height of main shoot, dry matter(g) and number of leaves/
plant higher in T
4
treatment. Followed by T
1
and T
5
and minimum with T
8
. On an average treat-
ment T
4
(1/3 N-FYM+1/3N-Vermicompost + 1/3N-Neem cake plus agronomic practices for weed
and pest control (without chemical) significantly maximum tuber yield and A grade B grade and
C grade tuber of potato.
Key words: Potato, organic farming, vermicompost, neemcake.
Introduction
There are few foods, which are as versatile as
potato. Potato is a favourite food throughout the world,
both in its fresh and processed forms. Potato is unique
in a sense that it can fit into any meal. In world, India
ranks third in potato production. The major potato
growing states in India are; U.P., Bihar, West Bengal,
Punjab, M.P. and Assam, however, the contribution of
U.P. in potato production is prime(nearly 44% ) in the
country. In U.P. Agra has been declared as Potato-
Agri-Export Zone since 2001. For increasing the per
hectare productivity as well as production of potato in
Agra region of Western part of U.P. (AESR-4.1) under
irrigated condition , the use of organics like FYM,
Compost, Vermi-compost, Bio-fertilizers (Azotobacter,
Azospirillum, PSB etc) is an essential part to boost up
the potato yield, which would help to encourage organic
farming (O.F.), so as to avoid the adverse effect of
agro-chemicals (Pesticides, fungicides and herbicides)
on human health.
A field experiment was carried out during Rabi
season 2006-07 and 2007-08 at Cropping System
Research Project (ICAR),R.B.S.College, Bichpuri,
Agra on sandy loamsoils analysis normal in pH (7.9),
low organic carbon(0.32%) and available N (182 kg.
h
-1
)mediumin available P (12.5kg. h
-1
) and available
K (218 kg. h
-1
). The fixed plot experiment was laid
out in four times replicated Randomized Block Design.
The experiment composed eight treatments i.e. 1.50%
recommended NPK- fertilizer +50%N-FYM (T
1
) 2.
1/3 N-FYM +1/3N-vermicompot+1/3N Neemcake
(T
2
). 3. T
2
+intercropping (Radish) (T
3
). 4 T
2
+
Agronomic practices for weeds control (Khurpi
weeding and pest control) (T
4
). 5. 50% N-FYM +
bio-fertilizer for N-Azotobactor in potato and
Rhizobiumculture in previous clusterbean crop +rock
phosphate(T
5
). 6 T
2
+bio-fertilizer for N-culture
Azotobactor +for P-PSB (T
6
). 7. 100% NPK-
fertilizer+secondary(sulphur) and micro-nutrients(Zn)
soil test based(T
7
).8. T
8
control. The potato variety
Kufri Bahar (3797) sown under the experiment in two
years. Other management practices were adopted as
per recommendation and need of the crop. Tuber yield
of component crop and important yield attributing
characteristics were work out based on the net plot
and randomly selected four plant sample. Soil sample
were taken from0-22.5 cmsoil layer at the beginning
and end of experiment to find out initial status of
experimental site soil and changes in available N, P
and K in the soil after the experimental period. Soil
samples drawn at the beginning of the experiments
were analyzed for organic carbon, pH and available
N.P.K by following standard procedure.
The growth characters of potato i.e. plants per
meter row length, plant height (cm), dry matter per
plant (g) and number of green leaves per plant(table-
1) clearly indicated that the levels of organic fertility
maintained through organic fertilizer significantly
affected the number of plants per running meter was
recorded with T
4
(T
2
+Agronomic practices for weed
control (Khurpi weeding and pest control) higher
followed by T
1
and T
5
and minimum with T
8
. The
potato plant height was recorded at harvest stage the
height of plant significantly higher in T
4
and lowest in
T
8
treatment. The dry matter and number. of green
leaves so higher in T
4
treatment and significantly
lowest in T
8
treatment in two years average data.
Yield attributing characters namely; number
of tubers, weight of tubers(g) and grade wise yield of
tubers recorded at harvest and presented in table 2.
The number of tuber per plant significantly higher in
T
4
treatment and lowest in T
8
treatment. The potato
tuber weight per plant (g) was high in T
4
and lowest in
T
8
treatment. Singh et al. (2003) conducted same result
in potato.
An examination of the data portrayed in table-
2 indicated that various treatments of fertility had
significant effect on per hectare tuber yield(q ha
-1
.).
The maximumtuber yield (307.21qh
-1
) was occurred
with treatment T
4
(1/3N-FYM+1/3N-Vermicompost
+1/3N-Neem cake+Agronomic practices for weed
control and pest control with herbicides and insects
Neem oil @ 0.2%). Followed by T
1
(50%
recommended NPK through fertilizers +50% N FYM)
i.e. 281.03 q h
-1
and minimumyield (215.50 q h
-1
) of
Table 1: Crop growth phonological characters at successive stage of crop growth in potato as affected by various
treatments(Pooled data of two years).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.No. Treatments Plants /shoots m
-1
row Height of main Dry matter Number of leaveS
length at harvest stage shoot(cm) at accumulation(g) per plant at 90DAS
harvest stage per plant at 90 DAS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1 T
1
22 32.5 16.0 172
2 T
2
21 31.0 14.5 159
3 T
3
22 21.0 7.0 110
4 T
4
20 32.0 15.0 165
5 T
5
21 26.0 12.0 142
6 T
6
19 22.5 9.0 121
7 T
7
17 26.0 12.5 139
8 T
8
14 18.3 8.2 122.4
CD(p=0.05) 1.79 1.349 0.98 8.73
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2: Yield attributing characters per plant studies and tuber yield (q h
-1
) at harvest stage of crop growth in potato
as affected by various treatments (Pooled data of two years).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.No. Treatments Number of Weight of tubers per Grade of tuber Tuber yield
tubers per plant(g) (q h
-1
)
plant
A grade B grade C grade
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1 T
1
9 89 161.8 83.0 36.23 281.03
2 T
2
8 77 143.8 72.0 51.85 267.65
3 T
3
6 65 107.0 59.1 50.17 216.27
4 T
4
10 95 171.6 88.8 46.81 307.21
5 T
5
7 68 128.9 62.0 57.56 248.46
6 T
6
7 73 142.0 71.0 54.27 267.27
7 T
7
8 82 150.7 76.7 44.62 272.02
8 T
8
6 60 118.2 66.5 30.80 215.50
CD(p=0.05) 1.787 7.727 8.174 6.19 6.218 7.116
_____________________________________________________________________________________
tubers with T
8
(Control plot). Treatments T
4
, T
1
, T
6
and T
3
remained statistically at par while T
7
T
5
, T
2
and T
8
were poored similar in lower order. On an
average, treatment T
4
(1/3N FYM+1/3N-
vermicompost +1/3N-Neemcake plus Agronomic
practices for weed and pest control without chemicals)
exhibited significantly maximum tuber yield to the
extend of Singh et al. (2004) reported like wise.
References
Singh, S.K. and Lal, S.S.(2003). Integrated nutrient
management in potato vegetable crop sequence under
rainfed hilly condition of Meghalaya. Journal of the
Indian potato Association 2002, Publ. 2003, 29(3-4):
147-151.
Singh, S.K. and Sharma R.C. (2004). Integrated nutrient
management in potato vegetable cropping sequence
under rainfed condition in hilly areas of Meghalaya.
Indian Journal of Agronomy 49(3):282-284.
Effect of SNF levels of milk on the quality of shrikhand
KRISHAN VIR SINGH, RAJEEV KUMAR, LAXMAN SINGH AND M.L. BHASKAR
Deptt of AH & Dairying, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra,383105
Abstract
The effect of SNF levels of milk on the quality of Shrikhand was investigated to suggest the
best level of SNF for shrikhand making. The yield and sensory score of shrikhand increased
with increase in the SNF content of milk. The total solids, protein, lactose and ash contents of
shrikhand were found increased with the increase in the SNF content of milk but fat content
reduced and the acidity of the product remained unchanged. At 13.0 % SNF level of milk, the
product fulfilled all PFA specifications. Since, 13.0 and 15.0% SNF levels were statistically simi-
lar with respect to sensory quality, hence, 13.0% SNF level of milk has been recommended for
shrikhand making at the commercial scale.
Key words: Shrikhand, chakka SNF, PFA, overall acceptability, sweet creambutter milk
Introduction
Shrikhand is a fermented indigenous milk product.
It is obtained by the removal of whey fromcurd and
mixed with sugar, colour and flavor. It is an important
milk product fromeconomic and dietary point of view.
PFA specifications of shrikhand are as: Total solids
min 58.0%, milk fat (on dry basis) min. 8.5%, milk
protein (on dry basis) min. 9.0 %, titratable acidity (as
lactic acid) max. 1.4 %, sucrose (on dry basis) max.
72.5 %, total ash (on dry basis) max. 0.9 percent. India
has produced 110 million tonnes by 2011-2012. A large
quantity of milk produced in country, amounting 54
percent is being converted into various milk products.
About 7% of the milk produced is utilized for the
fermented milk product (Bhardwaj 2013).
The physico-chemical quality of each and every
milk product is affected greatly by the SNF level of
milk used. Simultaneously, it is also one the most
important factors which accomplish the legal
requirement of the product. Hence, the present study
was carried out in the department of A.H. & Dairying,
R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra with a view to assess
the effect of SNF levels of milk on the quality of
shrikhand and to suggest the best level of SNF for
shrikhand making.
Buffalo milk standardized at 4.5% fat and 9.0,
11.0, 13.0 and 15.0% SNF levels were used for the
purpose. The product was prepared following the
procedure cited by Aneja et al. (2002). Sugar (60%)
was added on chakka basis by weight. The sensory
quality of shrikhand samples was examined by a panel
of judges drawn from the department of A.H. &
Dairying using 100 point score card as suggested by
Pal and Gupta (1985).
The chemical analysis of samples was done in
terms of total solids, fat, protein, lactose, ash and
titratable acidity by the methods cited by Srivastava
(2010) and described in Hand Book of Food Analysis,
Part XI, Dairy Products, BIS, New Delhi . The yield
of shrikhand samples was also reported. Investigation
was replicated thrice. The data thus obtained were
subjected to statistical analysis and tested at 5% level
of significance.
The SNF level of milk significantly affected the
yield and overall acceptability of shrikhand. They were
increased with the increase in the SNF content of milk
used. The average yield at 9.0 % SNF level was found
to be 49.73% which increased to 54.59% at 15.0%
SNF level but the increment percent in yield was
reduced as SNF content in milk was increased. The
mean overall acceptability score was observed as
93.49 with the samples made frommilk of 15.0% SNF
level which reduced to 88.02 at 9.0% SNF level. The
acceptability of this product was also quite satisfactory
at the lowest SNF level. SNF at 13.0 and 15.0% levels
were statistically similar with respect to overall
acceptability of shrikhand. Karthikeyan et al. (1999)
also reported that the shrikhand samples prepared from
15.0 per cent TS in Sweet CreamButter Milk (SCBM)
was organoleptically equivalent or significantly superior
to that of control and other SCBM shrikhand samples.
The SNF levels of milk had also a significant
effect on the total solids, protein, lactose and ash
contents of shrikhand. The values for these quality
parameters of product increased with increase in the
SNF levels of milk. The corresponding average values
T
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References
Aneja, R.P.; Mathur, B.N.; Chandan, R.C. and Banerjee, A.K.
(2002). Technology of Indian Milk Products, A Dairy India
Publication, Delhi, India.175-176.
Bhardwaj, H.K.(2013). Studies on various technological as-
pects of shrikhand. A Ph.D thesis submitted to Dr. BRA
University, Agra.
Karthikeyan, S.; Desai, H.K. and Upadhyay, K.G. (1999).
Effect of varying levels of total solids in sweet cream
butter milk on the quality of fresh shrikhand. Indian J. Dairy
Sci. 52(2): 95-99.
Kumar, Ravendra; Kumar, Rajeev and Bhaskar, M.L. (2013).
Effect of sugar levels on the quality of shrikhand. Proceed-
ing of National Seminar on Value added functional foods:
prospects and future challenges organized by J anta
College, Bakewar, Etawah (UP): 101-103.
Pal, D. and Gupta, S.K. (1985). Sensory evaluation of Indian
milk products. Indian Dairyman. 37 (10): 465 -475.
Srivastava, M.K.(2010). Handbook on analysis of milk.IBDC
publishers, Meerabai Marg, Lucknow.
for total solids, protein, lactose and ash were 56.29% and
60.51 %; 6.71% and 10.16% ; 2.67% and 4.05% and
0.31% and 0.46% at 9.0% and 15.0% SNF level,
respectively. The shrikhand samples prepared only from
milk with 13.0% and 15.0% SNF satisfied the legal
standards in above aspects.
So far as the effect on fat content of shrikhand is
concerned, it was significantly reduced with the increase
in SNF content of milk. The fat content in the product was
8.23% and 7.50 % at 9.0% and 15.0% SNF level,
respectively. All samples of Shrikhand conformed to the
legal requirement in this regard. The acidity of Shrikhand
was not significantly affected by the SNF levels of milk. It
varied from1.18% to 1.30% at various SNF levels. All
samples of shrikhand were found to be within the PFA
limit, so far as the acidity in product was concerned.
However, Kumar et al. (2013) found lower
concentration of milk solids except ash and higher retention
of moisture in shrikhand samples prepared frommilk of
9.0% SNF. These differences might be due to some
deviation in the method of manufacturing of this product.
On the basis of results, the conclusion was drawn
that 9.0% and 11.0% SNF levels of milk produced shrikhand
of acceptable quality fromorganoleptic point of view but
failed to satisfy the legal requirement of total solids in
product. At 13.0% and 15.0% SNF levels of milk, the
product fulfilled all PFA specifications. Since, 13.0% and
15.0% SNF levels were statistically similar with respect
to sensory quality of product, therefore, 13.0% SNF level
of milk is being recommended for shrikhand making at the
commercial scale.
Received November 2013; Acceptance May 2014
Effect of Phosphorus, Sulphur and Zinc on Plant height, Green leaves, Pod per
plant, Grain yield per plant and Straw yield per plant of Black gram
SUSHIL KUMAR SINGH SATYENDRA PAL SINGH AND GOPI CHAND
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, R.B.S.College ,Bichpuri, Agra -283105
Abstract
The experiment was conducted in Kharif season (July- October ) at Agriculture research
farm of Raja Balwant Singh College Bichpuri, Agra (Uttar Pradesh ) to assess the effect of
phosphorus, sulphur and zinc on plant height , green leaves, pod per plant yield and straw yield
per plant of Black gram. The treatment resulted in increased plant height, green leaves, Number
of pod per plant, per plant grain and straw yield up to 40 kg sulphur and 60 kg phosphorus per
hectare and superiority maintained as compared to control plot. The present experiment was
conducted in split plot design with three replication, three levels of phosphorus 0 kg, 30 kg, 60
kg per hectare; three levels of sulphur 0 kg, 20 kg 40 kg per hectare and three levels of zinc 0
kg, 5 kg, 10 kg per hectare, 27 treatment combinations and 81 plots were used to conduct this
study.
Keywards: Black gram; Plant yield; Zinc; Sulphur; Phosphorus; Control plot
Introduction
Black gramis important grain legume crop of
rainfed agriculture in the semi-arid tropic. Legumes
are rich source of protein common masses especially
vegetarian. In complete both grains and stalk of legumes
contain good amount of protein and minerals which
are essential for the growth and development of human
and animal body. India produced 22.09 million tonnes
pulse during 2008-09. Important states producing black
gram are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Orrisa, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh
and Madhya Pradesh. Fluctuation in area, Production
and productivity of black gramwas observed in the
past few years due variation in market rates, rainfall,
Poor nutrient management and other factors. Sulphur
is one at the sixteen nutrient elements which all plants
must have for normal growth and development. Plants
deficient in an essential nutrient have poor growth, give
low yield and the produce is also inferior quality. The
sulphur application in to increasing the yield of crop.
Improved the quality of produce and phosphorus play
a very vital role in crop production in black gram
(Pulses).
Productivity per hectare increased of Black gram
crop, it can only possible by providing all necessary
inputs at optimumof the crop. Out of these inputs
sowing of crop at optimumtime and proper nutrient
managements are much importance keeping above
aspects in mind, an experiment was conducted to study
the effect of phosphorus, sulphur and zinc on plant
height, green leaves, pod per plant grain yield per plant
and straw yield per plant of black gram.
A field experiment was conducted at agriculture
research farmof Raja Balwant Singh College Bichpuri
Agra (Uttar Pradesh) which is situated above 11km
to the south west of Agra city on Agra Bharatpur road.
Field experiment was carried out for two consecutive
years to assess the effect of phosphorus, sulphur and
zinc on plant height, green leaves, pod per plant, grain
yield per plant and straw yield per plant of Black gram
Table 1: Mechanical Analysis of the soil
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Component Content Methods of determination
_____________________________________________________________________________________
02-03 03-04
Sand % 60.19 60.99 International pipette methods( piper, 1966
Silt % 21.98 21.23 Do
Clay % 17.83 17.78 Do
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 2: Plant height (cm) green leaves plant
-
at successive stages of crop effect by various treatments
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Treatments Plant height (cm) Days after sowing Number of green leaves days after sowing
30 Days 60 Days At harvest 30 Days 60 Days
I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Phosphorus levels
P
0
20.47 21.78 55.25 59.34 68.50 72.91 23.22 24.89 65.18 69.37
P
1
21.88 23.39 56.93 61.16 72.40 76.58 27.01 28.88 70.08 74.39
P
2
22.40 23.98 58.64 62.91 75.02 79.65 29.72 31.71 73.90 78.32
CD at 5% 0.1212 0.123 1.136 1.217 2.376 2.419 1.378 1.476 2.869 4.019
Sulphur levels
S
0
21.22 22.53 54.50 58.67 68.30 72.77 23.94 25.65 63.80 67.97
S
1
21.61 23.09 57.20 61.39 71.30 75.81 27.06 28.92 70.82 75.11
S
2
21.92 23.53 59.15 63.44 73.42 80.56 27.09 30.91 74.53 79.00
CD at 5% 0.116 0.121 1.129 1.215 2.368 2.415 1.373 1.471 2.864 4.010
Zinc levels
Zn
0
21.48 22.90 56.71 60.88 71.70 76.19 26.19 27.91 68.71 72.91
Zn
1
21.60 23.03 56.98 61.19 72.02 76.36 26.68 28.55 69.76 74.19
Zn
2
21.68 23.22 57.16 61.43 72.31 76.59 27.09 29.02 70.68 74.98
CD at 5% 0.116 0.121 1.129 1.215 2.368 2.415 NS NS NS NS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
experiment was conducted in Kharif season on that
field whose soil was sandy loamin texture, the pH
value of the soil 0-25 cm, depth was found to be 8.10
in both year.
The value of organic carbon, available Nitrogen,
available phosphorus, available potash, available
sulphur Kg per ha in the soil was found to be 0.42,
171.30 kg ha
-1
, 18.90 kg ha
-1
, 212.20 kg ha
-1
,8.10 kg
ha
-1
, respectively in the first year. Then after in the
second year of experimentation the value of organic
carbon, available nitrogen, available phosphorus,
available potash, available sulphur in the soil was found
0.44, 174.40 kg ha
-1
, 19.40 kg ha
-1
, 220.70 kg ha
-1
,
8.30 kg ha
-1
.
The experiment was conducted in split plot design
with three replication three levels of phosphorus, three
levels of sulphur three levels of zinc, 27 treatment
combination and 81 plots were used to conduct this
study. Full doses of phosphorus, sulphur and zinc as
per treatments were supplied through, DAP,
elementary sulphur and zinc oxide respectively at the
time of sowing and recommended dose of nitrogen
and potash through urea and Murat of potash.
Results and discussion
(i) Plant Height
The data given in the table clearly show that with
the addition of phosphorus, there was considerable
increase in the plant height at all the stages of
observation in both year, application of 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
increased plant height significantly at all the growth
stages except at 30 days after sowing and application
for sulphur and zinc at either rate had beneficial effect
on plant height over no sulphur and zinc application.
The response of sulphur and zinc application was
observed upto 40 kg ha
-1
sulphur and 10 kg ha
-1
zinc
results supported by Singh et al. (2008) and Mir et al.
(2009).
(ii) Green leaves per plant
The black gramcrop showed favorable response
to phosphorus application with regard to green leaves
plant. It is obvious fromtable 3 that the significant
response of phosphorus application was noted with
every increase in the level up to 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
, in
both the years at both the stages. Thus, on an average
2
O
5
ha
-1
, may be considered
better so for as the number of green leaves plant
-1
is
considered and application of sulphur and zinc either
rate had beneficial effect on increased the number of
leaves per plant. Observed 40 kg sulphur and 10 kg
zinc per hectare results supported by Singh et al. (2008).
(iii) Number of Pods per plants
The data presented in table 3 clearly shows that
black gramcrop responded significantly to phosphorus
application with regard to number f pods plant during
both the yeas of experimentation. It is observed that
phosphorus application at 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
(P
2
)
produced significantly more number at pods plants
-1
that response of phosphorus on mean basis was noticed
upto 60 kg P
2
O
5
which produced 23.05 and 10.28 per
cent more number of pods plant
-1
over 0 and 30 kg
P
2
O
5
ha
-1
respectively and application of 40 kg S ha
-1
produced averaged in both year 24.09 and 8.46 per
Table 3: Seed yield (g), straw yield (g) and Number of pods per plants as affected by various treatments
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Treatments Seed yield plant - (g) Straw yield plant - (g) Number of pods per plants
I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year I
st
year II
nd
year
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Phosphorus levels
P
0
10.42 11.02 16.21 17.33 40.97 43.55
P
1
12.39 13.25 20.06 20.57 45.69 48.62
P
2
13.78 14.74 23.01 24.61 50.34 53.66
CD at 5% 1.299 1.317 1.978 1.993 6.279 6.407
Sulphur levels
S
0
10.14 10.83 15.00 16.04 40.62 43.73
S
1
12.37 13.11 19.91 21.30 46.63 49.86
S
2
14.17 15.16 21.97 25.94 50.65 53.99
CD at 5% 1.294 1.314 1.973 1.988 6.069 6.402
Zinc levels
Zn
0
11.98 12.82 19.47 20.82 44.46 47.63
Zn
1
12.25 13.09 19.82 21.20 46.08 49.29
Zn
2
12.46 13.32 20.10 21.29 47.36 50.59
CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
EFFECT OF PHOSPHORUS, SULPHURE AND ZINE ------------PLANT OF BLACK GRAM 51
cent more number of pods over 0 and 20 kg ha
-1
result
supported by Singh et al. (2008), Hussain et al. (2011)
and Deshbharatar et al. (2010).
(iv) Straw yield per plant
It is clear fromdata given in table that application
of phosphorus increased the straw yield significantly
2
O
5
ha
-1
produced highest straw
yield per plant result supported by Hussain et al. (2011)
and Mir et al. (2009) and sulphur application was useful
fromthe point of view of straw yield the straw per
plant was increased significantly with every increase
level of sulphur application upto highest level result
supported by Deshbhratar et al. (2010) and zinc applied
did not showed any significant effect but however
numerically increase was noted with increasing levels
Zn
2
both the year.
(v) Seed yield per plant
The production figures under varying levels of
phosphorus in both years indicated a significant
response with every increase in the levels of
phosphorus from0 to 60 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
on an average
2
O
5
ha
-1
accretion 33.02 and
11.23 percent more seed yield per plant over 0 and 30
kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
result support by Hussain et al (2011)
and Mir et al. (2009) and it is concluded fromthe table
3, that sulphur fertilization increased the seed yield per
plant numerically and statistically maximumseed yield
per plant was noted under S
2
followed by S
1
and S
0
respectively in both year result support by Deshbhratar
et al. (2010) and Mir (2009), and zinc application did
not increase seed yield per plant significantly. However
increasing trend was noted with increasingly level of
the zinc.
References
Deshbhratar, P.D., Singh, P.K., Jambhulkar, A.P. and
Ramteke, D.S. (2010). Effect of sulphur and phos-
phorus on yield quality and nutrient status of Pigeon
pea (Cajanus cajan). Journal of Envi. Biology, 31(6):933-
937.
Hussain, Nazir, Mohd, Mohammad and Babibkant, Rehana
(2011). Response of Nitrogen and phosphorus on
growth and yield attributes of Black gramS.K. Uni of
Agri sci and Tech of Kashmir, Shalimar, Research
Journal of Agri Sci, 2(2)334-336.
Mir, A.H. Bhatt, J.A and Lal, S.B. (2009). Effect of
Phosphorus, sulphur and PSB on black gramand its
residual effect of Mustard and soil properties.
Environment and Ecology, 27(3A) 1365-1368.
Piper, C.S. (1966). Soil and plant analysis, Hans
publications Bombay..
Singh, R.P. Gupta S.C. and Yadav., A.S. (2008) Effect
of levels and sources of phosphorus and PSB on growth
and yield of Black gram. Legume Res., 31(2): 139-14
,
Response of sulphur fertilizers on the yield and oil content of mustard in sandy
loam soils of Uttar Pradesh
A.K. KATIYAR, A.S. JAT AND SHYAM SINGH
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Badaun
Abstract
Field experiments were conducted at farm of KVK Ujhani (Badaun) during Rabi season of
2010-11 and 2011-12 in RBD in with mustard variety Pusa bold having six treatments. The
treatments consisting commercial grade sulphur fertilizers viz. use of sulphur 90 % DP @ 25 kg/
ha basal, sulphur 80 % WP @5 kg/ ha applied with urea broadcasting at 45 DAS, sulphur 80 %
WP @ 1.25 kg/ ha foliar sprayed at 75 DAS, sulphur 80 % WP @5 kg/ ha, sulphur basal + 80
% WP @5 kg/ ha applied with urea broadcasting at 45 DAS, sulphur basal + 80 % WP @ 1.25
kg/ ha foliar sprayed at 75 DAS, no use of sulphur (farmers practice). The experimental fields
was sandy loam with slightly alkaline in nature (pH 7.7), low organic carbon and potash,
medium in phosphorus. The results showed that application of sulphur had significant influence
on yield attributes, grain & oil yield of mustard. Maximum values of plant height (150.2 cm),
seeds per pod (17), thousand grain weight (6.54 g), grain yield (21.94 q/ ha) and oil content
(42.4 %) were recorded with dual application basal along with 80 % WP @ 1.25 kg/ ha foliar
sprayed at 75 DAS closely followed by application sulphur basal + 80 % WP @ 5 kg/ ha applied
with urea broadcasting at 45 DAS and minimum values under farmers practice.
Key words: Mustard, Yield, Sulphur 90 %DP, Sulphur 80% WP, oil yield, foliar application.
Introduction
Rapeseed and mustard are the third most
important edible oilseed crops of the world after
soybean and oil palm. These crops are grown under a
wide range of agro-climatic conditions. Indian mustard
is the most important member of the group, accounting
for more than 70% of the area under rapeseed-mustard,
followed by toria, yellow sarson and brown sarson.
Mustard and sarson group of plants, however, are
grown both on sandy and heavy soils under irrigated
as well as rainfed conditions. These crops are
commonly cultivated in areas of marginal and
sub-marginal productivity, either mixed or intercropped
with wheat, barley, gram, pea, sugarcane, lentil etc. In
areas of advanced agronomy, they are chiefly grown
as pure crop. The oil content varies from38 to 45%.
The oil is utilized for human consumption throughout
the northern India. The leaves of young plants are used
as green vegetables as they supply sulphur and
minerals in the diet. In the tanning industry, mustard
oil is used for softening leather. The productivity of
mustard is very low (11.23 q/ ha) in Rohilkhand Division
of Uttar Pradesh mainly because of imbalanced use
of fertilizers. Most of the farmers are not aware of
importance and application time of commercially
available sulphur containing fertilizers in nearby market.
To aware the farmers of this region these experiments
have been conducted. Sulphur is essential for synthesis
of proteins, vitamins and sulphur containing essential
amino acids and is also associate with nitrogen
metabolism. Besides, sulphur application in mustard
has also been reported to increase the yield and oil
percentage. Keeping this in view, the present study
was undertaken to evaluate the response of mustard
to commercially available sulphur in the market as need
of farmers. J amal et al. 2010 said to minimize the gap
between the demand and supply of oilseeds, intensive
efforts are being made to increase their production.
To achieve this objective, agricultural scientists have
laid more emphasis on improving production of oilseeds
through proper nutrition. Sulphur (S) requirement of
plants has become increasingly importance in India as
well as world agriculture. However, to achieve high
yields and the rates of S fertilizer should be
recommended on the basis of available soil S and crop
requirement.
The field experiments were conducted at the
Farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Budaun (Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agricultural &
Technology, Meerut) during two consecutive Rabi
seasons of 2010-11 to 2011-12 in Randomized Block
Design with six treatments and four replications. The
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Hathras
treatments mainly consisting commercial grade sulphur
containing fertilizers available in the market as under-
Treatment details:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Symbol Treatment Quantity kg/ha Time of application Method of application
Days after sowing
T1 Sulphur 90 % DP 25.00 Just before sowing Basal application
T2 Sulphur 80 % WP 5.00 45 DAS Broad cast with urea
T3 Sulphur 80 % WP 1.25 75 DAS Foliar application
T4 T1+Sulphur 80 % WP 25.00+5.00 45 DAS Broad cast with urea
T5 T1+Sulphur 80 % WP 25.00+1.25 75 DAS Foliar application
T6 Farmer practice 0.00 - -
(No use of Sulphur)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The crop was supplied with recommended of
major nutrients (NPK) through fertilization NPK
(12:32:16) at the rate of 200 kg per hectare as basal
application and remaining amount of nitrogen was
applied as top dress through urea at 45 and 75 DAS of
crop for all the treatment plots. The soil of the
experimental field was sandy loamin texture, with
slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.7) and low in organic
carbon (0.24%) and mediumin available phosphorus
(32 kg P
2
O
5
ha
-1
) and low in available potassium(120
kg ha
-1
). Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) variety Pusa
bold variety was sown in first week of November
during both the years using the seed rate of 6.5 kg
ha
-1
. All the agronomical practices like weeding,
irrigation, plant protection measures were conducted
same in all the treatment plots. Crop was harvested
manually in third week of March during both the years
of investigation. Data on yield attributes and yield were
recorded at the time of maturity and oil content after
the crop using standard techniques and subjected for
statistical analysis.
Results and Discussions
The yield attributing characters (plant height,
seeds per pod and thousand grain weights) and yield
of mustard was influenced significantly duo to
application of different sulphur containing fertilizers.
Maximumplant height (150.2 cm) was observed from
application of 25 kg/ ha 90 % DP sulphur as basal
supplemented with 1.25 kg/ ha 80% WP sulphur as
foliar application at 75 DAS of plant growth followed
by (149.7 cm) basal application of 25 kg/ ha 90 % DP
sulphur along with broad casting of 5 kg 80 % WP
with urea at 45 days of sulphur and both were
significantly more as compared to control treatment.
The pod length was highest (6.5 cm) with dual applied
sulphur fertilizers compared to single dose of fertilizer
but it could not reach up to significant level of difference
and control treatment. Maximumnumber of seeds (17)
per pod were recorded with the T4 and T5 treatments
followed by broad cast of 5 kg sulphur 80 % WP with
urea at 45 DAS and there were significantly high as
compared to other treatments and control. Khalid et
al (2009) reported that three S fertilizers increased
the rapeseed yield and yield parameters in their effect
were at par with each another. The 40 kg S/ ha
produced highest biomass, seed yield. Significant and
higher grain yield received (21.94 q/ha) with basal and
foliar application, followed by 21.45 q/ ha with sulphur
application basal and broad cast with urea, 20.52 q/ ha
from basal application, 19.73 q/ ha from basal
application. Lowest yield (17.83 q/ ha) was observed
fromfarmers practice in sandy loamsoil. Yadav et al
RESPONSE OF SULPHUR FERTILIZERS --------------- SOILS OF UTTAR PRADESH 53
Table 1: Effect of sulphur containing fertilizers on yield attributes, grain and oil yield of mustard
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Treatments Plant Pod Seeds Yield Thousand Oil content Oil yield
height(cm.) length (cm.) /pod (q/ha) grain wt. (gm.) (%) (q/ha)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
T1 146.2 6.1 15 19.73 6.35 41.4 8.16
T2 147.5 6.3 16 20.52 6.41 41.6 8.53
T3 144.5 5.8 14 18.41 6.15 40.6 7.47
T4 149.7 6.5 17 21.45 6.52 42.2 9.03
T5 150.2 6.5 17 21.94 6.54 42.4 9.30
T6 141.2 5.3 13 17.83 5.82 39.8 7.09
CD (P=0.50) 6.56 NS 2.96 0.95 0.68 1.85 1.45
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(2010) said the grain yield was significantly increased
by the application of both sulphur and source of bio-
fertilizer. Issa et al (2012) also observed that
application of sulphur increased mustard yield
significantly with the successive increase in the level
of applied sulphur up to 30 kg/ ha. Thousand grain
weights (6.5 gm.) were recorded with dual application
of sulphur fertilizers. The oil content was varies from
39.8 (control) to 42.4 percent (basal and foliar
application). This clearly shows that contribution of
sulphur was 2.6 %, and was significant over to control.
Malhi et. al. (2007) also revealed that oil concentration
in seed increased with S fertilization for all Brassica
species/cultivars. This also reflects in productivity of
total oil content received fromone hectare as highest
9.30 q/ ha with basal and foliar applied sulphur and
lowest 7.09 q/ ha fromcontrol plots where sulphur
was not applied to the crop.
References
Issa Piri, Ali Rahimi, Abolfazl Tavassoli (2012). Effect of
sulphur fertilizer on sulphur uptake and forage yield of
Brassica juncea in condition of different regimes of
irrigation. African Journal of Agricultural Research,
7 (6) 958-963 p.
S. S. Malhi; Y. Ganb and J. P. Raneyc. (2007). Yield,
Seed Quality, and Sulfur Uptake of Brassica Oilseed
Crops in Response to Sulfur Fertilization. Agronomy
Journal, 99 (2): 570-577 p.
Khalid, R; Khan, K.S.; Yousaf M. and Subhani, A.(2009).
Effect of sulphur fertilization on rapeseed and plant
available sulphur in soils, Sarhad J. Agric. 25 (1): 65-
71.
Yadav H.K.; Thomas,T.; Khurana, V. (2010). Effect of
different levels of sulphur and biofertilizer on the yield
of Indian mustard.and soil propertiesJournal of Ag-
ricultural Physics, 10: 61-65.
Jamal Arshad; Yong-Sun Moon; Malik Zainul Abdin.
(2010), Sulphur - a general overview and interaction
with nitrogen, Australian Journal of Crop Science, 4
(7): 523-529.
Received June 2013; Acceptance May 2014
Bank finance in Agriculture-A study
MITHLESH, D.V. SINGH
1
AND TUSHAR KANT
2
Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Eco. R. B. S. College, Bichpuri-Agra
Abstract
The study was based on 200 bank borrower-farmers selected from ten villages of two
development blocks of Agra district . The study indicates that of the total borrowing about 91
percent was from the institutional agencies and only about 9% from non institutional agencies.
Of the total borrowing about 97% availed from commercial banks and only about 3% from
co-operative societies of the total loan available to the borrower farmers about 38% was the
short term crop loan and about 62% was the term loan. About 91 percent of the total available
credit was utilized for productive purposes and 9 percent was diverted to unproductive purposes.
The extent of diversion of loan to unproductive purposes shows an inverse relation with the
farm size. About 13 percent of the crop loan and about 5 percent of term loan was diverted to
unproductive uses, of the total 200 bank borrowers 104 or 52% were defaulters. Over dues as a
percentage to amount due stood at about 48% in case of crop loan and about 54% in case of
term loan
Key words: Co-operative societies, institutional agencies
Introduction
The introduction of new technology to agricultural
sector has led to intensive use of inputs and the
package of practices, resulting in manifold increase in
the demand for credit both for production and
investment credit .Since the nationalization of banks
in 1969, the share of commercial banks in agricultural
credit has been steadily growing. The share of
commercial banks to total institutional credit to
agriculture increased fromabout 20 percent in 1969
to about 51% in 1994 95. The marginal and small
farmers and other weaker sections of the rural
community are being given priority in advancing bank
loans .In spite of considerable expansion of agricultural
credit frominstitutional agencies, farmers have to
depend on non-institutional agencies for nearly half of
the farmcredit requirements. Though adequate and
timely supply of credit is an index of the efficiency of
the financial institutions but timely repayment of loan
by the borrowers is equally important because the non-
repayment of loan effects the recycling of funds and
further advancement of loan. The problem of non-
repayment of loans of institutional agencies has become
a cause of concern to the institutional agencies. The
recovery of agricultural advances by commercial banks
was about 59% by the end of march1998. With this
consideration this study was undertaken in Agra district
of U.P. The specific objectives of the study were (i)
To examine the availability and utilization of
commercial banks credit by the farming households
and (ii) to examine the extent of default in the repayment
of commercial banks credit by the farmers in different
farmsize groups.
Methodology
Agra district was purposively selected because
the volume of loan advances fromthe commercial
banks was maximumin this district in Agra region.
The State Bank of India, Bichpuri branch and Canara
Bank, Midhakur branch were selected purposively as
these bank branches are engaged in financing
agriculture vigorously in C.D. block Bichpuri and
Akola. Ten villages(five villages from each block)
covered by the sample bank branches were selected
randomly. The total numbers of borrower farmers in
selected villages were 469. These borrower farmers
were categorized in four categories on the basis of
owned holding viz; marginal (up to 1 hectare ),small
(1-2 hectares ), medium(2-4 hectares)and large (above
4 hectares). In all 200 borrower farmers consisting 87
marginal, 72 small, 29 medium and12 large were
selected for this study. The primary data from the
borrower farmers were collected through prepared
schedules and questionnaires by personal interview
method.
Availability of credit from Institutional agencies:
Table 1 shows that overall average borrowings
per farmwas Rs.19183, varying fromRs.12129 on
1
Field Officer Cost of Cultivation Scheme, R. B. S.
College, Bichpuri-Agra ,
2
Deptt. Humanities, R.B.S. Eng.Tech.Campus, Bichpuri,
Agra.
Table 1: Per farmavailability of institutional and non- institutional credit in different farmsize- groups
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Farm No. of cases Institutional Non- institutional Total
size -group credit credit
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Marginal 87 10193(84.04) 1936(15.96) 12129(100.00)
Small 72 13058(87.93) 1792(12.07) 14850(100.00)
Medium 29 33444(94.14) 2082(5.86) 35526(100.00)
Large 12 56822(100.00) 56822(100.00)
All 200 17394(90.67) 1789(9.33) 19183(100.00)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Figures within brackets indicate percentage to total in each size-groups
Table 2: Availability of credit per farmfromdifferent institutional agencies in different farmsize groups
_____________________________________________________________________________________
FarmsizeGroup Institutional Agencies Total
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Commercial Banks Cooperative Societies
Marginal 10193 (100.00) 10193 (100.00)
Small 13058 (95.66) 592 (4.34) 13650 (100.00)
Medium 33444 (96.89) 1071 (3.11) 34515 (100.00)
Large 56822 (94.84) 3092 (5.16) 59914 (100.00)
All 17394 (96.91) 554 (3.09) 17948 (100.00)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Figures within brackets indicate percentage to total in each size-groups.
short-termcrop loan for purchase of seeds, fertilizers,
payment of wages of hired labour and water charges
etc. and about 62% is the investment credit for
purchase of farmanimals, installation of tube-wells
and pump sets and purchase of tractors. Size-wise
analysis of data revealed that proportion of crop loan
was the highest on small farms(about 51%) and the
lowest on mediumfarms (about 30 percent), it being
about 35 and 37% respectively on marginal and large
farms. In case of termloans the proportion was lowest
(49%) for the small farms and highest (70%) for the
Table 2 shows that per farm availability of
institutional credit showed positive correlation with farm
size. Of the total borrowing about 97% was availed
fromcommercial banks and only about 3% fromco-
operative societies. Size-wise analysis shows that the
share of the Bank finance in the total loan was 100%
on marginal farms, about 96% on small farms, about
97% on mediumfarms and about 95% on large farms.
Co-operative societies accounted for 3 to 5% of the
total loan in case of small, mediumand large farmers.
Thus it is apperent that the farmers contracting loan
fromthe commercial banks almost entirely depend on
the banks for their credit requirements.
Availability of Bank credit
Table 3 shows that of the total loan available to
the sample borrower farmers about 38 percent is the
mediumfarms, it being 62 and 65% for the large and
marginal farms respectively.
Purpose-wise Availability of Term Loan From
Commercial Banks
Table 4 shows that of the total termloan available
fromcommercial banks about 25% is for the purchase
of milch animals, about 7% for the purchase of draft
animals, about 17% for tubewell/pump set installation
and about 51% for the purchase of tractor .Considering
the purpose-wise loan by farmsize groups, it is seen
that milch animals constitute the most important
purpose(about 60%) in case of marginal farmers while
tractor loan constitute the most important purpose in
case of mediumand large farmers and its proportion
being about 82% in case of mediumfarmers and about
88% in case of large farmers .In case of small farmers
milch animals and tractor are almost equally important
purposes accounting respectively for 33 and 35% of
marginal farms to Rs.56822 on large farms. It is further
noted that of the total borrowing about 91% was from
the institutional agencies and only about 9% fromnon-
institutional agencies. Thus it is apparent that institutional
agencies have acquired a dominant position as a source
of farmcredit among the farmers under study which
is a healthy development. It is further noted that the
share of institutional credit in the total farm credit
increases with the increase in farmsize, being 84%
for marginal farms, 88% for small farms, 94% for
mediumfarms and 100% for large farms The role of
non-institutional credit is largely confined to marginal
and small farmers.
Table 3: Availability of crop loan and termloan fromcommercial banks in different farmsize groups
(Rupees per farm)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Farmsize groups No. ofcases Crop loan Termloan Total loan
Marginal 87 3520 (34.53) 6673 (65.47) 10193 (100.00)
small 72 6614 (50.65) 6444 (49.35) 13058 (100.00)
Medium 29 9998 (29.89) 23446 (70.11) 33444 (100.00)
Large 12 21152 (37.22) 35670 (62.78) 56822 (100.00)
All 200 6631 (38.12) 10763 (61.88) 17394 (100.00)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Figures within brackets indicate percentage to total in each size-group.
Table 5: Per farmutilization of crop loan and termloan in different farmsize groups.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
FarmSize Crop loan Termloan
-group Productive Unprodu-ctive Total Productive Unprod-uctive Total
Marginal 2964 556 3520 5576 1097 6673
(84.20) (15.80) (100.00) (83.56) (16.44) (100.00)
Small 5664 950 6614 5943 501 6444
(85.64) (14.36) (92.22) (7.77)
Medium 8771 1227 (100.00) 23189 257 (100.00)
(87.73) (12.27) 9998 (98.90) (1.10) 23446
Large 18984 2168 (100.00) 35592 78. (100.00)
(89.75) (10.25) 21152 (99.78) (0.22) 35670
(100.00) (100.00)
All 5759 872 6631 10221 542 10763
(86.85) (13.15) (100.00) (94.96) (5.04) (100.00)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Figures within brackets indicate percentage to total in each size-groups.
Table 4: Item-wise availability of termloan (investment loan) indifferent farmsize groups.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
FarmSize Item-wise availability of termloan
-group Milch Draft Tubewell/ Tractor Total
animals animals Pumpset
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Marginal 343548 (59.65) 104360 (18.12) 128032 (22.23) - 575940 (100.00)
Small 153000 (32.97) 29535 (6.37) 119560 (25.77) 161900 (34.89) 463995 (100.00)
Medium 35400 (5.20) 12500 (1.84) 75600 (11.12) 556440 (81.83) 679940 (100.00)
Large 15000 (3.50) - 37605 (8.79) 375440 (87.71) 428045 (100.00)
All 546948 (25.46) 146395 (6.82) 360797 (16.80) 1093780 (50.92) 2147920 (100.00)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Figures within brackets are percentage to total in each size groups.
the total termloan.
Utilization of Bank Credit
The success of credit institutions depends on the
availability of credit and its proper utilization.
Agricultural credit, if utilized for productive purposes,
creates its own means of repayment and this leads to
further flow/expansion of credit, and its diversion for
unproductive purposes, though sometimes inevitable,
is undesirable. Table 5 shows the productive and
unproductive utilization of crop loan and termloan
available frombanks in different categories.
Table 5 shows that about 13% of the crop loan,
varying from10 to 16% in different farmsize groups
and 5 percent of the termloan, varying from1 to 16%
in different farmsize groups (it being negligible in case
of large farms ) was diverted to unproductive
purposes. The extent of diversion for unproductive
purposes has an inverse relation with the farmsize
both in case of crop loan as well as in case of term
loan.
Repayment and Over dues of Loans
Table 6 shows that of the total 200 bank
borrowers 104 or 52% are defaulters. Though the
extent of default is quite high in all categories of
BANK FINANCE IN AGRICULTURE-A STUDY 57
Table 7: Percentage of over dues of loans to amount due in different farmsize groups
_____________________________________________________________________________________
FarmSize Crop Loan TermLoan
Milch Draft Tubewell Tractor Total
animals animals /Pumpset
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Marginal 56.00 53.04 47.35 53.08 - 52.02
Small 53.03 50.95 52.91 46.09 67.02 50.06
Medium 37.98 46.00 37.59 39.95 60.97 58.30
Large 39.02 43.81 - 35.97 58.01 47.97
All 47.74 51.25 44.44 57.41 61.50 54.06
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 6: Number of defaulter farmers of bank loans
_____________________________________________________________________________________
FarmSize Crop Loan TermLoan All
No.of No.of % of No.of No.of % of No.of No.of % of
Borro Defau- Defau- Boro- Defau- Defau- Borro Defau- Defau-
-wers lters lters wers lters lters -wers lters lters
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Marginal 54 26 48.15 33 20 60.61 87 46 52.87
Small 38 17 44.74 34 19 55.88 72 36 50.00
Medium 12 5 41.67 17 10 58.82 29 15 51.72
Large 4 2 50.00 8 5 62.50 12 7 58.33
All 108 50 46.30 92 54 58.70 200 104 52.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
the lowest in case of small farmers. It is further
noted that extent of defaulters is about 46 percent in
case of crop loan, ranging from42 to 50% in different
farmsize groups, and about 59% in case of termloan
ranging from56 to 63% in different farmsize groups.
Thus extent of defaulters is higher in all farmsize
groups in case of termloans as compared to crop loan.
Table 7 shows that on the whole the percentage
of crop loan over dues to demand was about 48
percent. Size-wise it is noted that the position of crop
loan over dues in case of marginal and small farmers
was almost similar. In case of termloan the overall
average percentage of over dues is about 54 percent
ranging from52% in case of marginal farmers to 48
percent in case of large farmers. It is also noted that
except in case of draft animals, the percentage of over
dues for all other items is in inverse relationship to
farmsize.
Received October 2013; Acceptance April 2014
Preferences of media use by the Rural families regarding adoption of different
practices related to social and Economic development
SUNITA RANI, S.K. SINGH
1
, J.P. SINGH, R.P. SINGH
2
, KIRAN SINGH, RADHA AGARWAL
3
Dept. of Agricultuale Extension, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra
Abstract
In this research paper an attempt has been made to screen about the general profile of rural
families and their preferences and basic purpose of media use regarding adoption of new
technology in Uttar Pradesh. Two districts namely Ali garh and Hat hras were selected
purposively. Under each districts two blocks two villages in each block were selected by random
sampling Technique. Thirty (30) respondents were selected from each village by random
sampling Methods. Thus in all 240 respondents were selected. The collected data were
quantified, classified and put under parametric and non parametric analysis. The out come of
the study clearly high lights that majority of the respondents were educated, belong to backward
caste, had Pucca house, majority of them i.e., 90.83 percent respondents have single earning
members. Majority i.e. 62.50 percent respondents have single family pattern. Regarding media
preferences and its purpose, a very high majority i.e. 62.80 to 100 % respondents have shown
first preference to computer, Radio, farmers fair, Newspaper, Magazine, Block/Ext Personal,
Neighbour and Exhibition. Majority of the respondents have mentioned the basic purpose as;
Entertainment and News awareness, information updating/communication, gain knowledge re-
garding seed, fertilizers and P.P. appliances and farm Related/New technology programme.
Key words: Newspaper, Magazine, Neighbour and Exhibition.
Introduction
Communication and development are the major
domains of human endeavour which are intimately
linked with each other. The process of development
calls for a strategy of communication which is aimed
at altering the targeted persons frommere recipients
of information to seekers of information.
Communication is a complex on going process
that brings us in contact with the people. In other words
often communication is known as a straight forward
exchange of messages between a speaker and a
listener.
Communication through any means like radio,
television, films, newspaper, post and telegraph or
internet has acquired a great importance of its own.
In modern days communication has begun to play a
very important role.
Information flow through mass media reaches
the audience directly with minimum distortion and
impacts on their lives. Information is increasingly being
realized as a great resource and input in development
of agricultural aspect and socio-economic and cultural
development. Effectiveness of such useful information
can only be enhanced, if it is properly utilized by farmers
for improving their knowledge of best practices of
agriculture and allied fields.
Communication in agriculture is a conscious
attempt to pass on the required scientific and applicable
information to the farmers so that they are able to
adopt it. There are various elements involved in
communication which affect the effectiveness of
information technology.
The present study was conducted in Aligarh and
Hathras districts of Uttar Pradesh. Out of five (5)
region, Aligarh region was selected purposively Aligarh
region have four (4) districts, out of which two district
i.e. Aligarh and Hathras were selected purposively for
this study as the researcher being a resident of Hathras
district, well acquainted with the culture, language,
social custom, situation prevailed.
There are 12 blocks in Aligarh district of which
two blocks namely Iglas and Akrabad has been
selected. In Hathras district there are 7 blocks, and of
which 2 blocks i.e. Hathras and Sasni blocks were
selected by randomsampling technique. Two village
from each block were selected randomly. In all 8
1
Training Associate, K.V.K. Awagarh,
2
K.V.K. Hastinapur
3
B.D. Jain, P.G. College, Agra
The important findings are presented below
considering the socio-economic profile media
preferences and basic purpose of media use.
Socio-economic Background of the rural families
Maximumi.e. 35.42 percent respondents belong
to age group of 46 years and above (old group) while
34.58 percent and 30.00 percent respondents belong
to middle age group (36 45 years) and young age
group ( up to 35 years) respectively. Majority i.e., 57.08
percent respondents are found under literate group,
while 42.92 percent respondents are still illiterate.
Majority i.e. 56.93 percent respondents were
educated up to High School/ Intermediate, While 24.82
percent, 10.22 percent and 08.03 percent respondents
were educated to the standard of J r. High School,
Graduate/Post Graduated level and up to Primary level
respectively. Majority i.e. 57.92 percent respondents
belong to backward Caste category, while 27.92
percent respondents belonged to General caste and
only 14.16 percent respondents belonged to Scheduled
caste category.
Maximum48.75 percent respondents are doing
Agriculture, 33.33 percent respondents have agriculture
and labour work. 19.58 percent respondents are
Table 1: Socio-economic profile of the respondents
________________________________________
S. Socio-economic No. of %tage
No. Profile Respondents
________________________________________
1. Age
(i) Young (up to 35 years ) 72 30.00
(ii) Middle (36 to 45years) 83 34.58
(iii) Old (46 and Above ) 85 35.42
Total 240 100.00
2. Education
(i) Illiterate 103 42.92
(ii) Literate 137 57.08
Total 240 100.00
3. Literacy Lavel
(i) Up to Primary 11 08.03
(ii) Jr. High School 34 24.82
(iii) High School/Intermediate 78 56.93
(iv) Graduate/Post Graduate 14 10.22
Total 137 100.00
4. Caste
(i) General Caste 67 27.92
(ii) Backward Caste 139 57.92
(iii) Scheduled Caste 34 14.16
Total 240 100.00
5. Occupation
(i) Agriculture 117 48.75
(ii) Agriculture/Labour 80 33.33
(iii) Agriculture + Caste occupation 41 17.080
(iv) Agriculture +Business 41 2.50
(v) Agri. +Independent Profession 09 03.75
(vi) Agriculture +Service 47 19.58
6. House
(i) No House 10 04.17
(ii) Kachcha 41 17.08
(iii) Mixed 18 07.50
(iv) Pucca 171 71.25
Total 240 100.00
7. Social Participation
(i) No Participation 60 25.00
(ii) Member of one organization 74 30.84
(iii) Member of more than one
organization 50 20.83
(iv) Office bearer 42 17.50
(v) Distinctive Features 14 05.83
Total 240 100.00
8. Earning Members
(i) Single 218 90.83
(ii) Double 17 07.09
(iii) Triple 05 02.08
Total 240 100.00
9. Annual Income
(i) Low Income Group
(Rs. 8000- 18666) 60 25.00
(ii) MediumIncome group
(Rs. 18667 29332) 117 48.75
(iii) High Income Group 63 26.25
Rs. 29333 and more)
Total 240 100.00
10. Size of Holding
(i) Small (up to 5 Acres) 150 62.50
(ii) Medium(5.1 to 10 Acres) 70 29.17
(iii) Large (Above 10 Acres) 20 08.33
Total 240 100.00
11. Size of Family
(i) Up to 5 Members 141 58.75
(ii) 6 to 10 and more 99 41.25
Total 240 100.00
12. Socio-economic Status
(i) Low Status (19 31 Score) 91 37.92
(ii) MediumStatus (32 43 Score) 89 37.08
(iii) High Status ( 44 and more) 60 25.00
Total 240 100.00
________________________________________
Note:- (5*) Morethan ONE occupation is being hold by
the respondents, hencetotal percentageexceeds to 100.
villages were selected for the present study. Thirty
(30) families (respondents) fromeach village making
total two hundred forty (240) respondents was finally
selected by randomsampling technique. The primary
data was collected through personal interview with a
well structured interview schedule. The variables as
per the objectives were identified and grouped into
two i.e. variables independents and dependent
variables.
Table 2: Distribution of respondents regarding media preferences.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Mass Media Preferences Ranks
1
st
2
nd
3
rd
Total
F % F % F % F %
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Television 182 8.65 18 8.37 15 6.98 215 100.00
Radio 131 81.37 17 10.56 13 8.07 161 100.00
Farmers fair 87 79.82 13 11.93 09 8.25 109 100.00
Newspapers 64 72.73 14 15.91 10 11.36 88 100.00
Telephone 48 64.86 14 18.92 12 16.22 74 100.00
Computer 02 100.00 02 100.00
Neighbor 25 62.50 10 25.00 12.50 40 100.00
Exhibition 10 58.83 05 29.41 02 11.76 17 100.00
Block/Ext. personnel 27 62.80 10 23.25 06 43 100.00
Magazine 06 66.67 02 22.22 01 05 09 100.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 3: Basic purpose of media use
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S.N. Basic Purpose No. of Respondents Percentage
_____________________________________________________________________________________
A Television
1 Status Symbol 98 45.58
2 Farmrelated/New tech. Prog. 170 79.06
3 News Awareness 182 84.65
4 Entertainment and News awareness 195 90.70
B Radio
1 Entertainment 40 24.84
2 Farmrelated/New tech. Prog. 126 78.26
3 News Awareness 138 85.71
4 Entertainment and News awareness 149 92.55
C Farmers fair
1 Entertainment/FilmShow 50 45.87
2 To seek latest technological Know-how 84 77.06
3 To get new productrelated to agriculture and home products 68 62.38
4 To participate in agriculture Gosthi 75 68.81
5 To gain knowledge regarding seed, fertilizers and P.P. appliances 88 80.73
6 To see the demonstration related to agricultureand homemanagement 81 74.31
7 To see the success story of farmers 62 56.88
D Newspaper
1 Cant say 13 14.77
2 Status symbol 11 12.50
3 Education/Career/Job/Official 39 44.32
4 News/Knowledge/awareness 67 76.14
5 Professionally useful 14 15.91
E Telephone
1 Status Symbol 12 16.22
2 Information updating/communication 62 83.78
Total 74 100.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Note more than one basic purpose has been explained by the respondents, hence total percentage exceeds to
hundred
PRRERENCE OF MEDIA USE BY THE RURAL-----------ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 61
engaged in service, 17.08 percent respondent are
having caste occupation, 2.50 and 3.75 percent
respondents have agriculture business and agriculture
independent profession respectively. Majority i.e. 71.25
percent respondents have pucca houses in their
possession, while 17.08 percent and 7.50 percent
respondent have Kachcha and Mixed House
respectively. Only 4.17 percent respondents still have
no house for living purposes. Maximum30.84 percent
respondents have social participation in one
organization, 25.00 percent respondents having no
participation in any social organization, where as 20.83
percent, 17.50 percent and 5.83percent respondents
have membership in more than one organization,
Office bearer, and distinctive features respectively.
A very high majority i.e., 90.83 percent respondents
were found having single earning members, while 7.09
percent and 2.08 percent respondents were found
having double earning members and triple earning
members, respectively.
Table 2 highlights that of the total available media
cent-percent respondents have given first preference,
to computer while 84.65%, 81.37%, 79.82%, 72.73%
66.67%, 64.86%, 62.80% and 62.50 percent
respondents have given 1
st
preference to television,
radio, farmer fair, Newspaper, magazine, telephone,
Block/Extension personal and neighbor respectively.
The percentage of respondents who have given 2
nd
and 3
rd
preference of the media ranges from8.37% to
29.41% and 6.98% to 16.22% respectively. Maximum
48.75 percent respondents have the annual income in
the range of Rs. 18667 to Rs. 29332 while 26.25
percent and 25.00 percent have their annual income
in the range of Rs. 29333 to Rs. 40000 and Rs. 8000
to Rs. 18666 respectively. Majority i.e. 62.50 percent
respondents having the size of holding upto 5 acres (2
ha), while 29.17 percent and 8.33 percent respondents
having holding 5.1 to 10 acres and above 10 acres
respectively. Majority of the respondents i.e., 58.75
percent have upto 5 members in their family, while
41.25 percent respondents have 6 to 10 and above
members in their family. Maximum 37.92 percent
respondents belong to low socio-economic status, while
37.08 percent and 25.00 percent respondents belong
to mediumand high socio-economic status group.
Very high majority i.e. 90.70 percent respondents
stated that they watched television for the basic
purpose of entertainment and news coverage and
awareness of current affairs, while 84.65 percent
respondents stated that they watched television for
the basic purpose of getting news coverage and for
awareness about current affairs, 79.06 percent
respondents stated that they watched agriculture
programmes for getting information on farmrelated
issues and for watching new technology programmes
and 45.58 percent respondents have mentioned the
purpose of having status symbol Table further
Reveales that 92.55 percent of respondents had stated
that they listened to radio for the basic purposes of
news coverage and awareness of current affairs and
for entertainment. These farmers listened to folk songs
and film songs based entertainment programmes.
However, nearly 85.71 percent of the respondents had
a single basic purpose of listening to news and current
affairs on radio majority i.e. 78.26 percent respondents
stated that the basic purpose of radio was listening to
farmrelated/new technology programmes reveals that
a very high majority of the respondents that is 80.73%,
77.06%, 74.31%, 68.81%, 62.38% and 56.88% have
mentioned the basic purpose of going to farmers fairs
as to gain knowledge regarding seed fertilizers and
plants protection appliances to seek latest
technological know-how to see the demonstration
related to agriculture and home management. to
participate in agriculture Goshthi To get new product
related to agriculture and home products and to see
they success story of the farmers.
References
Ahire, L.M., Sandhya, Shenoy and Reddy, C.V. (2007),
A study on adoption level on growers of Krishna
District of Andhra Pradesh. J ournal of Research
ANGRAU. 2007. 35 : 1, 73-76.
Pendse, A.P. and Rajguru, H.P. (2009). Socio-economic
status and mass media exposure. Agriculture Update.
2009 . 4 : , 103-107.
Rathod, Harshada (2004). The role of communication in
agrarian economic development. The role of
communication in agrarian economic development,
2004. XVII +252 pp.
Sharma, OmPrakash (2006). Impact of Information flow
Through Electronic media (A Study of Uttaranchal)
unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar University Agra.
Singh, DharamVir (2010). farmCommunication Through
Television in Uttar Pradesh (A critical Analysis)
unpublished Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar University Agra.
Received October 2013; Acceptance March 2014
Cost of milk production on the different farmers of weaker section group in
Akola block of Agra district in U.P.
SURESH KUMAR VERMA
1
, SUNIL KUMAR AND SATYENDRA SINGH
2
Deptt. of Agril.Economics, R.M.S. (P.G.) College Gurukul Narshan, Haridwar, Uttarakhand
Abstract
The study was conducted in Akola block of Agra district during the 2008-2009. The study
covered 120 cases (40 small, 40 marginal and 40 landless labourers). The results indicated that
the net maintenance cost per animal came more on small farms as compared to marginal farms
and landless labourers. The study further revealed that the cost of milk production per litre was
higher in case of landless labourers due to use of more purchased inputs as compared to small
and marginal farmers. The cost of milk production per litre decreases with increase in herd size
on all categories of farms.
Key words: Small, marginal farmers and landless labourers, milk production, maintenance cost
Introduction
Agriculture in general and livestock production
in particular, is unique because of its diversity and
location-specific requirements. A large number of poor
households fromresource poor area with difficult agro-
climatic conditions in India derive their livelihood
through livestock production. Animal husbandry is the
most important economic activity in rural areas next
to agriculture. These activities provide employment and
income to the vast majority of the rural population.
Indias status in dairying is characterized by the fact
that this country owns one of the largest livestock
population in the world and now emerged as the largest
global producer of milk with a record production level
of 127 million mt (Economic Survey, 2011-2012).
Though contribution of agriculture and allied sectors
to the national gross domestic products (GDP) has
declined during the last few decades. Livestock sector
has been among of few high growth sectors in rural
India. The milk production per lactations has increased.
The per capita availability of milk of milk was 290
grams during the year 2011-2012, which may be due
to the success of operation Flood programme. It
amounted to 16.41 per cent share of India in the global
milk production and having large number of Mich
animals (Anonysnous 2006-2007). The present study
was conducted with the following objectives-
(i) To estimate the production of milk under different
farmsize as well as in different herd size groups in
case of families under study.
(ii) To examine the cost and returns in milk production in
case of different herd size groups on the farms under
study.
Methodology
The present study covered Akola block of Agra
district and 10 villages. The total number of cases under
study was 120(40 small, 40 marginal and 40 landless
labourers). The small farmers, marginal farmers and
landless labourers were classified into three herd size
groups viz l herd size-(having one milch animal), II
herd size-(having two milch animals),and III herd size-
(three and more milch animals). The number of cases
falling in I, II and III herd size groups was 14, 10, and
16 respectively in small farmsize group. The number
of cases falling in I, II and III herd size groups was 18,
12 and 10 respectively in marginal farmsize group
while in case of landless labourers the number of cases
in I,II and III herd size groups came to 16,14 and 10
respectively. The data were related to year 2008-2009.
The Table 1 reveals that the overall average gross
maintenance cost per animal in case of small farmers
came to Rs.24041.40 per animal, (fixed cost being
Rs.7472.45 and variable cost being Rs.16568.95).The
overall average net maintenance cost came to
Rs.22865.64 per animal. In case of I, II, and IIIrd herd
size groups, net maintenance cost came to Rs.23103.71,
Rs.23397.32 and Rs.22751.51 respectively. Thus, the
net maintenance cost per animal was lowest on IIIrd
herd size groups. The table further reveals that the
per animal overall average gross maintenance cost
came to Rs.22900.30 in case of Marginal farmers
(being Rs.7286.15 as fixed and Rs.15614.15 as
1
Department of Agricultural Economics, Sri Megh Singh
College, Abidgarh,Agra
2
Deptt. of Dairy, Govt. of U.P., Jhansi
Table 1: Total maintenance cost per animals in different categories of Small, Marginal farmers and Landless labourers
under different herd size groups.
(In Rs.)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Herd Fixed Variable cost Total Gross Dung Net
size cost Home Purchased variable maintenance Value maintenance
Group produce inputs inputs cost cost cost
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Small farmers
I 8401.26 12751.16 3187.79 15938.95 24340.21 1236.50 23103.71
(80%) (20%) (100%)
II 7648.22 13528.28 3382.07 16910.35 24558.57 1161.25 23397.32
(80%) (20%) (100%)
III 7141.67 12570.81 4190.28 16761.09 23902.76 1151.25 22751.51
(75%) (25%) (100%)
Overall 7472.45 12978.96 3590.49 16568.95 24041.40 1175.76 22865.64
(78.33%) (21.67%) (100%)
Marginal farmers
I 8085.31 10615.55 4549.53 15165.08 23250.39 810.28 22440.11
(70%) (3%) (100%)
II 7580.89 10257.23 5523.13 15780.36 23301.25 756.04 22545.21
(65%) (35%) (100%)
III 6614.93 8709.88 7126.27 15836.15 22451.08 702.00 21749.08
(55%) (45%) (100%)
Overall 7286.15 9888.44 5725.71 15614.15 22900.30 745.86 22154.44
(63.33%) (36.67%)
Landless labourers
I 8193.18 7396.12 6827.20 14223.32 22416.50 648.06 21768.44
(52%) (48%)
II 7201.87 3837.60 11512.82 15350.42 22552.29 604.82 22947.47
(25%) (75%)
III 6652.87 3105.82 12423.27 15529.09 22181.96 603.18 21578.78
(20%) (80%)
Overall 7216.82 4950.59 10365.09 15315.68 22532.50 614.70 21917.80
(32.33%) (67.67%)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage)
variable cost). The herd size groupwise analysis
indicates that the net maintenance cost came to Rs.
22440.11 on I herd size group, Rs. 22545.21 on II herd
size group and Rs. 21749.08 in III herd size group
families. Thus the net maintenance cost per animal
was maximum on II herd size group farms and
minimumin case of IIIrd herd size of group families.
The overall average net maintenance cost came to
Rs. 22154.44 per animal. The per animal overall
average gross maintenance cost came to Rs. 22532.50
in case of Landless labourers (being Rs.7216.82 as
fixed and Rs.15315.68 as variable cost). The herd size
groupwise analysis indicates that the net maintenance
cost came to Rs21768.44 on I herd size group, Rs.
21947.47 on II herd size group and Rs21578.78 in III
herd size group families. Thus the net maintenance
cost per animal was maximumon II herd size group
and minimum in case of IIIrd herd size of group
families. The overall average net maintenance cost
came to Rs.21917.80 per animal.
The Table 2 indicates that the overall average
cost of milk production per litre was Rs. 12.14 in case
of small farmers. The herd size wise analysis
indicates that the cost of milk production per litre was
Rs. 12.73 on I herd size farms, Rs. 12.48 on II herd
size farms and Rs. 11.94 on III herd size families. It
shows that cost of milk production was lowest in case
III herd size families It was due to higher milk production
per animal in case of III herd size families as well as
lower net maintenance cost on the farm. The table
Table 2: Cost of milk production per litre in different herd size groups of small and Marginal farmers and Landless
labourers under different herd size groups
___________________________________________________________________________________
Herdsize Milk production per Net maintenance Per litre cost of
group animal per year (in litre) per animal per year (Rs) of milk production (Rs)
___________________________________________________________________________________
Small farmers
I 1815.00 23103.71 12.73
II 1875.00 23397.32 12.48
III 1905.00 22751.51 11.94
Overall 1883.37 22865.64 12.14
Marginal farmers
I 1765.00 22440.11 12.71
II 1820.00 22545.21 12.39
III 1830.00 21749.08 11.88
Overall 1810.94 22154.44 12.23
Landless labourers
I 1685.00 21768.44 12.91
II 1720.00 21947.47 12.76
III 1750.00 21578.78 12.33
Overall 1725.58 21917.80 12.70
_____________________________________________________________________________________
COST OF MILK PRODUCTION ON THE------------AGRA DISTRICT IN U.P. 65
further shows that cost of milk production per litre
overall average came to Rs. 12.23 in case of marginal
farmers. The herd size wise analysis indicates that
the cost of milk production per litre came to Rs. 12.71,
Rs. 12.39 and Rs. 11.88 I, II, and III herd size,
respectively. It indicates that the cost of milk production
per litre was more on I herd size families and minimum
in case of III herd size families. It may be due to higher
production of milk per animal in case of III herd size
families as well as lower net maintenance cost on the
farm. The table further shows that cost of milk
production per litre overall average came to Rs. 12.70
in case of landless labourers. The herd size wise
analysis shows that the cost of milk production per
litre came to Rs. 12.91, Rs. 12.76 and Rs. 12.33 on I,
II, and III herd size, respectively.
References
Economic Survey, (2009-2010). Government of India,
Ministry of Finance and Company Affairs, Economic
Division.
Rishikanta Singh and S.B. Agarwal (2007). Economics
of milk production in Imphal west district of Manipur.
Indian journal of dairy science, Nov-Dec, vol. 60, no.
6 p.441-446.
Received June 2013; Acceptance May 2014
Studies on Character Association Medium fertilizer level for pod yield Its
components In Groundnut [Arachis hypogaea (L) ]
SHYAM SUNDAR SINGH, P.P. SINGH AND M.N. MISHRA
Deptt. of Plant Breeding & Genetics, R.B.S. College Bichpuri Agra-283105 (U.P.)
Abstract
An Experiment was conducted in kharif 2008 and 2009 in medium fertilizer condition in 23
semi & spreading type varieties of ground nut at R.B.S College Bichpuri Agra to know character
association and path analysis. The estimates of genotypic correlation coefficients in general were
higher than their corresponding phenotypic correlation coefficients indicating strong inherent
association among pod yield and its contributing characters. Days to pegging, days to maturity,
number of pods/plant, 100 pod weight and 100 kernel weight were found to have positive and
significant association with pod yield per plant at both the genotypic and phenotypic levels in
both the years, Genotypic inter relationship was found significant with days to 50 % flowing
only Genotypic correlations of above said pod yield components with pod yield were also strong.
In both the years the genotypic and phenotypic path analysis revealed the highest positive direct
effects of number of pegs per plant, being followed in order by pods/plant, 100 pod weight and
shelling percentage towards pod yield in both the years at both the genotypic and phenotypic
levels. In the year 2008, 100 kernel weight had significant effect at phenotypic level and in year
-2009 at genotypic level. Hundred kernel weight contributed highest indirect effect on genotypic
level in 2008 and at phenotypic level in 2009.
Key words: genotypic, phenotypic, correlation, maturity
Introduction
Groundnut [Arachies hypogaea(L)] is an annual
legume crop being grown on marginal lands and under
rain fed conditions. In India groundnut is grown in an
area of about 7.6 million ha with a production of 7.8
million tones of pods and 1060 kg/ha productivity.
Groundnut is an allotetraploid (C2n=4X=40) with a
basic chromosome number of X=10 (stalka1997) It is
highly selfpollinated crop and has cleistogamous
flowers. Cultivated groundnuts belong to the three sub-
species Valencia, Spanish and Virginia, the Virginia
sub species includes both bunch and runner form
plant habits groundnut verities fromthe compact bunch
type with very little lateral spread to the spreading
runner forms under better growing conditions the runner
forms predominates in India, the spreading Virginia
type are generally grown under rain fed condition during
monsoon season while irrigated one type under winter
or summer condition. The Spanish bunching types
predominates some Virginia bunch type are also grown
during this season(Reddy et al 1984) In Agra now a
days semi spreading types are grown during kharif
season but Spanish bunch type are grown during
summer season. Most of the characters of breeders
interest are complex and are the result of interaction
of a number of components, understanding the
relationship among yield and yield components is of
paramount importance for making the best use of this
relationship in selection. The correlation coefficient
may be confounded with indirect effect due to common
association inherent in trait inter relationship. Therefore
information derived fromthe correlation coefficients
can be augmented by partilationing correlations.
The experimental material comprised of twenty
three bunch and semi spreading type groundnut
genotypes. The experiment was lay out in randomized
block design with their replications at experimental
farmof R.B.S College Bichpuri agra under irrigated
condition during kharif 2008 & 2009 Each entry was
accommodated in three rows each of 3 meter length
with a spacing of 30 X 12 in cmin mediumfertilizer
level the observation recorded on five randomly
selected plants fromeach entry and replication and
their mean values were used for the computation of
the phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficient
among the character under study worked out through
covariance analysis as per AlJ ibour et al (1958) The
phenotypic as well as genotypic path coefficient
analysis were done as per the method suggested by
Dewey and Lu (1959).
In general genotypic correlation (Table1&2)
were higher than their corresponding phenotypic
correlations indicating the high degree of association
between two variables at genotypic level. I ts
phenotypic expression was deflected by the influence
of environment. It has also been indicated that there
was an inherent relationship between the characters
studies which is in agreement with conclusions of Singh
& Singh (1999). In most of the cases the direction and
magnitude of phenotypic & genotypic correlations
between various characters remained almost same;
this is very helpful to Plant Breeder because breeder
can practice selection on the basis of phenotypic
expression of the character for the improvement of
pod yield. The phenotypic correlation coefficient in
very few cases were higher than their corresponding
genotypic correlation coefficient which might be due
to the non genetic causes probably environment inflated
the value of phenotypic correlation. At both the
phenotypic and genotypic levels the number of pods/
per plant, 100 pod weight and kernel weight had highly
significant and positive association with pod yield per
plant in both the years. Similar results were also
reported by Yogendra et al(2001);Suneetha et al (2004)
and Golakia et al (2005). Development al trait, days to
maturity showed positive and highly significant
correlation with pod yield per plant in both the years,
This indicated the importance of maturity duration for
increasing the pod yield under kharif showing in both
the years. They can serve as marker/indicator
characters for the improvement in pod yield Other
characters viz number of pegs per plant and shelling
percentage did not show any relationship with pod yield
per plant, contrary to our findings Mahalakshmi et al
(2005) noticed significant and positive correlation of
above mentioned yield contributing characters with pod
yield per plant in their investigation this might be due
to environments effect and the inclusion of genetic
material other than used in the present study.
Characters like days to 50% flowering which decide
the earliness/lateness of genotype had significant and
positive genotypic and phenotypic association with days
to pegging, days to maturity, number of pegs per plant
Table 1: Genotypic and Phenotypic Correlations (2008)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Correlation Days to Days to Days to No. of No. of 100 pod 100 Kernel Shelling Dry pod
Characters 50% pegging maturity pegs/ pods/ weight (g) weight (g) percentage yield
flowering plant(g) plant (g) plant (g)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Days to G 0.5514** 0.9645** 0.5431**0.3983 0.4674* 0.5727** 0.2028 0.5399**
50% P 0.5010* 0.9453** 0.5055* 0.3176 0.4575* 0.5770** 0.1510 0.5190*
flowering
Days to G 0.6399**-0.0181 0.6463** 0.3284 0.3469 0.1286 -0.4841*
pegging P 0.5745**-0.0188 0.4192* 0.2925 0.3129 0.0281 0.4088
Days to G 0.5164* 0.4133* 0.5292** 0.6266** 0.2660 0.5993**
maturity P 0.4766 0.3210 0.5262** 0.6245** 0.2174 0.5805**
No. of G 0.0339 0.2274 0.4009 -0.0317 0.2121
pegs / P 0.0327 0..2054 0.3655 -0.0061 0.1896
plant
No. of G 0.1564 0.0502 -0.0856 0.4302*
pods P 0.1154 0.0502 0.0417 0.4692*
/ plant (g)
100 pod G 0.7866** -0.0313 0.9587**
weight P 0.7818** -0.0353 0.9306**
(g)
100 G -0.0363 0.7293**
Kernel P -0.0282 0.7103**
weight (g)
Shelling G -0.0536
perc- P -0.0163
entage
Dry G 0.000
pod yield P 0.000
/ plant(g)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
STUDIES ON CHARACTER ASSOCIATION---------GROUNDNUT [ARCHIS HYPOGAEA (L)] 67
Table 2: Genotypic and Phenotypic Correlations (2009)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Correlation Days to Days to Days to No. of No. of 100 pod 100 Kernel Shelling Dry pod
Characters 50% pegging maturity pegs/ pods/ weight (g) weight (g) percentage yield
flowering plant(g) plant (g) plant (g)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Days to G 0.6203** 0.9248** 0.4400* 0.3412 0.5610** 0.6274** 0.2505 0.6291**
50% P 0.5288** 0.8886** 0.3905 0.2532 0.5395** 0.6065** 0.1896 0.5923**
flowering
Days to G 0.6694** 0.0077 0.7401** 0.4120 0.4076 0.1660 0.5868**
pegging P 0.5673** -0.0138 0.4630* 0.3521 0..3545 0.0579 0.4775*
Days to G 0.4538* 0.3985 0.5269** 0.6117** 0.3024 0.6179**
maturity P 0.4111 0.2661 0.5137* 0.6037* 0.2641 0.5785**
No. of G -0.1226 0.2339 0.3931 0.0987 0.2241
pegs / P -0.0580 0.2038 0.3338 0.1403 0.2147
plant
No. of G 0.1265 0.0537 -0.1776 0.4151*
pods P 0.0718 0.0482 -0.0069 0.4209*
/ plant (g)
100 pod G 0.7900** 0.1073 0..9544**
weight P 0.7807** 0.0639 0.9120**
(g)
100 G 0.0819 0.7507**
Kernel P 0.0714 0.7222**
weight (g)
Shelling G 0.0417
perc- P 0.0777
entage
Dry G 0.000
pod yield P 0.000
/ plant(g)
_____________________________________________________________________________________
References
Mahalakshmi, P.; Manivannan, N. and Muralidharan, V.
(2005). Variability and correlation studies in
groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Legume Research.
28 (3): 194-197.
Siddique, M. N. H.; Haque, M. M.; Ara, M.J.F.; Ahmed,
M.R.; Roknuzzaman, M. (2006). Correlation and path
analysis of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.).
International Journal of Sustainable Agricultural
Technology. 2 (7): 6-10.
Singh, S.B. and Singh, J .P. (2001). Genotype-
environment interaction effects in groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea) tested in mid-western plain zone
of Uttar Pradesh. Indian Journal of Agricultural
Sciences. 71 (2): 126-127.
Mahalakshmi, P.; Manivannan, N. and Muralidharan, V.
(2005). Variability and correlation studies in
groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Legume
Research. 28 (3): 194-197.
and hundred kernel weight in both the years. Only at
genotypic level number of pods per plant days to
pegging had significant and positive correlation with
days to maturity no, of pegs per plant, 100 pod weight
and hundred kernel weight are genotypic and
phenotypic level both the year, days to maturity was
had significant correlations with no. of pegs per plant
100 pod weight & 100 kernel weight at genotypic and
phenotypic level, and only at genotypic level it positive
and significant correlation with pods per plant in both
the years. Correlation 100 pod weight had significant
correlations with 100 kernel weight at both genotypic
and phenotypic levels, in both the years. Most of the
characters of breeders interest are complex and are
the result of interaction of a number of components of
correlations between yields components are of
paramount importance but correlation coefficient may
be confounded with direct effect due to common
association of inherent interrelationship. Therefore
information derived fromthe correlation coefficient
should be used by partitioning genotypic and phenotypic
correlation into direct and indirect effects.
Received November 2013; Acceptance May 2014
To study the burning duration of biomass
S.P. KURHEKAR AND S.R. PATIL
Department of Farm Structures, College of Agril. Engineering and Technology, DBSKKV, Dapoli
(Maharastra)
Abstract
Utilization of coconut husk, areca nut husk, rice husk and sawdust as alternative sources
for fuel in drying have made these products more valuable rather than considering them as
agricultural wastes. Coconut husk, areca nut husk, rice husk, saw dust and their combinations
were used for experiment. The average moisture content were 12.09%, 14.65%, 15.09% and
14.86% for coconut husk, areca nut husk, rice husk, and saw dust respectively. The average
bulk density was 76.32 Kg/m
3
, 81.98 Kg/m
3
, 109.66 Kg/m
3
and 199.84 Kg/m
3
for coconut husk,
areca nut husk, rice husk, and saw dust respectively. The average residue collected were
obtained as 12. 64%, 10. 77%, 11. 69%, 48. 18%, and 38. 43% for T
1
, T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, and T
5
respectively. Biomass was analyzed for temperature and burn in developed burning chamber.
The combustion study was carried in burning chamber. 1kg sample, it was observed that the
temperature increases from 29.16 to 167.66
0
C, 29.46 to 155
0
C, 29.53 to 146.3
0
C and 30.4 to
143.13
0
C for T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, and T
5
respectively during 20 min of durations. 2kg sample, it was
observed that the temperature increases from 28.8 to 180.96
0
C, 29 to 165.36
0
C and 28.5 to
146.43
0
C for T
2
, T
3
, and T
4
respectively during 20 min of durations. But in case of T
1
and T
2
temperature increases from 29.26 to 232.56
0
C and 30.06 to 152.73
0
C during 0 to 15 minute of
duration respectively. For combustion of 3kg sample, it was observed that the temperature
increases from 29.5 to 248.96
0
C, 29.96 to 227.46
0
C, 29.6 to 174.13
0
C and 30.73 to 165.8
0
C
for T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, and T
5
respectively during 20 min of duration. But in case of T
1
temperature
increases from 29.8 to 304.5
0
C during 0 to 15 minute. The results indicated that coconut husk
and areca nut husk were good for combustion in developed burning chamber. Burning of sawdust
and rice husk and their combinations were not suitable for burning in developed burning chamber.
Key words: Biomass, combustion, rice husk
Introduction
With the increase in world population and the
rise of living standards, the demand for energy in the
world is steadily increasing. Global environmental
issues and exhaustion of fossil resources also pose
serious problems for energy consumption.
Environment friendly energy technology and a shift to
non fossil energy resources such as natural energy
and biomass are expected. A rapid increase in world
population also demanded a huge amount of food,
which is another formof essential energy for mankind.
Oil crisis and the environmental issues restricted the
expansion of energy consumption. Improved energy
conversion and a utilization systemfor effective use
of energy with less environmental load are now needed.
Improved quality of life also demands more living
necessaries and utensils. The decreasing availability
of fuel like wood, coupled with the ever-rising prices
of kerosene and cooking gas in India, has drawn
attention to the need to consider alternative sources
of energy for domestic and cottage level industrial use
in the country (Lucas and Akinoso, 2001). Traditionally,
wood in formof fuel wood and twigs has been the
major source of renewable energy in India. A transition
to a sustainable energy systemis urgently needed in
the developing countries such as India To cope with
increasing demands for biomass energy and feedstock,
integrated systems for biomass production, conversion,
and utilization of photosynthetic resources should be
developed. Utilization of rice husk, sawdust and
charcoal as alternative sources for fuel in drying have
made these products more valuable rather than
considering themas agricultural wastes. Appropriate
combustion properties of fuel materials are essential
during drying, blanching and storage operation and are
equally necessary in the design and analysis of the
numerous machines and processes involving heat
treatment
Treatment
Available biomass was taken in different combination
and sample size was 1Kg, 2Kg, and 3Kg.
T
1
- Coconut huk (100%)
T
2
- Arecanut husk (100%)
T
3
- Coconut husk (50%) +Arecanut husk (50%)
T
4
- Coconut husk (50%) +Rice husk (50%)
T
5
- Coconut husk (50%) +Saw dust (50%)
Bulk density:
The bulk density of all the biomass was calculated by
using the formula.

Where,
B.D. =bulk density of given sample, kg/m
3
Ws =weight of sample accommodated in the water
bucket, kg
Vc =volume of the bucket, m
3
Moisture content:
The moisture content was determined by hot air
oven method (ASTM.D-3172 1984). Samples were
dry with natural air circulation and temperature
regulation between 104
0
C to 110
0
C for one hour.
The moisture content was determined by using
the formula:

Where,
M.C. =moisture content on wet basis, kg
Ww =weight of moisture sample, kg
Wd =weight of dried sample, kg
Residue Collected
Combustion of sample each of 1.0 kg, 2.0 kg,
and 3.0 kg was carried out in combustion chamber.
When the combustion was complete, the burnt fuel
was cooled on thick metal plate. The weight of residue
was determined by weighing on weighing balance.
Instrument used:
Hot air oven with temperature range of ambient
to 250
0
1
0
C with digital temperature indicator cum
controller with timer and inner chamber 600(W)
600(D) 900(H) mmwas use for the determination of
dry basis moisture content Electronic weighing balance
was use for accurate measurement of weight with
least count 0.01gmThe stopwatch manufactured by
RACER electronic company was used to measure the
time of treatment. Its range was 0-15 minutes with
least count of 5 seconds and accuracy was 1/100
second. Hot wire Thermometer was used for
measurement of the flame temperature during the
experiment.
Design Calculations
The dimensions of heating chamber were
decided on the basis of quantity of fuel required.
Fuel Requirement:
n ex
a
C
q
F

Where,
F Fuel rate, kg/hr.
q
a
Total heat required to heat the drying air, kcal/hr.
C
n
Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg. :
nCombustion efficiency : 0.65
ex
Heat exchanger efficiency : 0.35
q
a
= W
1
[(X
id
X
fd
) +C
pc
(t
ci
t
cf
) +C
pw
(t
ci
t
cf
) X
id
W
1
Bone dry Arecanut in kg. : 5 kg
X
id
Initial moisture content of Arecanut, (d.b.) in frac-
tion. : 0.711
X
fd
Final moisture content of Arecanut, (d.b.) in fraction.
: 0.053
Latent heat of water vapour in kcal/kg. : 600 kcal/kg
C
pc
Specific heat of Arecanut in kcal/kg
0
C. :
0.28 kcal/kg
0
C
C
pw
Specific heat of water in kcal/kg
0
C. : 1.0 kcal/kg
0
C
t
ci
Initial temp. of Arecanut in
0
C. : 27
0
C
t
cf
Final temp. of Arecanut in
0
C. : 55
0
C
H Humidity at ambient air in kg/kg. : 0.02 kg/kg
t
2
Drying temp. of air in
0
C. : 65
0
C
Drying period of Areca nut in hrs. : 30hrs
q
a
=1792.6 kcal/hr.
For arecanut husk
n ex
a
C
q
F

=1792.6/ 973.24=1.84 Kg/hr

For rice husk =1792.6/ 837.2 =2.14 Kg/hr
For coconut husk =1792.6/ 796.2 =2.25 Kg/hr
Dimensions of heating chamber
Length = 0.49 m
Width = 0.49 m
Height = 0.30m
Air Inlet 0.06 mdiameter pipe
Ash Outlet 0.05 mx 0.49 m
Moisture Content
The moisture content of biomass samples was
determined. The average moisture content were
obtained as 12.09%, 14.65%, 15.09% and 14.86% for
coconut husk, areca nut husk, rice husk, and saw dust
respectively.
Bulk Density
The average bulk densities were obtained as
76.32 Kg/m
3
, 81.98 Kg/m
3
, 109.66 Kg/m3 and 199.84
Kg/m
3
of coconut husk, areca nut husk, rice husk, and
saw dust respectively.
Residue Collected
The residues of selected biomass samples were
recorded. The average residues were obtained as
12.64%, 10.77%, 11.69%, 58.13%, and 57.73% of T
1
,
T
2
, T
3
, T
4
, and T
5
respectively.
Temperature recorded during combustion
For 1 kg of sample it was observed that the
temperature increases from34.66
0
C to 167.70
0
C, 35
0
C to 165.01
0
C, 36.00
0
C to 146.36
0
C and 34.23
0
C
to 143.21
0
C for T
2
, T
3
, T
4
and T
5
respectively during
20 min of duration. But in case of T
1
temperature
increases from32
0
C to 169.82
0
C during 0 to 15 min.
of duration.
TO STUDY THE BURING DURATION OF BIOMASS 71
Table 1: Temperature recorded during combustion study
of 1 kg biomass sample
________________________________________
Time (min) Temperature (
0
C )
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
________________________________________
0 29.5 29.1 29.4 29.5 30.4
5 73.2 54.8 57.2 61.2 59.8
10 146.8 99.9 88.6 90.2 85.9
15 169.7 153.3 149.4 134.9 141.9
20 163.1 167.6 155.0 146.3 143.1
25 135.4 134.9 119.5 104.0 106.2
30 100.8 90.3 61.8 54.7 54.9
35 73.5 57.9 54.7 48.2 50.1
40 49.7 46.6 47.4 42.7 45.2
45 44.5 42.3 40.7 36.0 40.3
50 40.5 38.2 36.5 32.2 35.4
55 38.0 34.7 33.2 30.9 31.8
60 34.9 31.2 30.7 27.4 28.3
________________________________________
________________________________________
0
C )
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
________________________________________
0 29.2 28.8 29.0 28.5 30.0
5 124.7 72.3 82.0 65.5 66.1
10 225.3 129.7 118.9 108.3 114.8
15 232.5 165.6 161.5 140.4 152.7
20 202.4 180.9 165.3 146.4 149.0
25 154.1 156.4 132.7 123.7 113.4
30 120.6 103.6 104.3 96.2 91.3
35 95.3 76.5 75.9 73.2 73.5
40 73.8 56.7 57.0 53.5 57.9
45 60.2 51.8 44.3 40.8 45.1
50 53.6 47.2 39.5 38.4 40.4
55 48.8 40.0 37.4 35.9 36.4
60 44.3 36.4 34.4 32.1 33.5
________________________________________
For 2kg sample it was observed that the
temperature increases from 36.1
0
C to 180.97
0
C,
34.66
0
C to 165.42
0
C, and 35.33
0
C to 146.48
0
C for
T
2
, T
3
, and T
4
respectively during 20 min of duration.
But in case of T
1
and T
2
temperature increases from
34.19
0
C to 232.64
0
C, and 35.76
0
C to 152.79
0
C during
0 to 15 min. of duration.
3kg sample was kept for burning in developed
chamber. It was observed that the temperature
increases from34.41
0
C to 304.57
0
C, 36.11
0
C to
261.6
0
C, 34.00
0
C to 201.32
0
C, 32.33
0
C to 169.15
0
C for T
1
, T
2
, T
3
, and T
4
respectively during 15 min of
duration. But in case of T
5
temperature increases from
34.50
0
C to 165.87
0
C during 0-15 min duration.
________________________________________
0
C )
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
________________________________________
0 29.8 29.5 29.9 29.6 30.7
5 168.9 96.5 87.4 63.6 69.7
10 296.9 187.7 170.4 105.5 113.3
15 304.5 225.4 211.1 137.2 137.8
20 258.3 248.9 227.4 174.1 165.8
25 213.2 178.1 162.1 146.2 161.3
30 167.4 133.4 124.3 117.0 127.7
35 121.9 97.2 93.2 88.6 92.8
40 91.5 69.3 78.1 63.3 73.6
45 72.2 59.5 58.3 47.1 60.4
50 58.9 47.7 45.7 40.7 49.7
55 53.0 41.4 39.3 36.4 43.7
60 49.0 37.2 36.1 34.6 41.6
________________________________________
References
Ayhan Demirbas, (2004). Combustion characteristics of
different biomass fuels. Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science. Vol.30 (2). pp: 219-230.
Guillaume Pilon, (2007). Utilization of Areca nut (Areca
catechu) Husk for Gasification, Department of
Bio-resourceEngineering, McGill University, Montreal.
pp: 171-172.
Klasnja B., S. Kopitovic and S. Orlovic, (2002). Wood
and bark of some popular and willow clones as fuel
wood. Biomass and bioenergy. pp: 427-432
K.Umamaheswaran and Vidya S. Batra, (2008).
Physico-chemical characterization of Indian Fuel.
Vol.87(6). pp: 628-638.
M. Fang, L.Yang, G. chen, Z. Shi, Z Luo, K. Cen, (2004).
Experimental study on rice husk combustion in
circulating fluidized bed. Fuel Processing Technology.
Vol.85(11). pp: 1273-1282.
Saenger M., J Werther, E. U. Hartge, T Ogada, Z Siagi,
(2000). Combustion of agriculture residues. Progress
in energy and combustions science. Vol.26(1). pp: 1-
27.
Received November 2013; Acceptance January 2014
Knowledge of Rural Youth about Vermi Composting Enterprise Promoted
through Krishi Vigyan Kendra
D. V. SINGH
Programme Coordinator, KVK, Nabarangpur, OUAT, Bhubaneswar (Odisha)
Abstract
The study was carried out in five villages of two blocks in Nabarangpur district of Odisha,
which were adopted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nabarangpur (OUAT-Bhubaneswar). Sample
consisted of 60 rural youth who had under gone training through KVK and had adopted the
technology. Result depict t hat maj ority of the respondents had good knowledge about
vermin-enterprise as 58.33 per cent possessed good knowledge and 41.33 per cent had fair
knowledge level. Further, results highlights that majority of the respondents had good
knowledge of advantages of vermin enterprise, essential raw materials, processing and care.
Thus the training given by KVK had shown good impact on rural youth and they were running
the enterprise successfully.
Key words: Entrepreneurship, Rural Youth, Vermicompost.
Introduction
In India about one third of population lives under
extreme poor condition and a large majority of them
live under rural areas. In rural areas, most of the young
people after basic education are in want of employment
in their areas. Entrepreneurship is a major component
of our economic development. The economic
prosperity of any country depends on the
entrepreneurial competence. In order to improve their
living condition and to increase their income and
knowledge, developing the capabilities of rural youth
for self-employment becomes essential. There are a
number of enterprises, which can be taken up by rural
youth to improve their economic status.
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Nabarangpur, O.U.A.T.,
Bhubaneswar (Odisha) has started vocational unit of
vermicompost in 2011-12 to encourage self-
employment for rural youth through entrepreneurial
activity. Knowledge is one of the most important
component behavior and play an important role in the
covert and overt behavior of human beings. Once
knowledge is acquired, it helps to develop favourable
attitude towards improved practices and thereby
motivate an individual to take certain action in accepting
an innovation or any practices. Considering this the
study was planned with specific objectives to find out
knowledge of rural youth about vermin enterprise
promoted through Krishi Vigyan Kendra.
Methodology
Krishi Vigyan Kendra has adopted five villages
of Block Umerkote and J harigaon since last 2 years.
Vermin enterprise was promoted in all five villages
covering 60 rural youth. All these beneficiaries were
included as the sample in the present study. A
structured interview schedule was used for purpose
of data collection. The tool was pretested on five
members not included in the final sample. The content
validity of the tool was judged through panel experts,
while the reliability was calculated by using split-half
method.
An attempt was made to study in depth
knowledge of rural youth about vermi enterprise. For
this the respondents were categories in three groups
on the basis of their obtained knowledge scores.
Over all Knowledge
It is encouraging to note fromTable 1 that the
respondents had either mediumor high knowledge
about vermicomposting. There was no one in the
category of poor knowledge.
Table 1: Overall knowledge of respondents about ver-
min composting N=60
________________________________________
Knowledge level Frequency Per cent
________________________________________
Poor 00 00.00
Fair 25 41.66
Good 35 58.33
________________________________________
Advantages of vermin compost
The data shown in Table 2 reveals that a majority
of respondents (83-85 %) received the benefits of
vermicomposting enterprise in terms of availability of
raw material, the enterprises can be started at local
levels. They were running it with their own resources
Table 2: Advantage of vermicompost as judged by the respondents
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S. No. Advantage Frequency Percent
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Availability of raw material in the village 51 85.00
2. Can be started at village level 50 83.33
3. Take less time then Deshi Khad 47 78.33
4. Easy to prepare 43 71.66
5. Not costly 45 75.00
6. Simple technology 46 76.77
7. Less water requirement 41 68.33
8. Compost can be sold in village 21 35.00
9. Improve quality of crop 20 33.33
10. Crop produce is tasty 21 35.00
11. Save money 20 33.33
12. Copmpost is free fromchemicals 07 11.66
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 3: Knowledge of respondents about raw material
needed
________________________________________
________________________________________
1. Animal waste 60 100
2. Earth worms 60 100
3. Sand 60 100
4. Green neemleaves 60 100
5. Dry neemleaves 46 76.66
6. Gunny bags 60 100
7. Grain straws 5 08.33
8. Vegetable waste 13 21.66
________________________________________
i.e. cow dung, straws, neemleaves, vegetable wastes
etc. and does not require any extra material. A good
number of them(71.66 - 78.33%) also noticed that
the technology is not costly, simple to prepare and use
and take less time then deshi khad.
Further data reveal that water requirement is
much less in laying vermin beds and the respondents
who were involved in it, did not feel any such problem.
Further, vermicompost could be prepared only in 45
days where as the deshi manure takes 6 to 8 months
as said by the respondents. No special care was
needed in preparation of vermicompost. Only 33.33-
35.00 % respondents could tell about the marketing of
the vermicomposting in their own village. Farmers
adopting vermin compost in vegetables, fruits crops
and cereals indicate the size, quality, taste, shining were
good, hence could perceive this benefit.
Raw material required
The data presented in Table 3 revealed that cent
percent respondents had knowledge about important
basic materials essential for preparing vermicompost
i.e. Animal waste, earthworm, sand, green neem
leaves, gunny bags for covering the bad. etc., because
laying vermicompost bed all these materials are
essential for preparing vermicompost and being used
by the respondents themselves.
However 76.66 per cent respondents had
knowledge about keeping of dry neem leaves layer
inside, which can be used as a substitute for green
neemleaves and as a control over pests. 08.33 and
21.66 per cent respondents used grain straw and
vegetable waste respectively. Which minimize pollution
hazard and result in better village sanitation.
Process of preparing vermin compost
The recent talks on natural farming, organic
farming, eco agriculture, bio dynamics agriculture etc,
generate much emotion among some members of
general public. Although, all these words differ slightly
in precise meaning and emphasis, the under lying
conceptual idea in same. Their description and
methodologies are derived froma close study of nature.
They all agree principle of least interference in natural
systemto raise healthy plants and animals. They all
aims at quality and nutrition of the farmproduce. Care
must be taken to prepare good quality vermin compost.
The data presented in Table 4 clearly shows that
70 to 100 per cent respondents were aware about most
of the basic and important steps in preparing vermin
compost beds like bed should be in shade, require thick
layer of cow dung or animal waste, sprinkle water on
bed daily, laying thick layer of earthworms, turning
equipments, preparing bed 2" above, gunny bags for
covering the vermin compost beds and sprinkle water
to reduce the temperature. Only 31.66 to 43.33 per
cent respondents had knowledge about selection of
place, collecting waste materials, removing unwanted
things frommaterials and preparing bed nearby water
source. There were only 6.66 per cent respondents
who had knowledge about the use of agriculture
wastes.
Care needed during storage of vermin compost
The data presented in Table 5 clearly indicates
that 95.00% respondents were aware about drying of
prepared vermicompost. The respondents answered
that the vermicompost should not dry in direct sunlight
KNOWLEDGE OF RURAL YOUTH ABOUT VERMI----------KRISHI VIGYAN KENDRA 73
Table 4: Knowledge of respondents about the process of preparing vermicompost
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Bed should be in shade 60 100
2. Bed near by water source 19 31.66
3. Selection of place 26 43.33
4. Preparation bed 2" above 43 71.66
5. Collecting waste material 23 38.33
6. Thick layer of Agriculture waste 4 06.66
7. Thick layer of Animal waste 58 96.66
8. Sprinkling water for reducing temperature 43 71.66
9. Removing unwanted materials fromwaste 20 33.33
10. Thick layer of earth worm 60 100
11. Sprinkling water 60 100
12. Turning equipments 44 73.33
13. Covering bed with gunny bags 51 85.00
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 5: Knowledge of respondents about preparing vermin compost and proper storage of vermicompost
_____________________________________________________________________________________
S. No. Process Frequency Percent
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1. Care needed while preparing vermin compost
A. Stop watering when compost is prepared 51 85.00
B. Removes worms fromcompost 45 75.00
C. Dont dry the compost in direct sunlight 57 95.00
D. Empty the bed 43 71.66
2. Storage of vermin compost
A. Safety frommoisture 35 58.33
B. Properly sieve the compost 25 41.66
C. Using cement bags for storing compost 28 46.66
_____________________________________________________________________________________
because it may deteriorate colour and quality of
the vermicompost. About 71-85 per cent respondents
could tell about not to sprinkle water on prepared
compost. Removing worms fromprepared compost
and emptying the bed so that it can be used further.
About 41-58 per cent respondents had knowledge
about proper storage of vermicompost such as safety
from moisture, use of cement bags for storage and
sieving before packing.
Feature of prepared vermin compost
Table 6 depicts that 85-91 per cent respondents
Table6: Knowledge of respondents about featureof vermin
compost.
________________________________________
S.No. Features Frequency Percent
________________________________________
1. Granular fromcompost 53 88.33
2. Dark brown in colour 55 91.66
3. Odorless compost 51 85.00
4. Non sticky compost 44 73.33
5. Earth worms penetrates
inside compost 23 38.33
________________________________________
had knowledge about granular fromcompost, odorless
and dark brown in colour, because all these features
were observable and easily understandable to
entrepreneurs, nearly 73 per cent respondents were
able to answer about the non-sticky features of
vermicompost that can be known by touching the
compost. 38.33 per cent respondents answered
regarding penetration of earth worms inside the
prepared compost because fromthe upper side of the
compost.
References
Bhawalkar, U.S. (1990). Bio conversion of wastes into
resources, 4
th
International Symposium On
Earthworm ecology, J une 10-14, 1990, Avignum,
France.
Gupta, P.K. (2003). Vermicomposting for sustainable
agriculture, Agrobios (India), Agro house, Jhodpur,
Rajasthan.
Fuel consumption pattern in rural families
VIMLA, INDIRA BISHNOI, AND NEELMA KUNWAR
1
Department of Home Science, B.H.U. University, Varanasi
Abstract
India is the second largest populated nation of the world and majority of people of our
nation live in the villages, we can say that the sole of India lives in villages. 70 per cent Indias
population lives in its rural areas distributed over a vast number of villages. A substantial
portion of the total energy demand in the country is in rural sector and biomass is the fourth
largest energy source in the world and the first in India. In the absence of conventional energy
supply of the rural economy lacked adequate growth. About 90 per cent of the households energy
goes for cooking food which is largely obtained by burning the biomass fuel. Among biomass
energy sources wood is contributing about 80 per cent of the total cooking energy needs
followed by fire woods. Conventional fuel like L.P.G. has achieved very little penetration in the
rural domestic sector.
Key words: Conventional energy, L.P.G., biomass, Conventional fuel
Introduction
Bulk of rural energy demand for the domestic
sector is met fromwood fuel, vegetable and animal
waste in rural India. The degree to which the population
relies on agricultural residues for fuel varies among
the villages. There is a good co-relation between
income and fuel consumption. Income of the household
is spent on fuel though this excluding man power energy
in terms of in time spent in gathering fuel.
Methodology
The study was conducted in Chandauli district.
One block Naugarh was selected in this study area.
100 respondents were selected. Dependent and
independent variables were used such as age,
education, consumption, pattern etc. The statistical tools
were used such as frequency, mean etc.
Table 1: Distribution of families according to their
occupation No. 100
________________________________________
Occupation Frequency Percent
________________________________________
Agriculture 58 58.0
Labour 04 4.0
Agriculture and labour 38 38.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 1 shows the occupational structure of the
village. In the village 58.0 per cent does agriculture,
1
Professor and Head, C.S. Azad University of
Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur
4.0 per cent does labour and 38.0 per cent does both
Table 2 shows which family member often goes
for collection of fuel. According to the survey it has
been found that 82.0 per cent of all the members of
family go for collection of fuel.
Table 2: Distribution of respondents according to which
family member goes for collection of fuel No. 100
________________________________________
Members Frequency Percent
________________________________________
Women 5 5.0
Men 11 11.0
Children 2 2.0
All 82 82.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 3: Distribution of respondents according to their
transportation of fuel No. 100
________________________________________
Way of transporation Frequency Percent
________________________________________
On foot 84 84.0
Cycle 6 6.0
Both 10 10.0
Others 0 0.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 3 shows the ways of transportation of fuel.
The survey showed that 84.0 per cent of respondents
use their feet, 6.0 per cent of them use cycle and
Table 4: Distribution of respondents according to amount
of fuel needed per day No. 100
________________________________________
Weight in (Kg) Frequency Percent
________________________________________
0 2 3 3.0
2 4 18 18.0
4 6 54 54.0
More than 6 25 25.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 5: Distribution of respondents according to type of
stove used for cooking No. 100
________________________________________
Type of Chulha Frequency Percent
________________________________________
Clay stove 0 0.0
Smokeless 37 37.0
Traditional 63 63.0
Others 0 0.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 5 shows that type of chulhas used for
cooking. The use traditional chulha came to 63.0 per
cent and smokeless chulha came to 37.0 per cent for
cooking. Thus traditional chulha is still being used in
the villages.
Table 6: Distribution of respondents according to
presence of chimney in their kitchen No. 100
________________________________________
Chimney Frequency Percent
________________________________________
Yes 37 37.0
No 63 63.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 6 shows availability of chimney. This table
represents that 37.0 per cent of themhave chimneys
and 63.0 per cent of themdont have it.
Table 7: Distribution of respondents according to the
usage of ash after its usage of fuel No. 100
________________________________________
Options Frequency Percent
________________________________________
Washing utensil 30 30.0
In the field 26 26.0
Both 12 12.0
Others 7 7.0
All 25 25.0
Total 100 100.0
________________________________________
Table 7 shows usage of ash. It shows that 30.0
per cent used for washing utensil, 26.0 per cent used
in the field and 25.0 per cent used for all purposes.
Recommendations
The guardians should encourage their female
members to visit training programmes. Their quality
skills are to let displayed as how to consume the fuel
in rural areas.
There should be free campaigns where in those
it should be freely illustrated as bow to consume, save
and do the proper utilization of fuel.
References
Aggarwala, A. (2003). Firewood consumption pattern in
different tribal community. Social Welfare, : 108
119.
NCAER (2001). Domestic fuel survey with special ref-
erence to kerosene, New Delhi, 20.
10.0per cent of themuse both.
Table 4 shows how much fuel needed per day.
The use of 4 6 kgs came 54.0 per cent, more than 6
kgs came to 25.0 per cent, 2-4 kgs came to 18.0 per
cent and only 3.0 per cent respondents came in the
category of upto 2 kg. This majority of respondents
demand was 4 to 6 fuel per day.
Effect of Soil Test Crop Response Technology on Productivity and Economics
of Rice crop of Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh
Y.V. SINGH, P.K. SHARMA AND R. MEENA
AICRP on STCR, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005 (Uttar Pradesh)
*Corresponding author (E-mail: yvsingh59@rediffmail.co.in)
Abstract
The present study was conducted in four locations of Varanasi district during the year 2013,
to study the effect of soil test crop response technology on productivity and economics of rice
crop. The fertilizer adjustment equations are derived by the All India Coordinated Research
Project, Institute of Agricultural Science, B.H.U., Varanasi centre. Results revealed that targeted
yield of rice (45 q ha
-1
) and (50 q ha
-1
) have been achieved by using the plant nutrients on the
basis of targeted yield concept (soil test crop response technology). The percent increase in yield
was 44.50 and 48.00 % in first location, 44.33 and 48.66 % in second location, 44.63 and
47.10 % third location and 45.50 and 47.66 % in fourth location over farmers practice which
were 33.33, 29.50, 31.00 and 30.00 q ha
-1
, respectively. The maximum net returns of rice first
location (Rs.18947.75 and Rs.21539.49), second location (Rs.16873.25 and Rs.18956.09), third
location (Rs.19623.10 and Rs.21206.20) and fourth location (Rs.19843.10 and Rs.21085.20)
were obtained in treatment where plant nutrients applied as per soil test value (STCR treatment).
This technology also maintained the soil available plant nutrients. Thus, for obtaining maximum
gain and sustain the soil fertility, application of plant nutrients as per soil test value (STCR tech-
nology) is essential.
Key words: Rice, target yield, soil test crop response and FYM etc.
Introduction
The important crops include rice is the major crop
in Uttar Pradesh and is grown in about 5.90 mha which
comprises of 13.5% of total rice in India. Rice provides
21% of global human per capita energy and 15% of
per capita protein. Although rice protein ranks high in
nutritional quality among cereals, protein content is
modest. Rice also provides minerals, vitamins, and
fiber, although all constituents except carbohydrates
are reduced by milling. Uttar Pradesh is the leading
producer of rice and rank 3rd in the country. Annual
rice production is around 12 metric ton in state. Rice
is cultivated mainly in Kharif season (wet season) in
around 5.90 million hectare followed by zaid (summer
season) 35000-40000 hectare only. Farmers are using
excess chemical fertilizers to achieve higher yield but
the decision on fertilizer use requires knowledge of
the expected crop yield and response to nutrient
application. It is a function of crop nutrient needs,
supply of nutrients fromindigenous sources and the
short- and long-term fate of the applied fertilizer
nutrients (Dobermann et al. 2003). One of the reasons
for lower production is imbalanced use of fertilizers
by the farmers without knowing soil fertility status and
nutrient requirement of crops causes adverse effects
on soil and crop both in terms of nutrient toxicity and
deficiency (Ray et al. 2000). Micro situation level
specific fertilizer recommendations are possible for soils
of varying fertility resource conditions of farmers and
levels of targeted yield and for similar soil classes and
environment (Ahmed et al., 2002). Field specific
balanced amounts of primary nutrients (N.P and K)
were prescribed based on crop based estimates of the
supply of N,P and K and by modelling the expected
yield response as a function of nutrient interaction
(Ramamurthy et al., 2009). These equations are
developed after establishing significant relationship
between soil test values and the added fertilizer.
Keeping the above facts in view and non availability
of STCR data for rice in eastern Uttar Pradesh this
study was conducted.
The objective of this study was to evolve the
sound basis of fertilizer prescriptions for rice crop in
alluvial soil (Inceptisol) at different soil fertility levels
under the conditions of fertilizer scarcity and to ensure
maximumfertilizer use efficiency. The study also
intended to find the relationship between the nutrients
supplied by the soil and added by organic and
inorganic sources, their uptake and to develop a
guideline for judicious application of fertilizer for desired
yield target of rice by using STCR model.
The on farmtesting trials were conducted in
villages viz., Khewashipur, Shravanpur, Loharpur and
Khewashipur of Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh, India
during year kharif 2013 on alluvial soil (Inceptisol).
Soil samples (0-20 cmin depth) were collected, dried
and passed through 2 mmsieve and analyzed for
physico chemical properties as described by J achson
(1973). Available nitrogen, by the alkaline
permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija, 1956);
available phosphorus, by Olsen et al. (1954) and
available potassium, by the ammoniumacetate method
(Hanway and Heidal, 1952) as described by J ackson
(1973). Five fertilizers treatments viz., Control,
Farmers practice, General recommendation dose of
fertilizer, Soil test crop response (STCR) for 45 q ha
-1
and Soil test crop response (STCR) for 50 q ha
-1
in
rice (hybrid super moti) 45 q ha
-1
and 50 q ha
-1
targeted
yield were taken. The targeted yield of crop was
decided as per yield potential of varieties. Pre sowing
soil samples were analyszed according to the standard
procedures. Soil resource inventory of the study area
is given in the table 1. Quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassiumwere calculated with the help of fertilizer
adjustment equations as follow.
FN =4.74 T 0.49 SN
FP
2
O
5
=1.53 T 1.41 SP
FK
2
O =2.92 T 0.35 SK
Where - T =Yield target (t ha
-1
)
F.N. =Fertilizer N (kg ha
-1
)
F.P
2
O
5
=Fertilizer P (kg ha
-1
)
F.K
2
O =Fertilizer K (kg ha
-1
)
SN =Soil available nitrogen (kg ha
-1
)
SP =Soil available phosphorus (kg ha
-1
)
SK =Soil available potassium(kg ha
-1
)
The crop received one third N and full dose of
P
2
O
5
and K
2
O as basal application and remaining half
N were applied and 25 days after transplanting in rice
crop. Remaining nitrogen was applied at panicle
initiation stage. Nitrogen was applied through urea and
phosphorus through single super phosphate and
potassiumthrough muriate of potash. The rice variety
of test crop was hybrid super moti. The same variety
was used in STCR treatment and other treatments.
A

miner modification was made in the ready
reckoner, FP: Farmers practice i.e. the fertilizer doses
the farmers generally applied in the area, GRD:
General recommendation of agricultural department
of the district on the basis of soil test value, B: C ratio:
benefit cost ratios.
Soil characteristics
The soil was alluvial (Inceptisol) in reaction with
pH varying from7.0 - 8.5. The organic carbon content
varied from0.25 - 0.42 soils were mediumin available
nitrogen (ranging from160-180 kg ha
-1
), low to medium
in available phosphorus (ranging from10-20 kg ha
-1
)
and mediumto high in available potassium(ranging
from 160-180 kg ha
-1
) in Table 2. Available
micronutrient status showed that experimental soil was
well supplemented with micronutrients. Though these
soils are considered to be most fertile, they are deficient
in nitrogen and humus but moderately supplied with
phosphorus and potassium.
Yield targeting of rice based on soil test
Experimental data on follow up trails as frontline
demonstration, for each location during the period 2013
were conducted in farmers field and are given in Table
2. Fromthe field experiment the basic data on nutrient
requirement for producing one quintal grain yield of
rice, percent contribution of nutrients fromsoil (%CS)
and fertilizer (%CF) were evaluated. These basic
parameters were used for developing the fertilizer
prescription equations under NPK alone. The nutrient
requirement of N, P
2
O
5
and K
2
O were 2.56, 0.56 and
2.21 kg q
-1
of grain yield, respectively. The percent
contribution of nutrients fromsoil and fertilizers were
found to be 26.35 and 54.03 for N, 51.17 and 36.35
for P
2
O
5
and 26.14 and 75.68 for K
2
O, respectively.
It was noted that contribution of potassium from
fertilizer for rice was higher in comparison to soil. This
high value of potassiumcould be to the interaction
effect of higher doses of N, P coupled with priming
Table 1: Physico-chemical properties of the experimental area
____________________________________________________________________________________
Locations Physico chemical properties Fertility status
pH EC (dSm
-1
) OC (%) Av-N (kg ha
-1
) Av-P (kg ha
-1
) Av-K (kg ha
-1
)
____________________________________________________________________________________
Location-I 7.5-8.5 0.21-0.29 0.25-0.35 180 20 180
Location-II 7.3-8.4 0.30-0.40 0.28-0.36 180 10 160
Location-III 7.0-7.8 0.50-0.68 030-0.42 160 15 180
Location-IV 7.0-7.8 0.25-0.39 0.30-0.42 160 15 180
____________________________________________________________________________________
* Av =Available
effect of starter K doses in the treated plots, which
might have caused the release of soil potassiumform,
resulting in the higher uptake from the native soil
sources by the crop (Ray et al. 2000). Similar type of
higher efficiency of potassic fertilizer was also reported
for rice by Ahmed et al. (2002) in alluvial soils and for
finger millet by Kadu and Bulbule (2007).
Target yield of 45 q ha
-1
has been achieved with
comparatively lower application of N and P
2
O
5
fertilizers but higher application of K
2
O, in comparison
to doses applied in farmers practice and soil based
recommendations. As for example in the alluvial soil
of West Bengal, In the winter season highest rice yield
was 6.0 t/ha regardless of the N level used but could
be raised to 7.4 t/ha with increased application of K
fertilizers (Tiwari, 2002). This is probably due to the
higher N use efficiency as well as increased N
recovery by crop under increased K application
(Marschner, 1995).Yield targets of 45 and 50 q ha
-1
for rice (hybrid super moti) were achieved in table 2
fromthe expected yield targets in all the cases. In all
sites, grain yields of rice through general
recommendation (GRD) of fertilizers lagged behind
the yield obtained at 45 and 50 q ha
-1
fixed target.
These results accorded with the findings of Ray et al.
(2000) and Avtari et al., (2010). Between the two
targets tried, targeting for 45 q ha
-1
recorded relatively
higher response ratio than with 50 q ha
-1
though it has
also recorded higher yields. This might be due to the
better use efficiency of applied NPK fertilizers at low
yield target levels (Santhi et al., 2002).
However for efficient utilization of applied
fertilizer some other parameters like soil ph, organic
carbon status etc. should also be considered, since these
are the major determining factors of soil nutrient
retention. This is for the development of an effective
fertilizer schedule as well as nutrient supply source in
view of the better nutrient absorption and assimilation
by the plants.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Indian Institute of
Soil Sciences, Bhopal for providing financial assistance
through AICRP on STCR project during the course of
investigation.
References
Ahmed, S., Raizuddin, M. and Krishna Reddy, P.V. (2002).
Optimizing fertilizer doses for ricein alluvial soils through
chemical fertilizers, farmyard manure and green
Table 2: Economics of Verification Trails for Rice crop
__________________________________________________________________________________
Treatments NPK (kg ha
-1
)and Actual mean Additional Value of additional Cost of Net B/C
FYM (t ha
-1
) yield(kg ha
-1
) yield (Rs.) yield(kg ha
-1
) fertilizer (Rs.) benefit(Rs.) ratio
__________________________________________________________________________________
Location - I : Name - Arjun Kumar Patel, Village-Khewashipur
T
1
-Control 0-0-0 2033 - - - - -
T
2
-FP 100-60-60 3333 1300 14300 6713.60 7586.40 1.13
T
3
-GRD 120-50-60 3666 1633 17963 6498.90 11464.10 1.76
T
4
-45 q ha
-1
109-38-64 & 10 4550 2517 27687 8739.25 18947.75 2.17
T
4
-50 q ha
-1
133-46-79& 10 4900 2867 31537 9997.51 21539.49 2.15
Location - II : Name - Pawan Kumar Yadav, Village- Shravanpur
T
1
-Control 0-0-0 2133 - - - - -
T
2
-FP 100-40-30 2950 817 9537 4788.80 4748.20 0.88
T
3
-GRD 120-60-60 3633 1500 16500 7061.40 9438.60 1.34
T
4
-45 q ha
-1
109-52-64 & 10 4533 2400 26400 9526.75 16873.25 1.77
T
4
-50 q ha
-1
133-60-79& 10 4966 2833 31163 12206.91 18956.09 1.55
Location - III: Name - Kailash Pal, Village-Loharapur
T
1
-Control 0-0-0 1933 - - - - -
T
2
-FP 100-60-60 3100 1067 12837 6713.6 6123.40 0.91
T
3
-GRD 120-60-60 3633 1700 18700 7061.40 11638.60 1.65
T
4
-45 q ha
-1
119-45-64 & 10 4563 2630 28930 9306.90 19623.10 2.11
T
4
-50 q ha
-1
143-53-79& 10 4810 2877 31647 10440.80 21206.20 2.03
Location - IV: Name - Bhaiyalal Patel, Village -Khewashipur
T
1
-Control 0-0-0 2000 -
T
2
-FP 120-50-50 3000 1000 11000 6232.30 4767.70 0.76
T
3
-GRD 120-60-60 3300 1300 14300 7061.40 7238.60 1.03
T
4
-45 q ha
-1
119-45-64 & 10 4650 2650 29150 9306.90 19843.10 2.13
T
4
-50 q ha
-1
143-53-79& 10 4866 2866 31526 10440.8 21085.20 2.02
__________________________________________________________________________________
Note: Paddy@Rs.11.00/kg, N@Rs.17.39/kg, P
2
O
5
@Rs.56.25/kg, K
2
O@Rs.26.66/kg, FYM.@ Rs.3.00/kg
EFFECT OF SOIL TEST CROP RESPONSE ------------- VARANASI DISTRICT OF UTTAR PRADESH 79
manure using soil test values. Agropedology 12,133-
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Avtari, S., Singh,S. and Kumar, S. (2010). Fertilizer
prescription for target yield of yellow sarson 9
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Dobermann, A., Witt, C., Abdulrachman, S., Gines, H.S.,
Nagarajan, R., Son, T.T., Tan, P.S., Wang, G.H., Chien,
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Muthukrishnan, P., Ravi, V., Babu, M., Simbahan,
G.C.and Adviento.M.A. (2003). Soil fertility and indig-
enous nutrient supply in irrigated rice domains of Asia.
Agronomy Journal 95, 913-923.
Hanway, J .J . and Heidal, H. (1952). Soil analysis
methods asused in Iowa state college soil testing
laboratory. Lowa State College of Agriculture
Bulletin 57, 1-31.
Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Kadu, P.P. and Bulbule, A.V. (2007)..Nutrient
requirement of finger millet based on soil test crop
response correlation approach. An Asian Journal of
Soil Science 2(2), 51-53.
Marschner, H. (1995). Mineral nutrition of higher plants.
Academic Press. London.
Olsen, S. R., Cole, C. V., Watanbe, F. S. and Dean, L. A.
(1954). Estimation of available phosphorus in soil by
extracting with sodiumbicarbonate. U.S.A. Circ. 939.
(c.f. methods of soil analysis, part 2. Ed. C. A. Black.
American Society of Agronomy, Madison,
Wisconsin).
Ramamoorthy, B., Narasimham, R.L. and Dinesh, R.S.
(1967). Fertilizer application for specific yield targets
of sonora - 64 wheat. Indian Farming 17, 43-45.
Ray, P. K., Jana, A. K., Maitra, D. N., Saha, M. N.,
Chaudhury, J ., Saha, S. and Saha, A. R. (2000)
Fertilizer prescriptions on soil test basis for jute, rice
and wheat in a typic ustochrept. Journal of Indian
Society of Soil Science 48, 79-84.
Subbiah, B.V. and Asija, G.I. (1956) A rapid procedure
for determination of available nitrogen in soils.
Current Science 31, 196-198.
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sustainable agriculture. Journal of Indian Society
of Soil Science 50, 374-397.
Received November 2013; Acceptance February 2014
The insurance sector reforms in India
ASHISH KUMAR
Deptt. of Economics, A.D. College, Dharamkot, Dist. Moga (Punjab)
Abstract
The insurance sector plays a vital role in the economic development of India. It acts as a
mobilization of savings, financial intermediary, investment activities, risk manager and stabilizer
of financial markets. The insurance sector in India has come a full circle from being an open
competitive market to nationalization and back to a liberalized market. The Insurance sector
reforms were started with the incorporation of IRDA again in 2000. IRDA opened up the market
with the application for registration. Foreign companies were allowed ownership of upto 26%.
There is a proposal to increase the limit upto 49%. The key objective of the IRDA includes
promotion of competition and to enhance the customer satisfaction through increased consumer
choice and lower premium, while ensuring the financial security of the insurance sector. Though
as at end of September 2013, there were fifty two insurance companies operating in (forty four in
private sector and 8 in public sector). Life insurance industry recorded a premium income of Rs.
287202.49 crores in 2012-13 as against Rs. 287072.11 crores in 2011-12 registering a growth of
0.05 per cent. The life insurance industry reported a net profit of Rs. 6948 crores during the year
2012-13 as against of Rs. 5974 crores net profit during the year 2011-12. The public sector
companies reported a net profit of Rs. 2603 crores where as private sector insurance reported a
net profit of Rs. 679 crores during the year 2012-13.
Key words: IRDA, insurance, private sector, public sector
Introduction
The economic liberalization in India started on
24
th
J uly 1991. After Independence in 1947, India
adhered to socialist policies. In the 1980s, Prime
Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated some reforms and later
the government of Mr. P.V. Narasimah Rao and his
finance minister Manmohan Singh started break
through reforms. But an unmanageable Balance of
Payment and a socially intolerably high rate of inflation
pressurized the government to launch massive
economic reforms in 1991. Reforms in the Insurance
Sector were initiated with the passage of the IRDA
Bill in the Parliament in Dec. 1999. The IRDA since
its incorporation as a statutory body in April 2000 has
fastidiously struck to its schedule of framing regulations
and registering the private sector insurance companies.
It has put in a frame work of globally compatible
regulations and also provided the supporting systems
to the insurance sector.
An Overview of the Indian Insurance Sector
In India the advent of Life Insurance started
in the year 1818 with the establishment of the Oriental
Life Insurance Company in Calcutta. The General
Insurance has its roots in the year 1850 in Calcutta
fromthe establishment of Treton Insurance Company
Limited by British. In 1870 British Insurance Act was
implemented which led to the establishment of various
insurance companies by the end of 19
th
century like
Bombay Mutual, Albert Life Insurance, Royal
Insurance etc.
The Indian Life Assurance Companies Act,
1912 was the first statutory measure to regulate life
business. In 1928, the Indian Insurance Company Act
was passed which enabled the government to collect
statistical information about both life and non-life
business transacted in India. Later in 1938, the earlier
legislation was consolidated and amended by the
Insurance Act 1938 to protect the interests of the
insured public. By that time there were large number
of insurance companies and there were allegations of
unfair trade practices too. So govt. decided to
nationalize 245 Indian and Foreign Insurance
Companies and LIC was formed by an Act of
Parliament i.e. LIC Act 1956. The LIC had monopoly
till the late 90s. Nationalization was in conformity with
the government chosen path of state lead planning and
development.
The General Insurance business continued to
thrive with the private sector till 1972. Their operation
were nationalized through the General Insurance
Business (Nationalization) Act, 1972 by grouping 107
insurers into 4 Companies- The National Insurance
Insurance Sector reforms
In 1993, Malhotra Committee headed by former
Finance Secretary and RBI Governor R.N. Malhotra
was formed to evaluate the Indian Insurance Industry
and to recommend its future direction. The basic
objective of the committee was to complement the
reforms initiated in the financial sector. Committee
submitted its report in 1994 and suggested:
1- Govt. stake in the Insurance Co. to be brought down
to 50%.
2- Take over the holdings of GIC and its subsidiaries so
that these subsidiaries can act as independent corpo-
rations.
3- Allowing the private company with a minimumpaid
up capital of INR one billion to enter the sector.
4- No company should deal in both life and general in-
surance through a single entity.
5- Foreign company to enter the industry only through
collaboration with Indian company.
6- Setting up of an independent insurance regulatory body.
7- Reduce the mandatory investment of LIC Life Fund
in government securities to 50% from75%.
8- GIC and its subsidiaries are not to hold more than 5%
in any company.
9- Payment of interest by LIC on delays in payment
beyond of 30 days.
10-Computerization of operations.
11-Issues of long-termunit linked insurance plans.
The committee emphasized that in order to
improve the customer services and increase the
coverage of insurance policies, industry should be
opened up to competition. It also felt the need to provide
greater autonomy to insurance companies in order to
improve their performance and enable themto act as
independent company with economic motives. So the
proposal of an independent regulatory body i.e. The
Insurance Regulations Development Authority was
submitted. IRDA comprises of one chairman & four
members. Present chairman is Mr. T.S. Vijayan
(former chairman of LIC of India) and there four
members are-Mr. D.D. Singh, Mr. Sudhir Roy
Choudhary, Mr. M. Rama Prasad and Mr. Radha
Krishnan Nair.
With the passing of IRDA Act in 1999, reforms
in insurance sector were initiated in India. IRDA
incorporated as a statutory body in April 2000 and
brought about several crucial policy changes. The goals
of IRDA are to safeguard the interests of insurance
policy holders, as well as to initiate different policy
measures to help sustain growth in Industry. This
Authority has notified 27 Regulations on various issues
like Registration of insurers, Registration of Insurance
agents, Re-insurance, solvency margin, obligation of
insurers to rural and social sector etc.
IRDA opened up the market in August 2000 with
the invitation for applications registration. Foreign
Companies are allowed ownership upto 26%. The
Authority has power to frame regulations under
Section-114-A of the Insurance Act, 1938 and from
2000 onwards framed various regulations ranging from
registration of companies for carrying on insurance
business to protection of policy holders interests.
Today there are 24 life Insurance companies, 27
General Insurance companies and one Reinsurance
company operating in India. Table 1 below exhibits
the number of registered Life, General and Reinsurance
Insurance companies in India as on 30
th
September
2013 in public as well as Private Sector.
Table 1: Registered Insurances in India (As on 30
th
Sep-
tember 2013)
_________________________________________
Type of Public Sector Private Sector Total
_________________________________________
Life Insurance 1 23 24
General Insurance6 21 27
Reinsurance 1 0 01
Total 8 44 52
_________________________________________
Present Scenario
With the opening up of the insurance sector is
likely to lead greater spread and deepening of insurance
in India and this may also include restructuring and
revitalizing of the public sector companies. Indian
insurance industry is flourishing with several national
and international players competing and growing at
rapid rates. The success comes usually fromthe easing
of policy regulations and India has become more
familiar with different insurance products. The period
from2010-2015 is projected to be golden age for Indian
Insurance industry.
India is the fifth largest life insurance market with
US$ 41 Billion. According to IRDA, the insurers sold
10.55 million new polices in 2009-10 with LIC selling
8.52 millions and private companies 2.03 million polices.
Indian Insurance Industry is one of the booming
industries of the economy and is growing at the rate
Company Limited, The New I ndia Assurance
Company Limited, The Oriental Insurance Company
Ltd. and United India Insurance Company Limited.
GI C incorporated as company having above 4
mentioned subsidiaries. In this study, an attempt has
been made to analyse the various reforms in insurance
sector, there impact on the insurance sector and
friendly to point out the challenges being faced by
insurance sector in India during last decade. the study
was based on secondary data.
of 15-20% per annum. It contributes about 7% to the
GDP of the country. The following Table 2 exhibits
the New Business performance of LIC and Private
Insurance Companies in India on the counts of
Premiumand number of polices as at Sep. 2011 and
March 2012.
Indias insurance industry is expected to touch
the USD 400 billion mark by 2020 with scope for
further penetration. According to a joint study done by
FICCI and The Boston Consulting Group (BCG) the
insurance industry will be USD 350-400 (about Rs. 18
lakh crore) in premiumincome by 2020, making India
a top 3 life insurance market and a top 15 non-life
insurance market by 2020. Business figures exhibited
in the Table C below pertaining to the financial years
2009-10; 2010-11; 2011-12 and 2012-13 of Total
Premium under written by LIC and Private Life
Insurance in India advocates the study done by FICCI
and The Boston Consulting Group (BCG). In the Table
3 the figures in brackets show the growth percentage
as compared to the previous financial year.
Besides, there has been a massive increase in
the number of people covered. In life insurance, the
number of policies in force has increased fromabout
20 million in 2001 to about 230 million in 2009, a nearly
12-fold increase, the study said. The study further
Table 2: New Business Performance of LIC and Private Insurance in India
__________________________________________________________________________________
As at Sep 2011 As at March 2012
Premium(Cr.) Policies Premium(Cr.) Policies
__________________________________________________________________________________
Private 5245.77 2150294 Private 8135.46 2900976
LIC 8016.24 7607114 LIC 17292.82 14069604
Industry Total 13262.01 9757408 Industry Total 25628.28 16965580
__________________________________________________________________________________
Table 4: Polices Issued in Lakhs
________________________________________________________________________________
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
________________________________________________________________________________
LIC 388.63(8.21%) 370.38(-4.70%) 357.51(-3.47%) 367.82(2.88%)
Pvt. 143.62(-4.25%) 111.14(-22.61%) 84.42(-24.04%) 74.05(-12.28%)
Total 532.25(4.25%) 481.52(-9.53%) 441.93(-8.22%) 441.87(-0.01%)
________________________________________________________________________________
explained that the progress has been aided by the
dramatic shift in the availability of products including
better term, ULIPs, whole life, maximumNAV (Net
Asset Values) guarantee, auto assistance and disease
management. Table 4 below exhibits the number of
policies issued in the F.Y. 2009-10; 2010-11; 2011-12;
2012-13 by the LIC and private insurances. The
number of policies in 2009 equal to 230 million was
increased by nearly 131% i.e. it was nearly 2.3 fold in
2010.
Presently, there are 31 general insurance
companies with 4 public sector and 27 private insurers.
Although the public sector still dominates the general
insurance business, the private players are slowly
gaining a foothold. The 12 private insurers in the life
insurance market have already grabbed nearly 9% of
the market in terms of premium income. Innovate
products, smart marketing and aggressive distribution
in the triple whammy combination that has enabled
fledging private insurance companies to sign up Indian
customers faster than anyone ever expected. Another
noticeable characteristics is that they are coining money
is new niches that they have introduced. The state
owned companies still dominate segments like
endowments and money back policies. But in the
annuity or pension products business the private players
Table 3: Total PremiumUnder Written by Life Insurance in India
(in Crores)
___________________________________________________________________________________
2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Premium Premium Premium Premium
___________________________________________________________________________________
LIC 186077.31(18.30%) 203473.40(9.35%) 202889.28(-0.29%) 208803.58(2.92%)
Pvt. 79369.94(23.06%) 88131.60(11.04%) 84182.83(-4.52%) 78398.91(-6.87%)
Total 265447.25(19.69%) 291604.99(9.85%) 287072.11(-1.57%) 287202.49(0.05%)
___________________________________________________________________________________
(Figure in brackets show the growth %)
THE INSURANCE SECTOR REFORMS IN INDIA 83
have already captured 33% of the market.
Impact of Reforms on Insurance Sector-
Inspite of phenomenal progress of LIC of India
especially in the 1980s, the government and public at
large were not quite satisfied with it. By signing GATT
accord, the Government of India became committed
to opening of insurance sector to private sector, local
and global operators.
Before market liberalization, LIC sold mostly
savings plans with premiums being tax-deductible in
the hands of consumers. Protection business was a
relatively small proportion of its total business. Not
surprisingly, the new entrants have introduced a wider
range of products along with more need-based selling
techniques. They are offering a choice of riders,
covering benefits such as accidental death, critical
illness, waiver of premium, total and permanent
disability and guaranteed insurability. Several of the
new players following themLIC also introduced the
unit liked products to fight competition with private
players.
Before LPG distribution was entirely via
agencies. The focus of many new entrants has been
to implement multi-channel strategies including
bancassurance element. They are bringing international
experience, new technology, new channels of
distribution and new products. LIC has also charged
up with new channels of bancassurance, Direct
Marketing and the chief like insurance advisors
restructuring along with traditional Agent and
Development Officers channel. The existing public
sector players are also gearing up with matching
strategies so as to face competition.
The biggest beneficiaries of the liberalization of
the insurance sector will be the Indian consumers.
While there may not be any significant benefit in terms
of the cost of premiums, they would surely benefit in
terms of the number and variety of products and service
standards. Consumers have a wider choice new of
insurance schemes. Furthermore, the claims settlement
will be customer friendly.
The Indian Insurance Challenges-
The transition of the insurance industry in India
from a public monopoly to a highly competitive
environment posses a number of challenges not only
to the new players but also to the customer. The
insurance industry penetration as well as size of the
average cover is well below international averages.
This provides a great market opportunity for the
insurers.
*Presently personalized selling is dominating the
product-market relationship. Companies will have to
transformcustomer relationship management to
value-based client relationship. A flexible pricing
structure for sustaining customer confidence and
interest will be challenging task for Indian issuers. The
insurance company should focus on pricing,
distribution, risk management and investment
decision-making.
*Insurers will have to improve the productivity of their
distribution channels thereby positively affecting their
top line and bottomline growth.
*Indian non-life insurance companies have higher
expenses ratio between 33-35%. It should be
lowered down to international standards of 15-20%
as a high expense ratio has a direct impact on
profitibility.
*In order to achieve success in the marketing of
insurance products, the entire business environment
needs to be considered. The issuers must have
quality people and innovative management. They must
be able to employ technology effectively as the cus-
tomers are well-equipped with information in todays
world.
*There is a lack of consumer maturity specially in rural
areas, driven primarily by limited efforts by the
industry. To truly educate the customer of India the
companies will have to each the remotest interiors of
the country.
*In the global scenario, the existing new players will need
to devise different strategies to retain and enhance
their market share. They would have to introduce new
practices, set up new service standards and create
new benchmarks.
References
Annual reports of LIC from2001-10, 2010-11, 2011-12,
2012-13.
Mishra, M.N. (2008 Edition). Insurance Principles and
Practice.
Narain, D.S. (2001) Insurance Sector Reforms-Must
Benefit All.
Rajendran, R. and Natranjan, B. (2010). The impact of
liberalization, privatization and globalization on Life
Insurance Corporation of India.
Rao, C. S. (2007). The Regulatory Challenges Ahead
Sasidharan Sanjeev (2005). Insurance Sector in India.
Vadlamannati, K.C. (2008). Do Insurance Sector Growth
and Reforms Affect Economic Development-Empirical
Evidence fromIndia.
Estimation of resource use efficiency of inputs on tribal and Non-tribal farm of
Mirzapur district of U.P.
GYAN PRAKASH SINGH, S.K SINGH
1
AND SURENDRA SINGH
2
Consultant, NRE&SS, NRAA, Planning commission GOI
Abstract
On the basis of percent of tribal population living in the district Mirzapur of Uttar Pradesh,
128 respondents (64 each from tribal and non-tribal) were selected from the Haliya and Marriyan
blocks. Cost of cultivation was calculated to study the resource use efficiency of crops grown in
both, kharif and rabi, seasons. Though the positive impact of various variables was observed
on yield per hectare of all the crops, grown by tribal and non-tribal farmers but the coefficients
of regression, elasticity R
2
of labour use, fertilizer and irrigation were found very low. It
indicates that increase of 1 percent in any of these variable is unable to enhance the production
or productivity/ha of these crops in these blocks, significantly. Thus need is there to identify the
other economic activities for enhancing the income of tribal as well as non-tribal farmers of both
the block of Vindhyan zone, Mirzapur.
Key words: tribal and non-tribal, production, income, coefficients
1
Department of Ageicultural Economics, U.P. College
Varanasi
2
Assistant Economic officer, CACP, GOI.
Introduction
Agriculture continues to be the mainstay of Indian
economy and substantial part of the Indian population (29
per cent) continues to live below poverty line(Economic
Survey, 2005-06). Thepoorest section belongs to thesmall-
and marginal farmers, landless labor, scheduled castes &
scheduled tribes. In India, tribals are placed in the
constitution as alexia group of weaker section, which is
extremely poor and is distinct social institutions and culture,
for thepurposeof special treatment. Therefore, the fate of
about 45 million tribal populations, spread over extensive
regions of India, has been a matter of concern for the
successivegovernment. Poor incomeand employment,
poor technology of diffusion, uneconomic land holdings,
lack of necessary infra-structureof development, illiteracy,
various forms of exploitation in product and factor markets,
high debt burden etc., are said to be themain problems of
tribal communities in India (Dhebar Commission, 1961,
Govt. of India; Sivaraman Committee, 1981, Govt. of India).
However, when comparethese problems of tribals with
the problems of their counterparts in nontribal category
brought out by largenumber of studies on Integrated Rural
Development Programme (Dhillon, and Sandhu, 1988), it
is noticed that they appear to be, by and large, similar in
nature.
Studies conducted in different parts of the country
indicate a positive impact of these special development
efforts on tribal economy (Kulandaiswamy, et al. 1987).
Interestingly, contrary to common belief, a recent study
conducted by (Debases Negi, 2009) revealed that
economic factors are more important than socio-cultural
factors for adoption of new technology on tribal farms.
During 1999-2000 are fund to have less poverty ratio in
some sate at the national level of north east region. Thus,
the increased income and employment through creating
more infrastructures in agriculture and through creating
the opportunities in non formsectored. Reduced the agro-
economic disparities between tribal and non tribal due to
the developmental efforts undertaken so for might have
improved technology adoption. Few studies were
conducted mainly in Northeast, Bihar, and M.P., Himachal
Pradesh indicate such phenomenon (Thakur, 1992).
However, it needs to be empirically confirmed across
different geographic regions of the country.
Thus, a fresh look is needed at this juncture to
examine the differences between tribal and non-tribal
in agro-economically reasons rather than socio-cultural
are still existing? Such a study will be helpful in
accessing whether development planning for tribals
should continue separately or their developmental
problems can be dealt with in the mainstreameconomic
planning and programmes.
Few some resent study were found the resource
use was not fully utilized in the all category of farmers
the highest utilization of resource was recorded for
large scale farms, and then followed by mediumscale
farms and lastly the small scale farms (Mondal and
Mishra 2011.; Isa. J . Okpe eat al 2012)
The present study was conducted in undivided
Uttar Pradesh, which has more than 50 percent
Methodology
The district Mirzapur is situated in North-east
semi temperate agro-climatic region of Uttar Pradesh.
The area of the district falls under Gangetic plain and
Vindhyan hill region. The land, in general, is fertile plain
and expanded in Ganga region. This region is specific
by 68 kmEast and west length and 32 kmNorth and
south west. The district have problemfor ground water
resource and also has unsecured irrigation facility.
Out of 70 districts, Mirzapur district was selected
for the present study, as it has the highest concentration
of tribe population in U.P. Mirzapur district has twelve
block namely, Cehanvey, Kaon, Majhwa, Pahari,
Lalganz, Haliya, Nariyan, Rajgarh, Sikhand, Narayanpur,
Samalpur Nagar, and trible population in these blocks
vary from14 to 55 per cent of total population and thus
selected for this study (table-1). Out of total 213 and
140 villages in the Haliya and Marriyan blocks,
respectively of Mirzapur, a sample of 8 villages (4 village
fromeach block tribe and non-tribes population) was
selected purposively for the present study.
A list of all the households along with their land
holding of the selected villages was prepared with the
help of pradhan. All the households were categorized
into two groups i.e. tribes and non tribes. A total sample
of 128 household (64 tribes and 64 non tribes) was
randomly selected fromall selected villages. The study
is based mainly on primary data collected fromselected
respondents. Information on family size, educational
level, source, operational area, land tenure system,
sources of irrigation and cropping pattern, inventory
of farmassets, cost of cultivation of principal crops
grown on tribal and non-tribes was collected for the
year 2005-06, through personal interview method.
Secondary data on agro-economic profile of the district
was also obtained fromthe agricultural Shankhiky
Patrika of the district Statistical Office.
Analytical frame work
Computation of resource use efficiency
The resource use efficiency of principal crops
was estimated by using production function approach.
Regression analysis was done for estimating the input-
output relationship (Production function) for the
principal crops. The appropriate formof Cobb-Douglus
type of production function was used.
Y =
4 3 2 1
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
X X X aX
This can be written in log linear formula,
log Y =log a +b
1
log X
1
+b
2
log X
2
+b
3
log X
3
+log b
4
X
4
where,
Y =yield per hectare (qtls)
X
1
=per hectare human labour (mandays)
X
2
=per hectare land preparation (in Rs.)
X
3
=per hectare irrigation (in Rs.)
X
4
=per hectare fertilizer and manure (in Rs.)
a =constant
b
1
, b
2
, b
3
and b
4
are the regression coefficient.
Estimation of resource use efficiency
The resource use efficiency of different input
used for production of principal crops on tribal and
non-tribal groups were examined, using the criteria of
comparison of marginal value productivity (MVPs) of
different inputs with their acquisition costs based on
above production function. A resource of input was
considered to be used efficiency whose MVP is
sufficient to offset its cost. Equality of marginal value
product of a resource of its factor cost is, therefore,
the basic condition that must be satisfied to obtain the
resource use efficiency of a resource.
Estimation of marginal physical product and
marginal value of product
The marginal physical productivity (MPP) of
resources was estimated by taking partial derivatives
of yield (Y) with respect to the concentrate input at
their geometric mean levels. The procedure followed
was as under:
Y =
4 3 2 1
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
X X X aX ----(1) (production function)
Partial derivatives of yield (Y) with respect to X
i
is,
1
X
Y
=
4 3 2 1
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
X X X aX .. (2)
=
4 3 2 1
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
X X X aX
population of tribals in some blocks of Mirzapur . About
0.9 per cent tribal population of India lives in Uttar
Pradesh, which is 0.3 per cent of its own population
(Tribal Census Report, U.P. 1980-81). However, 80
per cent of tribal population is concentrated in hilly area
of the state. The state has five scheduled tribes, Ragi
and Bhotia (mainly in Pithoragarh district), Buksa, Tharu
(mainly in Nainital district) and J aunsari (mainly in
Dehradun district).In eastern part of Uttar Pradesh
,some tribals are also found in Vindhayan region. Nearly
50 per cent of the tribal population is working in rural
areas and engaged in different agricultural and allied
activities with cultivators comprising 78 per cent of tribal
population (Tribal Census report, U.P. 1980-81). Looking
the present importance of study in view of above facts
as mentioned by different authors, it is important to
conduct a separate study to examine the attitude of tribal
community with respect to adoption of new agricultural
technologyin eastern part of Uttar pradesh. With this
backdrop the present study was undertaken with the
objective of assessing the resource uses efficiency of
principal crops on tribes and non-tribes farms of Mariyan
and Haliya block of district Mirzapur of U.P.
=
1
1
X
Y
b
Since
1
X
Y
is average physical product of X
1
(APP
X1
)
and
1
X
Y
is marginal physical product of X

1
Since is average physical product of X
1
(APP
X1
) and is marginal physical product of X
1
(MPP
X1
). The MPP
X
=b
1
APP
X1
i.e. the MPP
X1
obtained by multiply its regressions coefficient (b
1
) by
its APP at geometric mean level of both Y and X
1
and
the marginal value product of X
1
(MVP
X1
) can be
obtained by multiplying the marginal physical product
of X
1
by the price of output i.e.
MVP =MPP
X1
P
Y
In general for the i
th
resource
APP
X1
=
1
X
Y
MPP =APPx b
i
Since =b
1
=MPP/APP
MVP
i
=APPx b
i
x Py or MPP
x
P
y
where,
Y =geometric mean level of output
X
1
=geometric mean level of i
th
input
b
1
=elasticity coefficient of i
th
resources (CP)
P
y
=price of output.
To test the significance of difference of marginal
value product with its acquisition cost t test was
applied in the following manner:
t=MVP
xi

-P
xi
/ SE(MVP
xi
)
where,
SE(MVP
i
) =APP
xi
. SE (b
i
)
AVP
xi
=Average value product of I
th
input
SE(b
i
) =Stander error of regression coefficient of I
th
input
Results and discussion:
The separate production function as hypothesized
in the methodology chapter was separate cropping
systemfor two farmgroups e.i. tribe and non-tribe. A
separate production function were also estimated under
principal crops viz. wheat, paddy, potato pea, gram
mustard, sugarcane, ratoon, til, and arhar to examine
the resource use efficiency of various input. The result
of production function (Cobb-Dauglas type) in which
yield/ha was taken as a dependent variable and human
labour/ha (in man days), land preparation, irrigation, and
fertilizer in rupees/ha for principle crops (Table 5).
Wheat
Regression coefficients (production elasticity) of
human labour were found negative for both tribal and
non-tribal farms. It means that the human labour was
not critically influencing the production of wheat in
tribal as well as non-tribal farms. The non-significant
nature of human labour was due to high availability of
family labour and machine use. In case of land
preparation coefficient was found negative and non-
significant in both the tribal and non-tribal farms.
The positive and significant coefficient for
irrigation was observed for both the groups. The
production elasticity of irrigation shows that 1 per cent
increase in use of irrigation charges may increase the
productivity of wheat by 0.034 % and 0.05%,
respectively of tribal and non-tribal farms. On the
other hand the production elasticity of fertilizer was
found significant for both the groups indicating positive
impact on output per hectare. It means that 1%
increase in fertilizer application will result in an increase
in output per hectare by 0.084 and 0.192 % respectively
on tribal and non-tribal farms. It may be inferred,
based on the coefficient of multiple determination (R
2
)
that the explanatory variable (labour, land preparation,
irrigation and fertilizer included in the regression model
for wheat were responsible for 68 and 92 percent of
variation on non-tribal and tribal areas, respectively.
Potato
The next principal crop for rabi season was potato
and regression coefficient of labour were estimated
as positive and significant for both the tribal and non-
tribal farms. The production elasticity of labour
indicates that one per cent increase in the labour will
lead to increase potato yield by 0.204 and 0.332 per
Table 1: Occupation-wise population distribution on sample farms
__________________________________________________________________________________
Occupations of Household Non-Tribal Tribal
No Population %age No. Population %age
__________________________________________________________________________________
Total No. HH 64 153 100 64 225 100
Wage laborers 32 136 88 59 219 97
Household owned tractors 4 4 3 1 1 1
Business 10 11 7 0 0 0
Government. Services 1 1 1 0 0 0
Private Services 1 1 1 4 5 2
__________________________________________________________________________________
ESTIMATION OF RESOURCE USE ----------- OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT OF U.P. 87
The positive regression coefficient for irrigation
was observed for both the category of farms, indicating
that irrigation affects significantly the yield of potato.
Positive impact of fertilizer application on per hectare
output was also observed for both the categories of
farms. This indicate that 1 per cent increase in fertilizer
application will result in an increase in yield by 0.363%
and 0.112%, respectively in non-tribal and tribal areas.
R
2
values i.e. 85% and 97.9% respectively for non-
tribal and tribal farms establish the fact that explanatory
variable included in the model are responsible for
variation in output of potato over output of Mustard.
The regression coefficient of labour was found
positive on the tribal farms. On the other side in case
of non-tribal farms it was not found to significantly
affecting the productivity of mustard. The production
elasticity of labour shows that 1 per cent increase in
the use of labour increases the productivity of mustard
by only 0.002% respectively for the non-tribal areas
which all most negligible.
Mustard
The table further revealed that production
elasticity of land preparation was negative but non-
significant for non-tribal farms which mean that the
cost for land preparation has not been affecting the
productivity of the mustard.On the other hand
coefficient of irrigation was found positive in case of
the tribal but negative for the non-tribal farms. It was
also observed that irrigation has been affecting the
yield of mustard of both the farms non-significantly.
The calculated production elasticity of fertilizer
application was found also found positive in case of
non-tribal farms. It may be inferred, based on the
coefficient of multiple determination (R
2
), explanatory
variable was responsible for 48% of variation in total
Table 2: Per farminventory on sample farm
_________________________________________
Particular Non-Tribe (No.) Tribe (No.)
_________________________________________
Tractor, cultivators 0.08 0.02
Thrasher 0.34 0.16
Pumping/Engine 0.25 0.22
Tube wells 0.27 0.02
Chaff cutter 0.63 0.30
Winnower 0.41 0.16
Deshi plough 0.64 0.52
Others 2.33 1.84
Total 3.59 3.24
_________________________________________
Table 3: Per farmdistribution of area under deferent crops
________________________________________.
Crop Non-Tribe Tribe
Area (ha.) %age Area (ha.) %age
________________________________________.
Average size of farm 1.61 0.66
Paddy 1.19 74.20 0.53 80.63
Till 0.08 5.09 0.08 11.98
Arhar 0.07 4.46 0.04 6.42
Ratoon 0.07 4.22 0.00 0.00
Sugar cane 0.07 4.41 0.00 0.00
Fodder 0.12 7.62 0.01 0.97
Kharif 1.61 100.00 0.66 100.00
Wheat 1.04 64.88 0.55 83.29
Potato 0.06 3.49 0.01 1.11
Mustard 0.06 3.48 0.00 0.00
Pea 0.09 5.32 0.02 3.62
Gram 0.08 4.73 0.03 4.04
Fodder 0.08 5.13 0.01 1.52
Rabi 1.40 0.62
________________________________________
Table 4: Per farmArea, Production and Productivity of sample farm
__________________________________________________________________________________
Crops Non- Tribe Tribe
Area (ha.) Production (qt) Productivity(qt./ha.) Area (ha.) Production (qt) Productivity(qt./ha.)
__________________________________________________________________________________
Cereals 2.23 55.0 25 1.08 23.0 21
Paddy 1.19 36.0 30 0.53 14.0 26
Wheat 1.04 19.0 18 0.55 9.0 16
Pulses 0.25 3.0 12 0.09 1.0 11
Pea 0.09 1.0 14 0.02 0.3 12
Gram 0.08 1.0 11 0.03 0.3 9
Arhar 0.07 1.0 9 0.04 0.4 9
Oil seed 0.14 1.4 10 0.08 0.3 3.75
Mustered 0.06 1.0 12 0 0.0 0
Till 0.08 0.4 5 0.08 0.3 3
Cash crop
Ratoon 0.7 11.0 155 0.0 0
Sugar cane 0.07 11.0 161 0.0 0
Potato 0.06 7.0 121 0.01 1.10 111
__________________________________________________________________________________
cent on non-tribal and tribal farms, respectively which
is less than one. Similarly the regression coefficient
for land preparation was also positive and significant
in non-tribal farms but not for the tribal farm. The
regression coefficient was found to be negative and
non-significant in the tribal farms.
output of non-tribal farms.
Pea
The positive regression coefficient of labour for tribal
farms and negativefor non-tribal farms indicate that labour
was not significantly affecting the productivity of pea in
the selected villages during the period under study. On
the other hand, production elasticity of land preparation
was positive for both the farms but non-significant. It
means cost made on land preparation by the selected
respondents had not affecting the productivity of the pea
significantly. The production elasticity of land preparation
shows that 1 per cent increase in the use of land
preparation (or cost of land preparation) increases the
productivity of pea by 0.178% and 0.120% respectively
for the non-tribal and tribal farms.
On examining the regression coefficient of irrigation,
which was positive in case of the tribal farms but negative
in case of the non-tribal farms and non-significant for both
the groups. It means that yield of the pea in both the
farms had been affected non-significantly. While studying
the production elasticity of fertilizer application, it was found
positive for both the farms but was not statistically
significant too. It may be inferred based on the coefficient
of multiple determinations (R
2
) that the explanatory
variable had been responsible for 32% and 27% variation
in output per hectare of non-tribal as well as the tribal
farms, respectively.
Gram
The production elasticity of labour was observed
positive for cultivating gramin the tribal and non-tribal
areas. The statically non-significant regression
coefficient also indicates the insignificant labour
contributions in the productivity of the gramfor both
the kind of farms. It also indicate that one per cent
increase in the labour will contribute towards increase
in productivity of gramby 0.093 and 0.005 per cent of
non-tribal and tribal farms, respectively. The coefficients
of production elasticity of land preparation were found
positive but non- significant for both the farms which
reflect that it affects the productivity of the gram. In
other words it can be said that 1 per cent increase in
cost of land preparation increases the productivity of
gramby 0.0.063% and 0.061% respectively for the
non-tribal and tribal farms.
The production elasticity of fertilizer application
was found positive in case of both the farms but was
statistically non-significant for tribal as well as non-
tribal farms. Similarly the production elasticity of
fertilizer shows that 1 per cent increase in the use of
fertilizer cost increases the productivity of gramby
0.0.052% and 0.208% respectively for the non-tribal
and tribal farms.
On the basis of coefficient of multiple
determination (R
2
) it could be inferred that the
explanatory variable are responsible for 20% and 43%
variation in productivity of gramof non-tribal as well
as the tribal farms, respectively.
Paddy
The coefficient of human labour used in paddy
production was associated with negative sign and
production elasticity insignificant for both, tribal and
non-tribal farms. Thereby, it can be concluded that
the human labour was not critically influencing the
production of paddy for both the groups. High
availability of the family labour was the reason for
non-significant nature of human labour. On the other
hand positive coefficient of land preparation in the case
of non- tribal and negative in the case of tribal farms
but non-significant in both the cases signifies that cost
made on land preparation had some impact on the
production of paddy on tribal farms whereas it had no
impact on non-tribal farms. But this impact was
observed non-significant for both the groups.
For irrigation the regression coefficient was
found positive and significant in both the cases whereas
the production elasticity indicates that 1 per cent
increase in cost of irrigation may increase the
productivity of paddy by 0.178% and 0.098% ,
respectively in tribal and non-tribal farms. On the other
side the production elasticity of fertilizer was found
significant in both cases and had positive impact on
Table 5: Cobb-Douglas production functions for major crops
__________________________________________________________________________________
Non-Tribes
Crop No. Intercept Labour Land Preparation Irrigation Fertilizer R
2
(%)
__________________________________________________________________________________
Wheat 63 2.837 -0.119 -0.457 0.034*(1.572) 0.084***(2.587) 68
Potato 19 0.670 0.204*(1.348) 0.129*(1.649) 0.018 0.363***(2.990) 85
Mastered 23 1.329 0.002 -0.144 0.061 49
Pea 31 0.500 -0.168 0.178 -0.014 0.361 32
Gram 38 0.687 0.093 0.063 0.052 20
Paddy 63 2.091 -0.838 0.018 0.178***(2.569) 0.188***(2.613) 86
Till 22 0.643 0.061 0.012 17
Arhar 20 0.274 0.242 0.145 38
Sugar cane 16 2.141 0.184*(1.361) 0.223 -0.158 0.148**2.114 39
Ratoon 18 0.798 0.295***(2.555) -0.007 0.397***(2.663) 68
__________________________________________________________________________________
ESTIMATION OF RESOURCE USE ----------- OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT OF U.P. 89
Sesamum (Sesamum indicum)
Coefficient for labour was found positive and
significant for both, tribal farmand non-tribal farms. In
other words labour had not affected the productivity of
sesamum significantly. On the hand analysis of
production elasticity of land preparation revealed that
productivity of the sesamumwas affected positively for
both the farms but it was fond non- significant. The
production elasticity of land preparation shows that 1
per cent increase in the use of land preparation techniques
increases the productivity of sesamumby 0.012 and
0.066 percent, respectively for the non-tribal and tribal
farms. It may be inferred on the basis of coefficient of
multiple determination (R
2
) that the explanatory variable
were responsible for 17 and 62 percent of variation in
yield per hectare of sesamumcrop on non-tribal as well
as the tribal farms, respectively.
Tur (Cazanun casun)
Positive and significant regression coefficients of
labour were found in case of both tribal and non-tribal
farms which indicate that labour did not affected the
productivity/ha of tur significantly. It was found positive,
while examining, production elasticity of land preparation
for both the groups of farms but they were non
significantly effecting the productivity of the tur. The
production elasticity of land preparation shows that 1
per cent increase in the cost made on land preparation
techniques, increased the productivity of tur by 0.145
and 0.201 percent, respectively, for the non-tribal and
tribal farms. It may be inferred, based on the coefficient
of multiple determination (R
2
), that the explanatory
variable included in the regression model are responsible
for 9 and 6 variation in yield per hectare of tur on non-
tribal as well as the tribal farms, respectively.
Sugarcane:
The regression coefficient of labour, used for
production of sugarcane by non-tribal farmers was
found positive and significant. The production elasticity
of labour indicates that one per cent increase in the
cost of labour led to increase yield of sugarcane by
0.184 per cent on non-tribal farms.
The regression coefficients for land preparation
and irrigation were also found positive but non-
significant for non-tribal farms. In case of fertilizer,
the impact of fertilizer on productivity of sugarcane
was found positive and significant on non-tribal since
the production elasticity of fertilizer were found positive
and statistically significant. This indicates the 1percent
increase in cost of fertilizer application would bring an
increase in productivity per hectare of sugarcane by
0.148 percent on non-tribal farms.
Regarding explanatory variable (labour, land
preparation, irrigation and fertilizer) it may be inferred,
on the basis of coefficient of multiple determination
(R
2
) that these variables were responsible for 39
percent variation on non- tribe farms.
Ratoon:
The regression coefficient for labour use, were
found positive and significant on non-tribal farms and
thus production elasticity of labour indicates that one
per cent increase in the cost of labour led to increase
in yield of ratoon by 0.295 per cent on non-tribal farms.
It is interesting to note that irrigation had negative and
non-significant impact on the yield of ratoon on non-
tribal farms.
On non-tribal farms the production elasticity of
fertilizer application was found positive and significant
which indicates positive impact on yield of ratoon. In
other worlds it could be said that 1 per cent increase
in the cost of fertilizer application increased the
productivity per hectare of ratoon by 0.397% on non-
tribal farms. Multiple determinations (R
2
) of the
explanatory variable were found responsible for 68
percent of variations in the yield of ratoon on non-
tribal farms.
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Isa. J. Okpe eat al (2012). Resource Use Efficiency and
Rice Production in Guma, Local Government Area of
Benue State: An Application of Stochastic Frontier
Production Function, International Review of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Vol. 3, No. 1 (2012), pp.
108-116. www.irssh.com.
yield per hectare. On the basis of the results it can be
inferred that 1% increase in fertilizer application will
result in an increase of 0.188 and 0.252 percent
respectively in tribal and non-tribal farms. The
coefficient of multiple determination (R
2
) of the
explanatory variable (labour, land preparation, irrigation
and fertilizer) indicates that these factors were
responsible for 85 and 75 percent variation on non-
tribal and tribal farms, respectively.
The quality of market milk sold under unorganised sector of Agra city
KULDEEP SINGH, M.L. BHASKAR, RAJEEV KUMAR AND UPENDRA SINGH
Deptt. of A.H.& Dairing, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra, 283105(U.P.)
Abstract
An investigation was carried out during the year 2012 -13 in the dept. of AH & Dairying,
R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra to assess the quality of market milk samples collected from
various sources as milk vendors, Halwais, individual producers / ghosies and unorganised dairies
in Agra city and compared with buffalo milk as control sample. It was found that all milk samples
collected from different sources in this city had significantly poor quality as compared with buffalo
milk. The quality of milk samples obtained from individual producers / ghosies was found better
than that of milk vendors, followed by unorganised dairies and halwaies, based on its sensory
and chemical quality.
Key Words: market milk, sensory quality, SNF (solids not fat), milk vendors, ghosies, PFA
Introduction
Milk is the only food, which is considered natures
almost perfect food. It is considered best and ideal
food as it possesses all nutrients viz., fats, proteins,
carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. They are not
only of higher quality but are present in milk in such
forms and proportions that their digestion and
assimilation in the body is very efficient.
Simultaneously, if included in our diet, it also enhances
digestion and assimilation of constituents of other food
products. So, it is kept at high esteemas a food product.
Indian farmers have undoubtedly done the
greatest task of making India number one producer of
milk in the world. Our country produced about 132.4
million tons milk during the year 201213 (A report by
Department of AH & Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry
of Agriculture, Government of India ). About half of
the milk produced is consumed in the liquid form
(Kumar et.al 2014). At present, milk is being processed
under government, private and cooperative sectors. It
is stated that not more than 20% of milk is being handled
by this sector (Venkatasubramanian et.al. 2003). So,
unorganised sector is handling about 75 % milk
produced in this country.
Market milk refers to fluid milk that is sold to
individuals usually for direct consumption. It excludes
milk used for the manufacture of dairy products. The
collection and distribution of milk has remained mostly
in the hands of unscrupulous and uneducated middle
man who are mainly responsible for the adulteration.
In order to safeguard the health and interest of
consumers, central and state governments implemented
legal standards of milk. According to PFA rules, buffalo
milk in UP should contain minimum6.0% fat and 9.0%
SNF whereas cow milk 3.5% fat and 8.5% SNF.
Survey for the quality of market milk is a part
and parcel of quality control programme of milk. In
view of the above facts, the present investigation was
conducted during the year 2012-13 in the Dept. of AH
& Dairying of RBS College, Bichpuri, Agra to study
variation in the quality of market milk collected from
milk vendors, halwais, individual producers / ghosies
and unorganised dairies, and compared with that of
buffalo milk (control).
Materials and Methods:
The milk samples were collected in well cleaned
and sterilised glass bottles. The buffalo milk used as
control was collected froma dairy farmer of nearby
village of the college. This buffalo milk was produced
under our guidelines following the principles of milk
production. These samples were examined for sensory
and chemical quality. The sensory evaluation of milk
was done by a panel of judges drawn from the
department of AH & Dairying, RBS College, Bichpuri,
Agra following the usual precautions. The chemical
quality in terms of acidity, fat, protein, lactose, ash and
SNF was determined by the methods as described in
Hand Book of Food Analysis, Part XI, Dairy Products,
BIS, New Delhi.The specific gravity was ascertained
by the procedure given in Practical Manual of NCERT.
In the sensory quality of milk collected from
various sources, the colour of milk samples differed
fromlight yellow to white. The samples collected from
all the sources except milk vendors showed white
colour. Most of the samples from vendors also
exhibited same colour but few ones were light yellow
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in colour. The buffalo milk samples as control ones
had white colour. The flavour of milk varied fromoff
flavour to pleasant one. All the samples fromvarious
sources produced pleasant flavour except few samples
frommilk vendors and halwais which had slightly off
flavour. All the control samples exhibited pleasant
flavour. The viscosity of milk fromvarious sources
varied fromlight thin to viscous. Few samples from
milk vendor and halwais were thin but all samples
fromunorganised dairies, individual producers / ghosies
and control samples were viscous in quality (Table 1).
The fat content of milk samples collected from
various sources ranged from3.30 to 7.40 percent. The
mean fat content was highest in the buffalo milk (7.10
0.08 percent) and lowest in halwais milk (4.36
0.68 percent) which differed significantly at p d 0.01.
The protein content of milk samples varied from2.90
to 3.70 percent. The mean protein content was the
highest (3.57 0.11 percent) in case of buffalo milk
and the lowest (3.26 0.30 percent) in the samples
obtained frommilk vendors.
The mean lactose content of milk was the highest
in buffalo milk as (4.70 0.09 percent ) whereas the
lowest (4.20 0.26 percent) in milk samples collected
fromunorganised dairies. It ranged from4.00 to 4.83
percent. The lactose content of milk samples from
various sources differed significantly at p d0.05. The
ash content of milk varied from0.63 to 0.80 percent.
The mean ash content was lowest in halwais milk (0.69
0.04 percent ) and highest in buffalo milk samples
(0.78 .03 percent) which differed significantly at p
d 0.05.
The acidity of milk samples collected from
various sources in Agra market ranged from0.12 to
0.20 percent. The mean highest acidity (0.17 0.02
percent) was observed in milk samples procured from
unorganised dairies and lowest (0.13 0.01 percent)
in control samples. However, the difference in the
acidity of milk fromvarious sources was statistically
insignificant. The SNF content of milk samples obtained
fromvarious sources differed significantly. It ranged
from7.55 to 9.33 percent. The highest average value
(9.05 0.51 percent) was observed in buffalo milk
and the lowest (8.21 0.73 percent) in halwais milk.
The specific gravity of the milk samples obtained from
various sources ranged from 1.020 to 1.032. The
highest average specific gravity was found in buffalo
milk (1.031 0.001) and lowest in halwais milk (1.024
0.006). The variation in specific gravity was
significant (p d 0.05).
The observations of Saharia and Saikia (2006),
J avaid et.al.(2009), Menkudale et. al. (2011), Sharma
(2012) also more or less supported the findings of
THE QUALITY OF MARKET MILK SOLD UNDER UNORGANISED SECTOR OF AGRA CITY 93
present investigation in one or more aspects.
It is inferred fromthe above results that the
freshly drawn buffalo milk (control) was found
superior to all those milk samples collected from
various sources of Agra city, with respect to its quality.
So far as the sources of milk supply are concerned,
individual producers / ghosies sold the milk of best
quality, followed by milk vendors, unorganised dairies
and halwais, based on its sensory and chemical
evaluation. So, the findings of the present investigation
strongly suggest to purchase the market milk from
the individual producers / ghosies in Agra city rather
than other sources under the study.
References
Javaid, S.B.; Gandhi, J.A.; Khaskeli, M.; Bhutto, M.B.;
Kumbher, S. and Panhwar, A.H.(2009). Physico and
chemical quality of market milk sold at Tandojam,
Pakistan. Pakiatan Vet. J . 29(1):27-31.
Kumar, Sunil; Rai, D.C.; Niranjan, K. and Bhat, Z.F.(2014).
Paneer- An Indian soft cheese variant: a review: J.Food
Sci. Technol. 51(5): 821-833.
Menkudale, G.V., Wadekar, S.B. and Landge, S.N. (2011).
Physico-chemical quality of raw milk marketed in Latur
Town. Mahmul Hi Tech. Research analysis. 1(1):
37- 41.
Saharia and S. Saikia (2006). Composition of milk.
Indian J. of Dairy Sci. 49(4): 225.
Sharma, A.K. (2012). Quality of milk marketed in Agra
city. M.Sc(Ag) Thesis submitted to Dr. B.R.A.
University, Agra.
Venkatasubramanian, V.; Singh, A.K. and Rao,
S.V.H.(2003). Dairy development in India (An
appraisal of challenges and achievements). Concept
Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Introduction
Kashmir has been the home of large varieties of
fruits and temperate fruits production and has a major
share in the economy of the state of J ammu and
Kashmir. The fruit in J ammu and Kashmir has shown
an upward trend from16000MT (2000) to 1372973
MT (2010), yet the inherent potential of Horticulture
in the State has not been full realized. Thus it is essential
to examine the cost and returns in case of apple
production.
Methodology
Apple is grown in all the 12 districts of Kashmir
province of J ammu and Kashmir state. Multistage
random sampling technique was used to select the
sample orchardists, district Budgam was selected
purposively. The apple growers were selected
randomly from7 villages of Tehsil Budgam. The
sample orchardists were classified according to the
age of orchards, in all these were six groups i.e. two
groups viz (1-4 years) and (4-8 years) in case of non
bearing orchard and four groups in hearing orchard viz
(9-10), (15-25), (25-30) years and (above 45 years) at
least 15 orchardists fromeach category were selected
randomly. The farmers were personally cented and
necessary data were collected while the secondary
data were collected from appropriate source like
revenue department etc.
Establishment costs were found to be Rs.63140/
- hec. Of which fencing alone accounted for 69.68
percent (Rs.44000/ hec) of total establishment cost,
plant material, manures, fertilizers, training and pruning
constituted 20.90, 2.97, 0.66 percent of the total
Economics of production of Apple in District Budgam in Jammu & Kashmir
SYED ZAHOOR AHMAD
Deptt. Of Agriculture, ShriNagar, Kashmir
Abstract
The study shows that the cultivation of Apple in Kashmir is remunerative. The in-
vestment on apple orchards is profitable and financially viable, it also provides employment to
people in the area. Net returns from apple can further be increased if the problems are taken
care of proper education and training need to be given to the apple growers with regard to the
optimum and desired way of allocating the resources in order to have more profit. The suitability
among different input factor has to be seen from the technology and profitability point of view.
The orchard of age group of 25-30 years provided. The highest return from bearing orchard.
Key words: orchards, profit, bearing, Net returns
establishment cost respectively.
Maintenance cost of non-bearing orchards
This includes expenditure on labour, manures,
fertilizers, interest on working and fixed capital and
accumulated establishment cost, land revenue, taxes
etc. The results showed that the maintenance cost
was low as Rs.13169.92/hec in first year and maximum
Rs.40429.6/hec in seventh year, it showed a positive
relationship with the age of orchards. The profit of
intercrop has been deducted fromthe maintenance cost
of non-bearing orchards. The major item of
maintenance cost of non-bearing orchard was interest
of accumulated establishment cost (about 46% of total
cost).
Table 1: Establishment cost of apple plantation
(in Rs./ha)
_________________________________________
Gross component Cost
________________________________________
Layout 400(0.63)
Plant material 13200(20.90)
Pit digging 1000(1.58)
Manures 1880(2.97)
Fertilizers 1040(1.64)
Training and pruning 420(0.66)
Fencing 44000(69.68)
Micellaneous expenditure such
as irrigation etc. 800(1.26)
Total 63140(100)
_________________________________________
Figures in Parentheses indicate percentage
Maintenance cost of bearing orchards
It includes the cost of labour, fertilizers interest
of working and fixed capital, land revenue and taxes
Table 2:Maintenance cost of non-bearing orchards (Rs./ha)
__________________________________________________________________________________
Particulars Age of orchards (Yrs.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
__________________________________________________________________________________
A. Variable cost
Labour 2274 2510 3172 3988 4968 6210 7480 8000
Manures 1408 1460 1500 1600 1060 - - -
Fertilizers 784 840 1000 1360 2000 3180 3300 3500
Peesticides- - - 600 1200 2000 3000 3800 2000
Interest on working
capital @12% 535.92 577.20 752.64 978.12 1203.60 1486.80 1749.60 2000
Total 5001.92 5387.20 7024.64 9126.12 11231.60 13876.80 16329.6 15500
B. Fixed cost
Land revenue
and taxes 320 320 320 320 320 320 320 320
Depriciation 240 253 260 268 295 330 369 400
Interest on working
capital @12% 67.20 68.76 69.84 70.56 73.80 78.00 82.66 85.50
Total 627.20 641.76 649.84 658.56 688.80 728.00 771.68 805.50
C. Interect on accumulated
establishment cost 7540.80 921.20 10939.20 13168.28 15922.64 19264.00 23328.32 25426.00
Total cost 13169.92 15150.16 1861.68 22820.96 27842.40 24478.80 40429.60 28031.50
Deducted return of
intercrop (pea) 13350.00 15700.00 25080.00 13310.00 11360.00 12000.00 18100.00 14460.00
Net return 180.08 549.84 6466.32 -9642.6 -164841 -124788 -232908 13371.56
__________________________________________________________________________________
Table 3: Maintenance cost of bearing orchards (Rs./ha)
____________________________________________________________________________________
Particulars Age of Orchards
A B C D
__________________________________________________________________________________
A. variable cost
Labour 10816.28 16008.80 21290.28 28637.60
Fertilizers 6302.52 8754.64 8637.12 13635.08
Peesticides 9268.08 18194.76 27387.96 9723.92
Total variable cost 55940.16 18077.12 64193.16 81032.62
B. Fixed cost
Land revenue and taxes 320 320 320 320
Depriciation on implements 2816.32 2430.08 932.40 8620.92
Interest on working capital @12% 423.92 423.68 563.96 1166.76
Total fixed cost 423.92 423.68 563.96 1166.76
Total fixed cost 3956.44 3954.44 2883.60 10889.72
Total cost 59896.60 52031.56 67076.76 91922.32
__________________________________________________________________________________
Orchard of different age groups viz. A =9-18, B =18-25, C=25-30, D=>45 years
Table 4: Return fromnon bearing orchards (Rs./ha)
_________________________________________
Years Gross Amount Cost Net return
________________________________________
1 13335 13169.92 180.08
2 15700 15150.16 549.84
3 25080 18613.68 6466.32
4 13310 22952.96 -9642.96
5 11360 22842.40 -16482.40
6 12000 24478.80 -12478.80
7 18100 40429.60 -22329.60
8 14460 28031.50 -13571.50
_________________________________________
and depreciation on buildings, machinery and
implements. The maintenance cost of bearing orchards
was found in the range of Rs.598966/hec in category
A (lowest age group) and highest D (oldest age group),
Rs.91922.32/ha, in other words, the maintenance cost
increased considerably when the age of the orchard
increased from9 years to 45 years.
Returns from non-bearing orchards
Since bearing is not allowed for first eight years
of apple plantation to prolong its bearing life,
intercropping was the only source of returns fromnon-
bearing orchards. The orchardists were found to
follow intercropping of pea during the entire non-
bearing period. A maximumgross returns of Rs.25080
ECONOMICS OF PRODUCTION OF APPLE IN DISTRICT BUDGAM IN JAMMU & KASHMIR 95
Table 5: Return from bearing orchards (Rs./ha)
_________________________________________
Years Gross Amount Cost Net return
________________________________________
A 64820.84 59896.60 4924.24
B 293766.68 52031.56 241735.08
C 370833.32 67076.76 303756.56
D 358379.16 91922.32 266456.84
_________________________________________
Orchard of different age groups
A =9-18, B =18-25, C=25-30, D=>45 years
hec. was recorded for orchards of 3 years of age and
lowest in 5
th
years which was Rs.11360/hec from
intercropping.
Returns from bearing orchards
The returns from bearing orchards were
calculated on per-hectare basis, so as to leave a clear
picture about the trend in returns, the results revealed
that the orchards of category C (25-30 years old)
exhibited highest gross returns (Rs.370833.32)
followed by category D (Rs.358379.16/hec). Category
A orchards yielded the lowest gross returns
(Rs.64820.84/hac). There existed an increasing trend
in net returns fromorchards varying fromRs.4924.24
in category A, Rs.241735.08 in case of B category,
303756.56 in case of C category and in case of D
category the net returns etc. decreased on account of
increase in cost.
Reference
Murthy, J.S. (2002). Post harvest handling of pevishable
Fruits in Himachal Pradesh. Agricultural Economic
Research Association Volume-2, pp.188-200.
Navadkar, D.S. Etal (2004). Production Processima Trend
of Fruits and Vegetable in H.P. Indian Journal of Agril.
Marketing (Conf. SPL) 18 (3) pp. 262-68.
Sirar P R.K. and R.K., Sikka (1987). Production and
Marketing of apples. Mittal Publication Delhi-72.
/
Received October 2013; Acceptance April 2014
Adoption of sugarcane production technology in Eastern U.P.
RAM RAJYA, J.P. SINGH AND B. MISHRA
1
Deptt. Of Ag. Extension, R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra
Abstract
The adoption of sugarcane crop at large has tremendous change among the farmers of
different group tn the country and more specific in the area of Eastern U.P. The adoption rate
has increasing trend however, there are certain groups of clients, who still needs appropriate
technological guidance and support by the extension functionaries meant for help of the farm-
ing group. The intention of carrying out this study was to know the level/extent of adoption of
sugarcane crop technology adopted by the farmers of Eastern U.P. The study was carried out
applying multistage sampling process. Two agro-ecological zones, six regions covered by K.V.K.
were selected purposively. Out of these K.V.Ks districts, only two K.V.K. were selected randomly.
In all 10 villages were selected and finally 200 respondents were selected through proportionate
random sampling. The out comes of the study indicate that majority of the respondents belong to
middle age group, lived in single family type, having middle education status belonged to the
backward caste, have middle social participation, having the medium socio-economic status
earned annual income in the range of Rs. 80001 to 160000 and above, have middle farm size,
had Pucca home and having medium scientific orientation, economic motivation and risk
orientation. Further, it is interesting to note that out of 13 practices selected under sugarcane
crop cultivation six components were found having high adoption so far its ranking order is
concerned. To mention, hoeing, irrigation, seed requirement, method of sowing, fertilizer and
manure management and insect and disease control.
Key words: Scientific orientation, sowing, respondents, socio-economic
1
Ex-Prof. And Head, Deptt. Of Ag. Extension, N.D. Univ.
Of Ag. & Tech. Kumarganj Faizabad
Introduction
Teaching, Research and Extension can play a
crucial role in increasing production and rural
development. Scientist, Teachers and Extensionists
have made sustained research and extension efforts
which resulted in development of modern high yielding
production technologies. The technologies have
revolutionized the farm production in India. An
important pre-condition to a sound economy is balanced
growth of research and extension systems. In fact,
the two systems are complementary and
supplementary to each other and must to go with co-
operative efforts. But this was not fully realized and
adopted. As a result of this, an imbalance in the
technology development and its application created a
wide gap between research, technology transfer and
technology adopted or achieved by farmers. In other
words, a big gap exists between the available
technologies and their rapid transfer to the farmer.
An impotent goal of extension education is the
transfer of technology which basically depends upon
three systems i.e. the knowledge generating system,
the knowledge disseminating systemand knowledge
consuming system. The knowledge generating system
is regarded as research institutions, the members of
the knowledge generating systemconsist of extension
personnels and other transfer of technology agencies.
Besides, the knowledge disseminating system also
includes the input supply agencies such as Banks, seed
and fertilizers agencies and other input agencies related
to agriculture and rural development. The main function
of knowledge disseminating systemis to transfer of
technology of sharing of ideas to knowledge consuming
systemand collect feed back or response and pass it
on to knowledge generating system. The knowledge
consuming system consists of farmers, users of
innovations and technology. Effective behavioural
change and technology transfer could be possible when
all three systems i.e. knowledge generating system,
knowledge disseminating system and knowledge
consuming systemwork in close co-operation and
better linkages with other input agencies. It was
attempted to find out the knowledge level of sugarcane
growers about sugarcane production technology as
received fromknowledge consuming system.
Research methodology
Multistage sampling process was followed to
select the sample in the study undertaken. At first
stage, two agro-ecological zones out of the three zones
in eastern U.P. (viz. North East Plain Zone, Eastern
Plain Zone and Vindhyan Zone) have been selected
purposively. At second stage, the list of regions of two
sample zones have been prepared. Since all the six
regions are covered by Krishi Vighyan Kendras
(KVKs) hence all six regions of two sample zones
viz. 1. Devi Patan, 2. Gorakhpur, 3. Basti, 4. Faizabad,
5. Azamgarh, 6. Varanasi have been selected
purposively. At third stage of sampling, those districts
having Krishi Vighyan Kendras have also been selected
purposively out of 22 districts in total falling under the
six sample regions. At forth stage two Vighyan Kendras
out of total number of KVKs located in sugarcane
growing area was selected randomly. At the fifth stage,
the list of villages covered fromeach sample KVK
have been selected randomly whose total number was
10 at the last sixth stage of sampling the list of the
farmers of all 10 sample villages with respect to their
holding size have been prepared and thus 200
respondents have been finally selected from its
respective list on the basis of proportionate random
sampling. The data was collected through personal
interview by the researcher himself with help of pre-
structured interview schedule designed for the purpose
of study.
Table 1 indicates the socio-economic level of
sugarcane growers were mostly found of middle levels
with respect to age (69.50%), family systemsingle
(74.50%), family size (68.0%), family educational
status (60.5%), social participation (64.0%), socio-
economic status (68.0%), farmsize status of land
ownership (74.0%), scientific orientation (70.0%),
economic motivation (72.5%) and risk orientation
(67.5%).
Extent of adoption of sugarcane practices by the
respondents
The result pertaining to the extent of adoption of
sugarcane practices in terms of mean and ranking order
is presented in Table 2.
Table 2 shows the ranking position of adoption
extent of sugarcane growers regarding sugarcane
cultivation practices. It is evident fromthe table that
hoeing was reported at I rank with its mean scores
value i.e. 61.50 followed by in descending order,
irrigation II (59.55), seed requirement III (56.50),
method of sowing IV (55.33) fertilizer and manure
management V (55.02), insects and pests VI (59.96),
seed treatment VII (52.91), tieing of the crop VIII
(52.77), sowing time IX (51.88),high yielding varieties
X (50.22), better temperature for good germination
Table 1: Socio-economic profile of sugarcane growers
_________________________________________
Socio-economic No. of Percentage of
profile categories respondents respondents
_________________________________________
1. Age
Up to 39 (Young) 29 14.5
40-63 (Middle) 139 69.5
64 and above (Old) 32 16.0
Family Type
Single 149 74.5
Joint 51 25.5
Family size
Upto 4 members (Small) 36
18.0
5-11 (Middle) 136 68.0
6 and above (Large) 28 14.0
Family educational status
Upto 2 (Low) 31 15.5
3-5 (Middle) 121 60.5
6 and above (High)
Caste composition
General caste 43 21.5
Scheduled caste 59 29.5
Other backward caste 98 49.0
Social participation
Up to 3.00 (Low)
4.00-6.00 (Middle) 128 64.0
& and above (High) 29 14.5
Socio economic status
Up to 75 (Low) 30 15.0
76-109 (Middle) 136 68.0
110 and above (High) 34 17.0
Annual income (Rs.)
Up to 40000 42 21.0
40001-80000 59 29.5
80001-120000 10 5.0
120001-160000 18 9.0
160001 and above 71 35.5
Farming experience
Up to 25 years(Low) 30 15.0
21-30 (Medium) 48 24.0
31 and above 122 61.0
Family size status of land ownership
Up to 0.5 acre (Low) 18 9.0
0.51-6.44 (Middle) 148 74.0
6.45 and above (High) 34 17.0
Housing pattern
Hut 00 0.0
Kachcha 12 6.0
Mixed 82 41.0
Pukka 106 53.0
Scientific Orientation
Up to 14 (Low) 35 17.5
15-21 (Medium) 145 72.5
Risk orientation
Up to 14 (Low) 50 25.0
15-22 (Medium) 135 67.5
_________________________________________
Table 2: Showing ranking order of sugarcane cultivation
practices with respect to their adoption extent
_________________________________________
sugarcane cultivation Mean Ranking
practices order
________________________________________
1. High yielding varieties(HYVs) 50.22 X
2. Field preparation 40.31 XV
3. Better temp. for good germination49.19 XI
4. Seed requirement 56.50 III
5. Seed treatment 52.91 VII
6. Fertilizer & manure management 55.02 V
7. Sowing timing 51.88 IX
8. Method of sowing 55.33 I V
9. Irrigation 59.55 II
10. Hoeing 61.50 I
11. Earthing 43.20 XIV
12. Tiening of the crop 52.77 VIII
13. Weed control 48.63 XII
14. Insect and diseases 53.96 VI
15. Harvesting 47.75 XIII
_________________________________________
XI (49.19), weed control XII (48.63), harvesting XIII
(47.75), earthing XIV (43.20), and field preparation
XV (40.31),respectively.
References
ADOPTION OF SUGARCANE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN EASTERN U.P. 99
Banerjee, P.K. and Biswas, S. (2010). Techno-socio
psycho-economic constraints of sugarcane growers
in adopting recommended practices for sugarcane
cultivation. J. Of Inter Academician, Nadia (W.B.)
Chandraker, S.K., Desh, A.C. and Swarnkar, V.K. (2007).
Extent of adoption of sugarcane growers about the
improved sugarcane production technology in
Amarpatan block of Satna district (M.P.). J. Of Soils
and Crops, 17:2, 429-430.
Lahoti, S.R.; Chole, R.R. and Rathi, N.R. (2010).
Constraints in adoption of sugarcane production
technology, Agril. Science Digest, 30:4, 270-272.
Poswal, C.S.; Mathur, G.P. and Tyagi, B.D. (2006).
Adaptability sugarcane production technology,
cooperative sugar, National Federations of
Cooperative Sugar Factories Ltd., New Delhi, India.

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=1792.6/ 973.24=1.84 Kg/hr

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