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WORLD PUMPS January 2013
A
s the name suggests, stress
relieving is employed to relieve
internal residual stresses that
remain locked in a structure as a conse-
quence of a manufacturing sequence.
Causes of residual stresses are thermal
factors (e.g. thermal stresses caused by
temperature gradients during heating or
cooling), mechanical factors (e.g.
machining) and metallurgical factors (e.g.
transformation of microstructure). Under
certain service conditions, internal
stresses have adverse eects. For
example, steels with residual stresses
under a corrosive service environment
may fail by stress corrosion cracking
(SCC). Failure by SCC occurs, in general,
under the combined action of corrosion
and externally applied stresses in suscep-
tible materials.
Conventional austenitic stainless steels
alloys containing chromium and nickel that
are commonly used in castings and fabri-
cated welds in pumps are especially
susceptible to corrosion cracking. These
alloys are not hardened by heat treatment
(as no phase changes occur on heating or
cooling), but may be hardened by cold
working. Heat treating is performed by full
solution annealing, which includes heating
in the 1,0401,120C (1,9002,050F) range
depending upon the alloy, followed by
rapid cooling. This restores the material to
its optimal condition, removing the eects
of alloy segregation, sensitization and
sigma phase; and restoring ductility after
cold working. Unfortunately, the rapid
Cold working
When, for example, a metal ingot is rolled,
centre sections receive greater reduction
compared to the surface, due to greater
elongation. As the elongated central
section pulls from within the surface layers,
internal tensile stresses in the surface layers
and internal compressive stresses in the
central portion are developed.
Machining
Heavy machining creates stress within
cold worked surfaces, which may induce
internal stresses. These may cause
cracking during subsequent heat treat-
ment or further processing. Machining
processes such as turning, grinding,
drilling, milling and broaching involve
removal of metal by force, which intro-
duces stress.
Heat treatment process
Fast heating during heat treatment results
in thermal temperature gradients that
cause dierential expansion across the
part cross-section. This often results in
tensile stress in surface layers and interior
compressive stress. Fast cooling results in
the opposite stresses compared to fast
cooling will generally reintroduce residual
stresses, which can be su cient to provide
the necessary stress condition to promote
SCC near welds and other regions of a
component that have been cold-strained
during processing. Furthermore, cold strain
can produce a reduction in creep strength
at elevated temperatures and reduce
fatigue strength. Distortion can also occur
if the object is not properly supported
during the solution annealing process.
Stress-relief heat treatments may be used
to reduce distortion and other stress
eects that can have detrimental eects
on service performance.
Purpose of stress relief
Cold working, machining, heat treatment,
casting, welding, shot peening, surface
hammering, electroplated coatings,
thermal cutting and other processes can
all induce residual stress in metal. The
nature of the residual stress, its distribu-
tion and eects within a metal is complex
and not a completely understood
phenomenon, but one can be sure of its
presence in complex or fabricated parts.
Residual internal stresses can cause cracking of metal casings or
components in corrosive environments, leading to pump failure.
Here, Vikas Panchal and Stephen Morrow discuss two primary
treatments to reduce such stresses in stainless steels: low-
temperature stress relief with slow cooling, and solution annealing.
Relieving stress
in stainless steels
Materials
0262 1762/13 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
Stress-relief heat treatments may be used
to reduce distortion and other stress eects
that can have detrimental eects on
service performance.
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WORLD PUMPS January 2013
Cast Stainless Steel (CF8M)
Impeller Failure
Photomicrograph 500X
Ferrite
Islands
Austenite
Matrix
Non-metallic
Inclusion
Chloride Ion Stress
Corrosion Cracking
heating. Quenching stresses may be su -
ciently high to cause the development of
quench cracks. Heat treatment can also
produce dimensional changes and the
distortion of components.
Castings
During solidication, stresses are invariably
present in castings due to non-uniform
surface cooling compared to the centre.
Welding
In welding, a very high heat source is
applied to a small area relative to the
cooler surrounding area. As the molten
weld pool solidies within the joint, it
creates resistance to shrinkage by the
already solidied weld metal and
unmelted base metal adjacent to the
weld. This resistance creates a tensile
strain in the weld. Because of the rapid
thermal expansion and contraction
created within a very localized area,
residual tensile stress is introduced.
Distortion, buckling and cracking often
result, and shortened fatigue life is
possible. The introduction of residual
stresses by welding is due to dierential
expansion and contraction of the heat
aected zone (HAZ), and the weld metal
itself. Heat input, base metal thickness,
cooling rate, restraint of the weldment
and the welding process used all aect
the level of residual stress induced by
welding.
Stress relieving plays an important role in
avoiding and/or minimizing all the above-
mentioned problems.
Austenitic stainless steels are commonly
used as castings and in fabricated weld-
ments but are susceptible to SCC. SCC is
a localized attack that results from the
combined action of tensile stresses and
corrosive liquid in a susceptible material.
The stability of residual stresses depends
on the amount of cold working employed
during processing. The cold working can
lead to unexpected, sudden failure of
normally ductile metals when subjected
to tensile stress, especially at elevated
temperatures.
SCC damage in an austenitic stainless
steel are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.
Figures 3 and 4 show the eects of SCC
damage related to stress on an impeller
and pump casing.
Role of stress relieving
Stress relieving plays a major role in
removing or reducing the eects of stress.
Stress relieving reduces residual stresses,
helps avoid SCC, improves notch tough-
ness, improves the dimensional stability
Figure 1. Scanning electron micrograph of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in austenitic
stainless steel; magnication 100 ( ITT Goulds Pumps).
Figure 2. Higher magnication (500) photograph showing the details of SCC
( ITT Goulds Pumps).
Figure 3. Pump impeller showing the eects of SCC damage ( ITT Goulds Pumps). Figure 4. The eects of SCC on a pump casing ( ITT Goulds Pumps).
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WORLD PUMPS January 2013
M
23
C
6
Chromium
depleted zone
The metallurgical characteristics of auste-
nitic stainless steel that may aect the
selection of a stress-relieving treatment
are discussed in the following sections.
Heating in the 480815C range
For austenitic stainless steel, stress
relieving at temperatures below 400C is
an acceptable practice, but it results in
only modest stress relief. Temperatures up
to 425C may be used if resistance to
inter-granular corrosion is not required.
Heating to below 480C, followed by slow
cooling, is used to remove peak stress
only and to improve dimensional stability.
Higher temperatures will reduce strength
and sensitize the metal, and are not
generally used for stress relieving.
In partially ferritic cast grades such as
duplex stainless steel, carbides will precip-
itate initially in the discontinuous ferrite
pools rather than in the continuous grain
boundary network. After prolonged
heating, which is necessary for heavy
sections, precipitation of grain boundary
carbides may occur. For cold-worked
stainless steel, carbide precipitation may
occur at temperatures as low as 425C.
For types 309 and 310, the upper limit for
carbide precipitation may be as high as
900C. In this condition, steel will be
susceptible to inter-granular corrosion.
By using stabilized or extra-low carbon
grades, this inter-granular precipitation
can be avoided.
Heating in the 540925C range
Stress relieving at 540C to 925C signi-
cantly reduces residual stresses that
otherwise might lead to SCC or dimen-
sional instability in service. By heating
the steel in this region, the formation of
a hard, brittle sigma phase may result,
which can decrease corrosion resistance
and ductility. During the necessary
stress-relieving time, the sigma phase will
not form in fully austenitic wrought, cast
or welded stainless steel. However, if the
stainless steel is partially ferritic, the
ferrite may transform to sigma phase
steel by the method of post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT) tempering.
Stress relieving of austenitic grades
Low-temperature stress relieving can
increase the proportional limit and yield
strength (particularly compressive yield
strength) of austenitic stainless steel that
has been cold worked to develop high
strength
2
.
To produce adequate stress relief, auste-
nitic stainless steel must be heated
above 900C. In some instances, heating
to the annealing temperature may be
required. Holding at a temperature lower
than about 870C results in only partial
stress relief, which may be su cient for
certain applications. Slow cooling results
in the most eective stress relieving.
Quenching or other rapid cooling, as is
normal in the annealing of austenitic
stainless steel, will usually reintroduce
residual stresses and should be avoided
if trying to eliminate stress. Stress
relieving is usually only necessary when
austenitic stainless steel parts are
subjected to corrosive conditions and
the intent is to reduce risks associated
with stress-corrosion failures.
of complex geometries, reduces distortion
during machining and reduces the eects
of cold working.
Stress relieving of stainless steel
There are two primary stress-relief treat-
ments for stainless steel
1
. The 400C, 810
hour stress-relief treatment is below the
temperaturetime spectrum at which
sensitization (see later section) is likely to
occur. This treatment is usually adequate
to maintain dimensional stability during
machining. If this stress relief does not
maintain dimensional stability within
the limits imposed, stress relief at high
temperature within the range of
sensitization may be necessary. Such treat-
ments should be designed with full
knowledge of the alloy chemistry (actual
carbon content), section thickness,
temperature and time utilized. They should
be designed specically for each alloy and
individual case situation reviewed.
Full solution treatment (annealing), gener-
ally by heating to about 1,080C followed
by rapid cooling, removes most residual
stresses. However, the rapid cooling may
reintroduce additional quenching stress.
When full annealing is not possible, such
as on large fabricated components or
intricate shapes, weldments can be
heated to an intermediate temperature to
decrease high residual stresses.
Stress relieving is usually performed
when joining dissimilar metals such as
austenitic stainless steel and low alloy
Figure 5. Chromium carbide precipitates ( ITT Goulds Pumps).
"Stress relieving is usually only necessary
when austenitic stainless steel parts are
subjected to corrosive conditions...to reduce
risks associated with stress-corrosion failures."
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WORLD PUMPS January 2013
dissolve some of the ferrite present and
further reduce the probability of sigma
phase reforming upon slow cooling.
Quench/solution annealing
In this process austenitic stainless steel is
heated to a temperature of 1,040C. After
holding at this temperature it is rapidly
cooled to below 600C, and preferably
below 480C, to prevent precipitation of
carbides at the grain boundaries (sensiti-
zation); the exception is for stabilized and
extra-low carbon grades. Because of the
rapid cooling this process is called
quench annealing. It can be achieved by
very rapid fan-accelerated gas or water
quenching. SCC of welded austenitic
stainless steels may be of concern in
certain environments.
Austenitic stainless steels that contain
surface residual tensile stress induced
during fabrication or welding strain may
crack by chloride stress corrosion in
certain chloride (e.g. saline) environ-
ments. Welded joints and fabrications
may be particularly susceptible to SCC
due to residual tensile stress in welded
regions, unless an eective post-weld
stress relief is carried out. Post-weld
stress relief can be eective to remove
the peak stress but is not fully eective
in removing all the residual stress due to
the lower temperatures used for the
required stress relief.
Recommendations
For the selection of the proper stress-
relieving treatment, factors such as the
specic material used, the fabrication
procedures involved, the design and
expected service operating condition of
the equipment, and related metallurgical
during stress relief. This is not generally a
problem in wrought stainless steels,
because they are fully austenitic. By
heating to temperatures in the
815925C range, the formation of chro-
mium carbide precipitates, or sigma
phase, will occur. These temperatures
should therefore be avoided.
Sensitization
When stress relief is carried out at 870C
for about one hour, it relieves about 85%
of residual stress, but there is a risk that
chromium will form chromium carbides
with any carbon present in the steel. This
reduces the chromium available to
provide corrosion resistance within the
passive lm, as shown in Figure 5. This
may lead to preferential corrosion along
the grain boundaries, which can be
severe. This is referred to as sensitization.
Hence, it is advisable to avoid this
temperature or, when welding stainless
steel, to use low heat input and restrict
the maximum interpass temperature to
about 175C or lower. To avoid these
eects, it is recommended that stabilized
stainless steel (grade 321 or 347) or an
extra-low-carbon type (304L or 316L) be
used, particularly when any stress
relieving is required. Sensitization in a
stainless steel pump component can be
seen in Figure 6, with the grain bounda-
ries clearly revealed.
Sigma phase
If steel is heated above 550C for any
signicant periods, the delta ferrite can
transform to a very brittle phase known
as sigma () phase (a chromium/molyb-
denum-rich intermetallic phase), and
material will crack readily as a result of
lost ductility from prolonged exposure to
temperatures of 660872C. This will
decrease corrosion resistance and ductility.
For type 316 or 316L stainless steels, the
recommended annealing procedure is to
heat treat between 1,038C and 1,120C,
followed by rapid water quench or rapid
cooling by other means within the limits
of distortion. Whenever considerations of
distortion permit, water quenching is
used, thus ensuring dissolved carbides
remain in solution. Where practical
considerations of distortion rule out such
fast cooling, cooling in an accelerated air
blast is generally used.
Alloys that are stabilized or of low carbon
content are much less likely to precipitate
detrimental carbides and detrimental
phases in su cient quantities at the grain
boundaries. Low carbon (0.03% maximum)
austenitic grades such as 316L are interme-
diate in tendency to precipitate chromium
carbides, compared to the stabilized and
higher carbon unstabilized grades. This
characteristic of limited sensitization is of
particular value in welding fabrications,
ame cutting and other hot-working oper-
ations. Such grades do not require the
water quenching treatment that unstabi-
lized grades require to retain carbon in
solid solution.
Full solution treatment (annealing), gener-
ally by heating to about 1,040C followed
by rapid cooling, removes all residual
stresses, but is not a practical treatment
for most large or complex fabrications.
Heating in the 9551,120C range
Annealing treatment in the 9551,120C
range causes all grain-boundary chromium
carbide precipitates to re-dissolve, and
transforms sigma phase back to ferrite.
Long heating times (>1 hour) may even
Figure 6. Sensitization in a stainless steel pump component; magnication 1
( ITT Goulds Pumps).
Figure 7. Microstructure illustrating sigma phase; magnication 500
( ITT Goulds Pumps).
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Contact
Vikas D. Panchal, material specialist,
and Stephen Morrow, chief metallurgist & global
mgr materials technology
ITT Industries, Goulds Pumps
240 Fall St
Seneca Falls, NY 13148, USA
Tel: +1 315 568 2811
Email: ip.communications@itt.com
www.gouldspumps.com
factors must be taken into consideration.
Stress relieving is not generally advisable
for stainless steels unless the service envi-
ronment is known or suspected to cause
stress corrosion and there is an associated
benet. The treatment selections listed
should be used with appropriate caution.
In order of decreasing preference, these
thermal treatments are:
A. Anneal at 1,0651,120C, then slow
cool.
B. Stress relieve at 900C, then slow cool.
C. Anneal at 1,0651,120C, then quench
or cool rapidly.
D. Stress relieve at 900C, then quench or
cool rapidly.
E. Stress relieve at 480650C, then slow
cool.
F. Stress relieve at <480C, then slow cool.
G. Stress relieve at 205480C, then slow
cool (usually four hours per inch of
section).
With reference to this list, Table 1 recom-
mends the best stress-relieving treatments
Table 2. Treatments for dimensional stability (adapted from Ref. 1)
Alloy
Temperature/type of
treatment
Comment
Austenitic stainless steel
400C, 810 hours (typical
treatment)
Designed to stay below sensitization temperature. Treatments B, F
and G can be used for dimensional stability.
Duplex stainless steel F, G
Duplex stainless steel is subject to 475C embrittlement. F and G
can be used for dimensional stability.
to use for three dierent categories of
austenitic stainless steels to optimize relief
for ten dierent applications or desired
characteristics.
In addition, recommended treatments for
dimensional stability are given in Table 2.
Summary
All types of metalworking introduce
residual stresses that can cause distortion
and aect pump performance. In corro-
sive environments, these stresses can
cause pump failure from cracking of
metal casings or components. Austenitic
stainless steels are especially susceptible
to corrosion cracking.
For pumps that will be used in corrosive
environments, manufacturers can employ
a variety of stress-relief methods to reduce
the residual, internal stresses locked in the
metal after manufacturing. They are
usually performed when joining dissimilar
metals such as austenitic stainless steel
and low alloy steel by way of PWHT
tempering. The two primary stress-relief
treatments for stainless steel are: low-
temperature stress relief with slow cooling;
and annealing, or full solution treatment,
which involves higher temperatures and
rapid cooling. This article has described
the impact of stress relieving in dierent
temperature ranges for dierent alloys,
and identied temperature ranges that
should be avoided, concluding with a
table of prioritized recommendations iden-
tifying the best stress-relieving methods to
use in a variety of circumstances.
References
[1] Nickel Development Institute, Materials
for saline water, desalination and oileld
brine pumps, A Nickel Development
Institute Reference Book, Series No. 11
004, 2nd edition, p 12, (1995).
[2] ASM Handbook Volume 04: Heat
Treating, pp. 774776, ASM Interna-
tional (1991) [ISBN: 978-0871703798].
Table 1. Recommended stress-relieving treatments (from Ref. 2)
Application or desired characteristics
Suggested thermal treatments
Extra-low carbon
grades such as 304 L
and 316 L
Stabilized grades,
such as 318, 321 and
347
Unstabilized grades,
such as 304 and 316
Severe stress corrosion A, B B, A (a)
Moderate stress corrosion A, B, C B, A, C C (a)
Mild stress relief A, B, C, E, F B, A, C, E, F C, F
Remove peak stress only F F F
No stress corrosion None required None required None required
Inter-granular corrosion A, C (b) A, C, B (b) C
Stress relief after severe forming A, C A, C C
Relief between forming operations A, B, C B, A, C C (c)
Structural soundness (d) A, C, B A, C, B C
Dimensional stability G G G
(a) The use of stabilized or extra-low carbon grades is recommended.
(b) In most instances no heat treatment is required, except where fabrication procedures may have sensitized the stainless steel.
(c) Treatment A, B or D also may be used, if followed by treatment C when forming is completed.
(d) Where severe fabricating stresses, coupled with high service loading, may cause cracking. Also after welding heavy sections.