1

Contents-

Introduction2

Specifications.3

Calculations4

Co-efficient of Lift..4

Co-efficient of Drag5

Velocity Stall...6

Thrust to Weight Ratio7

Aspect Ratio7

Wing Loading..8

Span Loading...8

Induced Drag...9

Parasite Drag.10

Wings and Control Surfaces11

Power Plant.13

Landing Gear..15

Systems17

Aircraft Structures19

References20












2
Introducing the LEARJET 60-

First taking to the skies on the 1
st
of June 1991 the Learjet 60 manufactured by
Bombardier Aerospace, is the super slick medium sized business jet which exceeds all
its competitors standards in safety, style, performance, cost and fuel efficiency. The
aircraft is designed for two pilot operations and seats 8 passengers whilst also
containing a bathroom facility and more than enough luggage storage. The 60, due to
its Pratt and Whitney engines, has the ability to literally rocket its passengers and
crew into the atmosphere with its staggering climb rate enabling it to reach its
maximum cruise altitude of 41,000 feet in less than 13 minutes. This cruise altitude of
41,000 feet has always been the ancestral home of the Learjet and although many
other business jets can now make this flight level the Learjet is still truly the quickest
to get their. Despite this blistering speed the Learjet 60 makes considerably less noise
than most other aircraft of its kind whilst also burning a reduced amount of fuel per
hour.

Essentially this aircraft has been designed for those wishing not to be restricted by
airport curfews but still make it to their destination in a short time period in the
comfort of a full height cabin. The Learjet 60s ability to overshadow its competition
comes down mainly due to the its aerodynamic designers use of NASA and Boeing
Tranairs Computational Fluid Dynamics software ensuing a 4% reduction in drag.
Hence it revolutionary jet like body as well as numerous technologically advanced
components and systems has resulted in over 314 Learjet 60 aircraft being sold and
operated across the globe.


3
Specifications-























Specifications- Learjet 60-
Basic Dimensions-
Exterior Length-------------------------------
Exterior Height:------------------------------
Wing Span:------------------------------------
Wing Area (Clean):--------------------------
Cabin Length:---------------------------------
Cabin Width:----------------------------------
Cabin Height:---------------------------------

17.80m
4.36m
13.40m
24.57m
5.39m
1.81m
1.74m
Weights-
Max. Ramp Weight:--------------------------
Max. Takeoff Weight:------------------------
Max. Landing Weight:-----------------------
Empty Weight:--------------------------------
Full Fuel Capacity Weight:-----------------

10,773Kg
10,659Kg
8,845Kg
6,641Kg
3,589Kg
Speeds-
Take-Off:--------------------------------------
Cruise:-----------------------------------------
Landing:---------------------------------------

281Km/h
887Km/h
252Km/h
Overall Performance-
Altitude Ceiling:------------------------------
Maximum Range:-----------------------------
Rate of Climb:--------------------------------

15,545m
4,440Km
4,500Ft/Min
4
Calculations-

(Acceleration due to gravity constant = 9.81m/s)

Co-efficient of Lift (CL)-
Dimensionless co-efficient which relates to the lift generated by an aerofoil.








CL at Take-Off:
(Sea Level, Max. Take-off Weight, Take-off velocity, Take-off Flaps Config.)

W = 10,659Kg x 9.81m/s
P = 1.2256gm
V = 78m/s
S = 32m

CL = 0.876 (3 dec. pl.)



CL at Cruise:
(12,000m, Approx. cruise weight of 8757, cruise velocity 200m/s, no flaps)

W = 8757Kg x 9.81m/s
P = 0.3106896 gm
V = 200m/s
S = 24.6m

CL = 0.562 (3 dec. pl.)



CL at Landing:
(Sea Level, landing velocity, landing flaps configuration)

W = 8000Kg x 9.81m/s
P = 1.2256 gm
V = 70m/s
S = 27m

CL = 0.933 (3 dec. pl.)

5
CL MAX Cruise:
(12,000m, Approx. cruise weight, stall velocity, no flaps)

W = 8757Kg x 9.81m/s
P = 0.3106896 gm
V = 55m/s
S = 24.6m

CL Max = 7.431 (3 dec. pl.)



Co-efficient of Drag-
A dimensionless co-efficient that represents the level of resistance obstructing an
aircrafts movement through the air.







CD at Take-Off:
(Sea level, full thrust, take-off velocity, take-off flaps config.)

T = 46,400N
P = 1.2256 gm
V = 78m/s
S = 32 m

CD = 0.389 (3 dec. pl.)


CD at Cruise:
(12,000m 80% thrust, approx. cruise velocity, no flaps)

T = 37,120N
P = 0.3106896 gm
V = 200m/s
S = 24.6 m

CD = 0.243






6
CD at Landing:
(Sea level, thrust at idle, landing velocity, landing flaps config.)

T = 11,600N
P = 1.2256 gm
V = 70m/s
S = 27 m

CD = 0.14



Velocity Stall-
The speed at which the airfoil will no longer be travelling fast enough through the air
to maintain lift and will hence stall.

(12,000m, approx cruise weight, no flaps)

W = 8757Kg x 9.81m/s
P = 0.3106896 gm
S = 24.6m
CLmax = 7.43

V stall = 55m/s


















7
Thrust to Weight Ratio-






Take-Off Thrust to Weight:
(Full thrust, max take-off weight)

T = 46,400N
W = 10,659Kg

Thrust to Weight = 4.35N/Kg



Crusie Thrust to Weight:
(80% thrust, approx. cruise weight)

T = 37, 120N
W = 8757Kg

Thrust to Weight = 4.24N/Kg



Aspect Ratio-







Wing Span = 13.40m
Wing Area = 24.57m

Aspect Ratio = 7.31 (2 dec.pl)







8
Wing Loading-






Weight = 8757Kg (approx. cruise weight)
Wing Area = 24.6m

Wing Loading = 355.97Kg/m

The Learjet 60s heavy wing loading ensures smooth flight even in turbulent areas
allowing the most comfortable journey for its passengers.



Span Loading-








Wing Span = 13.40m
Weight = 8757Kg

Span Loading = 653.507Kg/m (3 dec.pl.)



















9
Induced Drag Cd(i)-

Induced Drag is caused by the aircrafts wings generation of lift. Hence this drag is
generated by vortices which form on the tips of aircraft wings as the low pressure
travelling over the top and high pressure underneath become joined rather than
remaining separate. The greater a wings angle of attack the greater the amount of lift
produced and hence more induced drag will result.








AR (Aspect Ratio) = 7.31
e (Oswalds efficiency factor) = 0.75

K = 0.0581

Now sub K into:




K = 0.0581
Cl = 0.562

Induced Drag Cd(i) = 0.018 (3 dec pl.)

















10
Parasite Drag Cd(o)-

Parasite drag is made up of two main components, these being form and skin drag.
Essentially these two causes of drag are the direct result of an aircrafts body
travelling through a fluid which is air. Ultimately the resistance against the aircraft is
dependant upon the speed and altitude at which the aircraft is travelling. Factors
which can have a major impact upon parasite drag include control surface such as
flaps, slats and speed brakes. When at cruise an aircrafts angle of attack is reduced
and hence parasite drag has a greater impact upon the aircraft.





Cd = 0.243
Cd(i) = 0.018

Cd(o) = 0.225 (3 dec pl.)



















11
WINGS AND CONTROL SURFACES-

Fitting to its slick design the Learjet 60 features a
swept back, cantilever (no bracing) wing structure
ensuring optimum lift and minimal drag. The swept
back nature of the 60s wings allow the aircraft to
travel at high velocities as they suppress the effects
of shockwaves generated when travelling at
transonic speeds which would otherwise result in
unwanted drag. This reduced drag at high speeds
however, does result in the disadvantage and
potentially dangerous lack of lift when travelling at
low speeds. This situation is resolved by the
Learjets fowler flaps situated on the wings
trailing edge. As seen by the image unlike other flap
types, these flaps originally deploy in a flat
orientation before hinging downwards. This design
enables the Learjet to deploy such flaps to an angle
of 8 and hence increase wing surface area and lift
produced without inducing excessive drag.


Another issue generated by the 60s swept back wing design is the inherent issue that
the aircrafts wing tips will stall first before travelling inward. Such a scenario results
in excessive difficulty to re-gain control of a stalling aircraft. The 60s engineers have
combated such an issue through the implementation of stall fences. There are two
such stall fences on each of the aircrafts wings and are visually obvious due to their
protruding nature on the top surface of the wing as displayed by the image below.
Such stall fences stop the essentially horizontal flow of air (when compared to the
direction of flight) along the wing travelling in outboard direction caused by the
aircrafts swept back wing design. Such span-wise air current is hence stopped and
forced backwards by these stall fences
reducing the ability for the aircrafts wing
tips to stall first. The stall fences also
eliminate the potential for this span-wise
air flow to have an effect upon the Learjets
ailerons located on the outboard section of
the wing which could otherwise result in an
inability to control the aircraft safely.



To further increase the lift efficiency of the aircraft, winglets are fitted to the tips of
each wing. Such winglets dissipate the formation of vortices on wing tips, which are
generated because as the wing narrows the high pressure air below the wing tends to
curve over the top of the wing and hence results in unwanted induced drag and loss of
lift.


12
As discussed previously the Learjet 60 features trailing edge fowler flaps which can
be deployed by pilots to either induce drag and hence reduce speed upon landing or
increase the surface area of the wing to increase lift on take-off. Outboard of the
Learjets flaps are the aircrafts ailerons which are fixed to the main wing by a hinged
mechanism. Such ailerons which control the roll of the aircraft are directed by the
pilots control column and are then moved by a series of hydraulic actuators.

The final moveable surfaces upon the Learjets main wing are its spoilers. Once again
these hinged sections are moved by hydraulic actuators and are vertically deployed
from the wings surface to greatly induce drag and hence reduce speed during
approach.

The Learjet 60s tail section or horizontal stabiliser is in a T shape and features two
ventral fins pointing diagonally downwards below the stabiliser. These two ventral
fins dubbed Delta Fins (circled in image) ensure aerodynamic stability whilst further
improving safety by forcing the nose to pitch down if the aircraft were to stall. The
60s horizontal stabiliser is positioned high to ensure greater stability and control
whilst also ensuring it is out of the way of the thrust being produced by the engines.
The stabiliser also acts as the aircrafts
elevator (responsible for changing pitch).
Such elevator positioning is completed
once again by hydraulic actuators and can
be set to hold a certain angle by a pilots
trim controller located on the centre
pedestal, helping to reduce pilot fatigue.
The rudder section of the aircraft
comprises the rear portion of the vertical
stabiliser. Once again it too is moved by
hydraulic actuators which are originally
directed by the pilots foot pedals resulting
in the yaw of the aircraft.


Both the Learjet 60s main wing and horizontal stabiliser feature pneumatic de-ice
boots. Essentially any ice build up upon the wings is cracked as these boots are
inflated by turbine bleed air. To further ensure the 60 can be flown in even the worst
icing conditions electronic wing heating mechanisms are also used to melt ice mainly
on the inboard portion of the wing. This positioning of the electronic heating is due to
the fact that cracking large pieces of ice with de-ice boots near the fuselage would
result in such ice being digested by the aircrafts engines.










13
Power Plant-

The Learjet 60s power plant consists of two Pratt and Whitney model 305A turbofan
engines mounted on the rear of the aircrafts fuselage. These Canadian built turbofan
engines are the latest modern adaptation of the traditional gas turbine engine.
Traditional gas turbine engines follow the simply suck, push, bang, blow procedure.
That is, air is engulfed by the inlet fan blades (suck) before being compressed by a
series of compressor blades rotating at varying velocities (push). This highly
compressed air then passes through the combustion chamber where it is mixed with
fuel and ignited in a controlled explosion (bang) to produce extremely hot exhaust
gases. These exhaust gases then rapidly pass through the rear of the engine known as
the turbine stage whilst spinning these turbines which in turn rotate a drive shaft
powering the rotation of the original inlet fan blades and compressors. After passing
through the turbines the exhaust gases drive out the rear of the engine and expand
rapidly producing thrust in the opposite direction to which they travel.

The only difference to this form of engine and the turbofan engines on the Learjet 60
is that the original inlet fan is brought forward so that some of the incoming air
bypasses the compression and combustion process (named secondary air stream in
the diagram). Instead this low pressure air moves around the central core of the engine
with the velocity generated from the inlet fan blades. This low pressure air then joins
the high pressure air from the combustion chamber and is then released from the
turbine through an hourglass shaped nozzle. This process is highly fuel efficient as
approximately 85% of the air passes around the outside of the compression and
combustion processes and is hence known as bypass air. The bypass ratio can
therefore be described as the ratio of air that bypasses the central core of the engine
compared to the amount of air that is compressed and combusted. The Learjet 60
boasts a bypass ratio of 4.3:1 helping to keep its engines highly fuel efficient because
as such a large amount of air is bypass it only needs to be accelerated by a small
amount in order to deliver a huge amount of thrust as the combusted exhaust gases.

14
This bypass air works further to silence the noise of the engines central core which is
essential for the Learjets private business jet target market as it enables it to take-off
outside airport curfews and ensure a more comfortable journey for its passengers.
This has resulted in the Learjet 60 producing a mere 70.8dB of effective perceived
noise on take-off and 87.7EPNdB on landing.

The Learjet 60s turbofan engines have the ability to produce 5,225 pounds of thrust
each. However, Pratt and Whitney have flat-rated then (constrained their power
output) to 4,600 pounds of thrust each. This action enables the power output of the
engines to always remain at a constant level despite changes in atmospheric pressure
and or temperature making then perfect for the Learjets high altitude operations. The
Pratt and Whitney 305A turbofan engines also feature another innovation in turbofan
engine technology known as the Full Authority Digital Engine Control System or
FADEC. This technology enables further increases engine efficiency by constantly
assessing and altering engine performance which in turn reduces pilot workload.

Through the implementation of all these engine performance technologies the Learjet
60s Pratt and Whitney 305A turbofan engines are able to see the aircraft operate at a
maximum cruise altitude of 51,000 ft, travelling at a speed of 887km/hr for a
maximum range of 4441km whilst only burning 203 gallons of jet fuel per hour.

Due to these impressive air speeds the Learjet 60 requires some powerful braking
technologies which along with its dual rotor disc brakes include Rohr Thrust
Reversers (pictured). These trust reversers work by opening two doors on the upper
and low portion of each engine. The doors which are opened by hydraulic actuators
see the direction of thrust made to become forward so that they oppose the direction
of the landing aircraft. Hence
the thrust is said to be reversed.
Such an operation is
undertaken by pilots after 4-6
seconds of touching down.
Once the throttle is in the idle
position pilots are able to
activate the reverse thrust by
raising the piggyback levers
located on the top of the
throttle. Ultimately thrust
reversers are the most cost
effective way to slow the
aircraft after landing as they
ensure less brake wear and tear
which would otherwise result
in more frequent part changes
and associated maintenance.


In order to feed its two Pratt and Whitney engines the Learjet 60 has three fuel tanks
located in each wing and one in the fuselage under the cabin floor. Together they have
the capacity to hold 2799kg of fuel, enabling the aircraft to travel a maximum 4440
km. Despite this large fuel capacity the 60 is able to be re-fuelled in a little over 10
15
minutes due to its single point refuelling system. Single point refuelling sees a
pressurised fuel hose having to be connected to the underside of only one of the
aircrafts wings to re-fuel the entire aircraft. This works by opening all necessary
valves resulting in fuel flowing between and filling all three tanks from once location.
This system ensures cost efficiency by limiting turn around time and enabling the
aircraft to quickly return to the air. It also works to maintain safety by reducing the
amount of times a fuel hose must be connected/disconnected and hence reducing the
likelihood of an accident during this process occurring.


Landing Gear-

The Learjet 60 features a retractable, tricycle design, landing gear system comprising
of one wheel at the nose of the aircraft and a pair of wheels on either side of the
fuselage, approximately in line with the inboard section of the aircrafts main wing.
Such a tricycle design was primarily chosen due to its ability to allow braking
pressure to be applied immediately after touching down ensuring the high speed flight
of the 60 can be safely managed. This form of landing gear design also gives pilots
greater visibility during ground operations as the nose is level with the ground rather
than pointing skyward as is the case with tail-dragger aircraft.

Being a low wing aircraft the severity of damage that would occur if the aircraft
where to enter a ground loop would be devastating. This issue was once again
resolved through the implementation of the tricycle undercarriage design as this type
of landing gear layout sees the aircrafts centre of gravity in front of the main gear
insuring ground operation stability.

The main component responsible for the 60s ability to deliver a comfortable landing
for its passengers are its Oleo Legs. These shock absorbers work as when placed
under pressure they drive the piston connected to the tire upwards through a chamber
of oil. Essentially the oil slows the pistons movement and hence takes all the
downwards force of out the
aircrafts tires during landing.
As can be seen the pressure
inside the oil chamber is
directly related to different
periods during flight. These
Oleo Legs are supported by
drag struts seen to run from the
base of the Oleo Legs exposed
piston diagonally to the inside
of the gear door. The nose gear
is attacked to such Oleo Legs
through an L shaped bracket
running down only the left
hand side of the wheel.



16
Both the main and nose gear are retractable and when in such a position are covered
by landing gear doors. The main gear retracts in a direction perpendicular to flight and
lay flat with the wheels closest to the fuselage. The nose gear retracts with the wheel
coming forward before being concealed by two hinged doors. Both the main and
forward gear are held in their retracted positions with doors closed by a mechanical
latch mechanism. Essentially by having retractable and concealed landing gear the
Learjet 60 is able to promote fuel efficiency by reducing drag that would otherwise be
generated by fixed landing gear.

To steer the Learjet once on the ground pilots use rudder input which results in an
electrical signal being sent to the nose wheels electrically operated steering
mechanism. At slow speeds this system enables the pilots to make up too 50 degree
turns ensuring the aircraft can be parked accurately in a short time frame. Once the
aircraft has exceeded 150km/hr during take-off however, nose gear steering is
disabled and instead pilot pedal inputs are fed to the rudder. This ensures safety by
reducing the risk of the aircraft straying off the runway during take-off by eliminating
what would otherwise be violent turns if undertaken by the nose wheel at such speeds.
The rudder instead enables pilots to steadily direct the aircraft down the runway
making slight adjustments to its course.

Due to the high speed nature of the Learjet 60 strong braking technology is required
to ensure the aircraft can be safely brought to a stop during landing and/or an aborted
take-off. Engineers have therefore fitted the Learjet 60 with Dual Rotor/Disc Brakes
effectively enabling double the braking capacity of an ordinary Rotor Brake. This
system works as brake pads
apply pressure to discs located on
both sides of all the 60s fours
main gear tyres, through a
process similar to that illustrated.
Like all brakes when applied the
friction which effectively slows
the aircraft also results in the
production of heat. Combining
both the use of reverse thrust and
brakes therefore reduces the heat
build up as less brake pressure is
required without risking the
inability to slow the aircraft.

The Learjet 60s main tyres are
inflated to a pressure of 214 psi. This pressure is essential as it ensures that the
landing gear isnt put under unnecessary pressure whilst also ensuring the braking
effect isnt reduced and that the life time of the tire also isnt jeopardised. All these
factors help to not only ensure safety but also cost efficiency. In order to ensure no
Learjet is operated using an incorrect tire pressure engineers have permitted the use of
a tire pressure remote sensor system by Crane Aerospace and Electronics. This
system enables the tire pressure to be check and maintained on a hand-held device
rather than manually, simply through the instillation of an electronically operated
valve.

17
Systems-



Fitting with it super slick and technologically advanced style and performance the
Learjet 60 is fitted with the latest in avionic system technology in the Pro Line 4
series by Rockwell Collins. This Pro Line system features four main 6 by 7 inch Air
Data Computer Display Units featuring primary flight displays and navigational aids
placed directly in front of each pilots view. This is combined with dual Computer
display units placed on the pilots centre pedestal which features aircraft management
systems including maintenance diagnostic and fuel management systems. This
futuristic cockpit layout helps to reduce pilot workload by placing several different
instruments onto one screen. To further reduced pilot workload and assist with
navigation the 60 utilises an AC685A Learjet specific autopilot system guided by
GPS technology. Communication between the Learjet 60, Air Traffic Control and
other aircraft is enabled by two Collins VHF-422A radios.

Engineers have ensured the safety on those on-board through the instillation of a
Honeywells Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System. This program uses the
aircrafts speed, heading, altitude and position (provided by the Pitot-Static system) to
ensure conflict does occur between the aircraft and terrain by comparing such
indicators to the systems databases. The EGPWS fitted to the Learjet also include
windshear detection technology ensuring the ability to land safely by giving pilots the
most accurate and up-to-date wind forecasts. Maintaining a safe altitude is also made
certain by the Collins ALT-55 Radio Altimeter on board. This system uses differences
in the measurement of transmitted and reflected radio signals to accurately depict the
altitude of the aircraft.

18
Safety is further ensured through the instillation of a version 7 Traffic Collision
Avoidance System (TCAS). This program reduces the possibility of mid-air collisions
by delivering heading and altitude changes to aircraft that are on a collision course
with one another. As demonstrated by the diagram a region of dedicated airspace is
issued to each TCAS equipped aircraft during its flight. The shape and size of this
airspace is dependant upon the
aircrafts heading, altitude and
speed as these factors will impact
upon the timeframe required for
this aircraft to change its course.
Course alterations are re-laid to
Learjet pilots by both automated
voice instruction as well as visual
representation on the pilots
primary flight display computers.

As well as other traffic, the Learjet
60 is able to avoid flying into any
possibly dangerous weather due to
its Collins WXR weather radar
located in the nose of the aircraft.
This weather radar works by
comparing the size and frequency
of the radio waves it emits too
those that are reflected by places of precipitation in its path. A more severe weather
system along the aircrafts flight path can be identified by a stronger radio wave
reflection. Hence this enables Learjet 60 pilots to avoid such regions ensuring safety
and passenger comfort.

Due to its maximum operating altitude of 51,000ft the 60 utilises a digital
pressurisation system in order to ensure a safe and comfortable environment for both
passengers and crew. This system automatically controls the volume of air being fed
into the cabin from the engine compressors compared to that amount being released
by the outlet valves.
















19
Aircraft Structure-

The Learjet 60s fuselage is a semi-monocoque structure that comprises of stringers,
frames and bulkheads to ensure the rigidity of the aircraft frame instead of simply
relying upon the skin to do this task. Frames map of the skeleton shape of the aircrafts
fuselage and are made of aluminium alloy. Attached to these frames and running the
length of the aircraft are stringers constructed of the same material. These stringers
provide the rigidity of the aircraft as they ensure it wont bend under various
aerodynamic pressures. The skin of the aircraft is then riveted and bonded to these
stringers and works to resist shear load. In areas of the fuselage where strenuous loads
are found such as near the wings, engines and landing gear bulkheads are used. These
bulkheads which are attached to both the aircrafts frame and stringers ensure the extra
weight at these regions of the aircraft doesnt result in bending of the alloy.



Both the Learjets main wing and fin are also constructed mainly out of aluminium
alloy which is connected to the structural front, centre and rear spars by rivets or
bonding material. Stringers once again also run along the horizontal axis of the wing
and are connected to these spars. These stringers offer further attachment location for
the aircrafts skin whilst also providing some rigidity and mapping the shape of the
aircrafts wings.









20

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21
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