TheHumanBody:

Introductionto
Anatomyand
Body
Organisation































INTRODUCTION
Let us all sit up straight, take a deep breath, and feel the air enter our lungs.
Imagine the passage of air from your nose into your lungs and back out again.
Still sitting up straight, put the palms of your hands on your knees and move
your fingers in a gentle motion. How many pieces of your body can you feel?
Your knee cap? The muscles of your thighs? Your elbow joints and your shoulder
muscles as you moved your hands to your knees? And in your fingers? Imagine
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5 List the main organ systems of the body.
4 Discuss relationships between different levels of organisation in your
body and how these levels interact to result in specific activities; and
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1 Compare different levels of organisation in your body;
2 Name the component parts of your body;
3 Identify the parts of your body responsible for different actions in
your daily life;
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the number of moving parts as those little pieces of nail, flesh and bone gently
tap on your knees?

We are an incredibly complex union of parts. Our function and survival is
dependent on all these parts working together towards a common goal. For this
to be successful, all the parts that form our bodies have to be of specific shape
and size, have to work in a predictable manner and have to communicate. To
allow this to happen, our bodies are built on an organisational basis, with an
increasing hierarchy of size and complexity from the level of the cell to the entire
body. The study of the function of our bodies (how they work) is called
physiology, while the study of the form of our bodies (how they look, what they
are made of) is termed anatomy.



As a biologist, I am surrounded by my subject. I eat, drink and sleep engulfed
in biology. Literally. And of course, so do you. Think about it. Imagine the
opportunities you have to learn biology, and try to put some of them in
practise. For example: Did you know that our heads are made up of several
bones? More advanced animals like mammals have fewer bones in our skulls,
while more primitive animals like fish have many more. Next time you eat
kari kepala ikan (fish head curry), arrange all the bones (after licking them, of
course) in two groups, one for the left side of the head, and one for the right.
Did you know you have the same bones in your head, also divided into left
and right, except yours are fused to form a different shaped head with
modifications for the larger brain and the different mechanism of breathing.

Staying on the theme of food, next time you are having a meal, think about
not only the beauty and complexity of the organism you are eating, but also
the process that allows you to enjoy your meal. Think about why and how
you feel hungry (function or physiology). And think about how the different
parts of your body work together to allow you to eat. You use your hands to
bring food to your mouth. How many moving parts, muscles and bones, can
you feel in your hands? You put food in your mouth, and begin to chew it. So
many organs are involved in this process. Your lips, tongue, teeth. Then you
swallow, and the story continues. Try and list all the organs you can feel
working during your meal, and keep the list to tick of each organ as we
proceed through this module.
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INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY 1.1
Anatomy is the study of the bodys form and structure. It involves the learning of
the names of the various parts of our body and the location of the various organs
and systems in our body. Anatomy also examines the relationship between the
structure of our body and the functions of our body. Together with physiology,
anatomy aims to explain the way our body works and the two disciplines form
the basis of biology.

Anatomy can be approached from a number of perspectives. Generally, anatomy
is divided into the following categories:
(a) Gross anatomy
Gross anatomy also called macroscopic anatomy is the study of large body
features that are visble to the naked eye. Gross anatomy can be divided
into:
(i) Regional anatomy, which is the study of all the structures in a
particular region of the body;
(ii) Systemic anatomy, which is the study of the body system by system;
and
(iii) Surface anatomy, which is the study of the external form of the body
and its relationship to deeper structures.

(b) Microscopic anatomy
This is the study of body structures too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Microscopic anatomy is generally divided into two groups:
(i) Cytology, which is the study of cells; and
(ii) Histology, which is the study of body tissue.

Anatomy can be studied using several techniques. Because it is the study of the
structure of our body, all studies of anatomy must involve the visualisation of the
form of the various parts of the body. The most common approach to studying
anatomy is using diagrams or photographs of the body. This is the approach
taken in this course.

Where a more proactical knowledge of anatomy is required, dissections are often
used to study body parts. Because we cannot legally dissect living humans for
study, practical studies of anatomy depend on studies of animals related to
humans (such as other mammals) that share similar structures with us, or on the
dissection of human cadavers. Modern technology has allowed for alternatives to
dissections. There are currently several techniques for imaging that can give
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quite accurate pictures of the insides of our bodies. The most common of these
are:
X-rays
Ultrasound
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Computed tomographic (CT) scanning
Computed axial tomographic (CAT) scanning


ACTIVITY 1.1
Based on the several techniques for imaging, discuss with your
classmates the differences between them and identify which
technique can provide the most accurate pictures.
ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY 1.2
We call this the Age of Information. It might be better to call it the Age of
Electronic Information. The age of information begun more than 4 billion years
ago with the appearance of the first living thing. Biologists and philosophers
have been grappling with a definition of life for millennia. Is it growth,
reproduction, nourishment, or sensation? Or is it a combination of these?

Recently, physicists and mathematicians have stumbled upon a definition that is
beautiful in its simplicity. They consider life, to put it simply, to be an ordered
mechanism of information storage and transfer. Life is seen as a system that
gathers, stores and transfers information creating order in an otherwise
disorderly and chaotic universe. This definition encompasses two vital
characteristics of life, namely order and organisation, that make life stand out
from other systems in the universe. Life is infinitely more ordered and organised
than any other physical system, and more ordered than any technological
systems we have built; more ordered than a car engine, than a computer, or even
a multi-million dollar satellite that orbits the earth or explores the far reaches of
the universe.

We shall return to this characteristic of order and organisation soon. For now it
would be appropriate to consider the basic characteristics of life as defined by
biologists.
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1.2.1 Characteristics of Life
Biologists consider life to have a number of characteristics. These can generally
be summarised in Figure 1.1 below:

Figure 1.1: Characteristics of Living Things

These characteristics of life determine the development of the various structures
of our bodies. Specialised cells for example, develop to perform specialised
functions such as reproduction, while organ systems develop to perform
functions like movement. The organism as a whole is a collection of parts that
allows all the above characteristics of life to be displayed.


ACTIVITY 1.2
Working in pairs, identify the characteristics that distinguish living
things from non-living things.
1.2.2 Body Organisation
Organisation is one of the most important characteristics of life. By approaching
life from an organisational point of view, we are better able to study it and to
understand the basic functions of our bodies. Anatomy involves high levels of
organisation and it is on the organisation of the human body that your study of
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anatomy will begin. In anatomy, organisation is accepted as beginning from the
cellular level and extending to the organism level (in contrast, in biochemistry
organisation begins at the molecular level, while in ecology organisation ends at
the biospheric level). The main levels of organisation of relevance to the study of
anatomy can be summarised as follows (see Figure 1.2):


Figure 1.2: The levels of organisation of the human body, from constituent atoms to the
whole organism
Source: Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 6)

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Molecular or chemical level: Many molecules play a vital role in life processes
and their structure is important in determining their functional
characteristics. These range from the organic molecules that make up life (like
structural phospholipids) to inorganic molecules needed for various life
processes (like the oxygen molecules carried by our blood).
Cellular level: Cells are the basic units of life. Molecules combine to form
organelles, which in turn form the functional units of cells. Cells will be
addressed in more detail in topic 3 of this course.
Tissue level: Tissue is formed from an aggregation of cells. Most of the
specialised functions of the body are carried out by tissue. Tissue is
addressed in more detail in topic 4 of this module.
Organ level: Organs are made up of tissue. An organ is composed of two or
more tissue types that perform common functions. Examples include the
skin, the heart and the urinary bladder.
Organ System Level: An organ system is a grouping of organs performing a
set of related functions as a unit. Several organs make up an organ system.
This course is based on the study of selected organ systems. Examples
include the skeletal system and the nervous system.
Organism Level: An organism is a whole collection of functional parts
displaying the characteristics of life. Some organisms are simple unicellular
creatures with no organ systems but they still display all the characteristics of
life. For the study of human anatomy, though, we consider the human
organism which is a large multi-cellular mammal made up of several organ
systems.

This organisational hierarchy allows for the development of high levels of
complexity as different levels of organisation cooperate to produce a single
individual. This course will introduce the basic features of cells and tissue, and
shift into discussion of the organ systems most important in sports. Organs
themselves will not be treated separately. The study of anatomy is rarely
approached from the perspective of individual organs. Rather, organs are
studied in detail as parts of functional organ systems. Nevertheless, there are a
number of so-called vital organs in the human body. These are illustrated in
Figure 1.3 and include such well known organs as the heart, the lungs, the
kidneys, the liver, the brain and the stomach among others. On their own,
outside their organ systems, these organs cannot perform their function and
would be useless in our body. Consider for example how you would function if
you had a well developed brain but lacked the other components of the nervous
system such as the nerves that connect your brain to the rest of the body. Your
brain would be as useless as a lump of flesh.

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Figure 1.3: The main organs of the human body
Source: Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 7)
THE ORGAN SYSTEMS 1.3
This course will approach human anatomy from an organ system perspective.
There are 11 major organ systems in the human body. These are:
(a) Integumentary system
These organ systems are illustrated in Figure 1.4, with a brief description of
the functions of each system.
(b) Skeletal system
(c) Muscular system
(d) Nervous system
(e) Endocrine system
(f) Cardiovascular system
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(g) Lymphatic system
(h) Respiratory system
(i) Digestive system
(j) Urinary system
(k) Reproductive system

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Figure 1.4: The human organs system
Source: Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 8&9)

The organ systems can be grouped into four categories according to the functions
they perform. These categories are:
(a) Support and movement systems that include the integumentary system, the
skeletal system and the muscular system;
(b) Integration and control systems that include the nervous system, the sense
organs and the endocrine system;
(c) Regulation and maintenance systems that include the cardiovascular
system, the lymphatic system, the respiratory system, the digestive system
and the urinary system; and
(d) The reproductive systems that are differentiated into the female
reproductive system and the male reproductive system.

These systems function in a complex and coordinated way to keep us alive.
Though each system has its own functions and its own set of organs, the
functions (and sometimes the organs) overlap between systems, and each system
is dependent on other systems for its function. The end result is a smooth
running multi-system organism of high organisation and complexity.

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This inter-relationship between systems is illustrated in Figure 1.5. The digestive
system absorbs nutrients that are then collected by the cardiovascular system.
These nutrients are transported all over the body. One of the beneficiaries of the
nutrients is the muscular system that allows the body to move in search of more
food for the digestive system to consume. Similarly, the nutrients from the
digestive system are used in the production of red blood cells for the
cardiovascular system as well as in the growth of nerve cells for the nervous
system and the production of hormones for the endocrine system. The nervous
system and cardiovascular system in turn stimulate and control the function of
the digestive system as it acquires nourishment for the body. The other systems
are not being left out either. The muscular system is supported by the skeletal
system. The urinary system maintains water balance in the body to allow all the
above systems to function. The sense organs help to locate food, while the
respiratory system helps in the provision of energy for the function of the
muscular system. The lymphatic system, together with the cardiovascular system
and the urinary system, help in maintaining water balance among other
functions. And finally, the reproductive systems allow us as organisms to
continue to exist but producing offspring who form the next generation of
people.

Because this course is concerned with sports sciences and aims to offer an
introduction of human anatomy to students of sports science, it will not cover all
the organ systems described above. You will only learn about the five most
important systems form a sports perspective. These are the integumentary
system, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system and the
cardiovascular system. If you are interested in the other systems, feel free to read
about them in your book or use abundant freely available on-line material.

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Figure 1.5: A diagrammatic representation of the
inter-relationship between organ systems.
Source: Marieb, (2004, pg. 5)
STUDYING HUMAN ANATOMY 1.4
Anatomy is a descriptive science. It is all about names and locations and is such
full of details that have to be remembered. The most difficult part of studying
anatomy is remembering the names of the multitude of structures that you learn
about. These ranges from the sub-cellular level (like the troponin, tropomyosine,
myosine, and actin molecules involved in muscle function) to the organ system
level.

Do not make an attempt to remember the names of everything at once. Rather,
attempt to approach the course in a systematic manner. Take an organ system by
organ system approach, and break down each topic into manageable units of
study. Try to remember as many details as possible from each study unit. Also
try to remember the relationship between the different structures you are
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studying and associate this with their function. This will often help you to
remember the names of structures.

Some topics may appear to be more intimidating than others. This need not be
so. For example, we have over 400 muscles in our bodies and you would never
be expected to remember them all. Follow the same advice given above for all the
topics, even if you find them intimidating. Study the topic section by section,
making an attempt to understand and remember all the information given in the
topic. If a section proves too difficult, do not spend too much time on it. Often,
when the whole topic is completed, you would be able to return to a section of a
topic and find that you are better able to understand it.

Because anatomy is a very visual subject, it is important to use visual aids, such
as diagrams, in your study of the body. Your textbook offers a good
accompaniment to this module by providing colour picture of many of the
systems studied here. Also make good use of the interactive CDs available at
your study centre. Talk to your tutors if you do not have access to the anatomy
CD and make sure they arrange for you to view it.

Today, one of the best sources of information and diagrams is the internet. Make
a point to visit anatomy related websites. Not only are they quite interesting, but
some of them can also be a lot of fun. Below is a list of some recommended
websites and a brief description of their contents. Visit at least some of them
during the course of this course.

Anatomy is the study of the bodys form and structure.
Anatomy is divided into gross anatomy, also called macroscopic anatomy,
and microscopic anatomy.
Biologists consider life to have a number of characteristics including
reproduction, growth, responsiveness, mobility, metabolism, organisation,
and evolution.
The main levels of organisation of relevance to the study of anatomy are the
molecular level, the cellular level, the tissue level, the organ level, the organ
system level, and the organism level.
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Organ systems can be grouped into four categories according to the functions
they perform, namely:
Support and movement systems include the integumentary system, the
skeletal system and the muscular system;
Integration and control systems include the nervous system, the sense
organs and the endocrine system;
Regulation and maintenance systems include the cardiovascular system,
the lymphatic system, the respiratory system, the digestive system and
the urinary system; and
Reproductive systems differentiated into the female reproductive
system and the male reproductive system.