MI

E EE E- -- -Learning Learning Learning Learning Material Material Material Material
__________________________________________________
DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF E & E & E & E & E E E E
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING ENGINEERING ENGINEERING

SUB CODE: 13042
MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
NATHAM NATHAM NATHAM NATHAM 624 401. 624 401. 624 401. 624 401.

E E E E LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
ENGINEEIRNG
(IV - SEMESTER)

Reach the Stars
ISO 9001:2008
__________________________________________________

SYLLABUS
MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
SUB CODE : 13042

UNIT TOPIC
I Classification & characteristics of instruments
II Measurement of voltage, current & resistance
III Measurement of power & energy
IV Special instruments & bridges
V Transducers & industrial instrumentation
Unit I
General definition of measurement functions of measurement system Indicating,
recording and controlling functions) - Applications of measurement systems- classification
absolute and secondary instruments indicating, ecording and integrating instruments,
Analog and Digital -Definition of true value, accuracy , precision, percentage static error and
correction , instrument efficiency.
Principle of operation - effects used in instruments- Operating forces deflecting, controlling
and damping forces construction details- moving system types of supports- balancing -
__________________________________________________

torque weight ratio control systems (spring control and gravity control) damping systems
Magnets pointers and scales.
Unit - II
Types of instruments Construction, working and derivation of torque equation of moving
coil, moving iron, dynamometer type and induction type(shaded pole construction)
instruments - extension of instrument ranges shunt and multiplier (calculation and
requirements, Simple Problems), Tong Tester, current transformer and potential transformer
(No derivations, working principle only) Measurement of resistance ohm meter (series and
shunt type), multi meter megger and Earth tester .
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope CRT- constructional parts - Electron Gun - Deflection Plate -
Fluorescent Screen - Glass envelope Base Time Base Generators - block diagram of a
general purpose CRO, Basic CRO circuits and controls vertical deflection system -
horizontal deflection system types of sweeps - synchronization Blanking Intensity
Modulation positioning control focus control intensity control calibration circuit
astigmatism Measurement of Phase and frequency Applications of CRO. Introduction to
Digital Storage Oscilloscope Dual trace CRO.
Unit - III
Types of wattmeter - Construction and operation of dynamometer type wattmeter & LPF
wattmeter 3 phase two element wattmeter - Construction and working of induction type
single phase energy meter friction compensation -creep and prevention Errors and
adjustments in energy meters- 3 phase energy meter (connection circuit only) - Testing of
energy meter with RSS meter - Measurement of power and energy using CT and PT (Circuit
only) Construction and working of single phase dynamometer type power factor meter.
Introduction to Digital Energy meter calibration of Energy meter.

__________________________________________________

Unit - IV
Merz price maximum demand indicator - Trivector meter - Synchroscope - Construction and
working of Weston type - Phase sequence indicator construction and working of rotating
type - Frequency meter mechanical resonance (vibrating reed type) and Weston type
frequency meters digital frequency meter (simplified composite block diagram) -XY
recorder Block diagram and applications - Electronic Multimeter Digital Multimeter -
Bridges - Wheatstone Bridge Basic form of AC bridge Anderson and Schering bridge for
measurement of Inductance and capacitance (No derivation Formula only)
Unit - V
(Qualitative treatment only)
Transducers:
Definition -Electrical transducers - Classification of electrical transducers based upon principle
of transduction Construction and principle of working of Strain gauge LVDT RVDT Piezo
electric thermo couples Thermistors Proximity sensors Inductive and Capacitive types
Introduction to digital encoding transducers.
Industrial instrumentation:
Measurement of strain using wheatstone bridge measurement of pressure using inductive
transducer measurement of angular velocity using DC Tachometer generator
Measurement of temperature - Construction and application of Metal Resistance Thermometer
Thermocouple See beck effect basic circuit Simple application Thermistor
construction types application Thermistor Radiation pyrometer. measurement of flow
using electromagnetic flow meter measurement of thickness using ultrasonic vibrations
measurement of pH value using a pH cell Measurement of radiation using Geiger Muller
tube.

__________________________________________________

Reference Books:
1. Electronic Instrumentation - HS Kalsi ,1. Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New
Delhi ,2.Learning Materials Centre, ISTE, New Delhi 16.
2. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement techniques - Albert
D.Helfrick William David Cooper ,Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
3. Electronics and Instrumentation -1. Dr.S.K.Battachariya , 2. Dr.Renu Vig
,S.K.Kataria & Sons, New Delhi 6.
4. A course in electrical and electronic measurements and instrumentation -
Umesh Sinha ,Satya Prakashan, New Delhi

__________________________________________________

Unit I
Classification & Characteristics of instruments
General definition of measurement functions of measurement system Indicating,
recording and controlling functions) - Applications of measurement systems- classification
absolute and secondary instruments indicating, encoding and integrating instruments,
Analog and Digital -Definition of true value, accuracy , precision, percentage static error and
correction , instrument efficiency.
Principle of operation - effects used in instruments- Operating forces deflecting, controlling
and damping forces construction details- moving system types of supports- balancing -
torque weight ratio control systems (spring control and gravity control) damping systems
Magnets pointers and scales.
Measurement:
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison
between the quality (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard. Since two
quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical values. Measurement is the
process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful numbers. the
measuring process is one in which the property of an object or system under consideration is
compared to an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that particular property.
Methods of measurement:
The methods of measurements may be broadly classified into two categories.
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
Direct method:
In these methods. the unknown quality (also called the measured) is directly compared
against a standard. The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit. The standard,
infact is a physical embodiment of a unit.

__________________________________________________

Indirect method:

Measurement by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These
methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors. The are
also less sensitive.
Application of measurement system
The way the instruments and measurement systems are used for different applications are as
under:
(i) Monitoring of processes and operations
(ii) Control of processes and operations
(iii) Experimental Engineering analysis
1. Monitoring of processes and operations:
These are certain applications of measuring instruments that have essentially a monitoring
function. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and their
readings do not serve any control functions. For example, an ammeter or a voltmeter
indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored(measured) at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes keep track of commodity used
so that later on its cost may be computed to be realized from the user.
2. Control of Processes and Operations:
A very useful application of instruments is in automatic control systems. There has been a
very strong association between measurement and control.
In order that process variable like temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. may be controlled,
the pre-requisite is that can be measured at the desired location in the individual parts. Same
is true of servo-systems ,i.e., systems connected with measurement of position, velocity and
acceleration.

__________________________________________________

3. Experimental Engineering Analysis:
For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental methods are available.
Many applications require application of both the methods. The relative affectability of the
method depends upon the nature of the problem. Experimental engineering analysis has
many uses and some are listed below:
1. Testing and validity of theoretical predictions.
2. Formulations of generalized empirical relationships in cases where no proper theoretical
backing exists.
3. Determination of system parameters, variable and performance indices.
4. For development in important spheres of study where there is ample scope of study.
5. Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
Classification of Instruments
There are many ways in which instruments can be classified. Broadly instruments are
classified into two categories:
(i) Absolute Instruments and (ii) Secondary Instruments
1. Absolute Instruments:
These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
physical constants of the instrument. The examples of this class of instruments are Tangent
Galvanometer and Raleighs Current Balance.
2. Secondary Instruments:
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument. These instruments are
calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another secondary instrument which
has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
__________________________________________________

Constructional details and types of supports
Moving system: The requirements of moving system are:
(i) the moving parts should be light and (ii) the frictional forces should be maintain
these requirements should be fulfilled in order that power required by the instrument for its
operation is small. (The power expenditure is proportional to the weight of the moving parts
and the frictional forces opposing the movement). The moving systen cab be made light by
using aluminum as far as possible. The frictional forces are reduced by using a spindle
mounted between jewel bearings and by carefully balancing the system.
Supporting the moving element:
The force or torque developed by the moving element of an electrical instrument is
necessarily small in order that the power consumption of the instrument be kept low so that
the introduction of the instrument into a circuit may cause minimum change in the existing
circuit conditions. Because of low power levels, the consideration of various methods of
supporting the moving element becomes of vital importance. With the operating forces being
small, the frictional forces must be kept to a minimum in order that the instrument reads
correctly and is not erratic in action and is reliable.
Types of supports:
Several types of supports are used, depending upon the sensitivity requires and the operating
conditions to be met. Supports may be of the following types;
(i) Suspension (ii) Taut Suspension (iii) Pivot and jewel bearings (double)
1. Suspension:
2. Taut Suspension:
3. Pivot and jewel bearings:

__________________________________________________

Damping Systems
The damping torque should be of such a magnitude that the pointer quickly comes to its final
steady position, without overshooting. If the instrument is under damped, the moving system
will oscillate about the final steady position with a decreasing amplitude and will take some
time before it comes to rest. When the moving system moves rapidly but smoothly to its final
steady position, the instrument is said to be critically damped or dead beat. If the damping
torque is more than what is required for critical damping, the instrument is said to be over
damped. In an over damped instrument, the moving system moves slowly to its final steady
position in a lethargic fashion. The readings are very tedious to take in this case.
the methods for producing damping torque are
(i) air friction damping
(ii) Fluid friction damping
(iii) Eddy current damping
(iv) Electromagnetic damping
1. Air friction damping:
2. Fluid friction damping:
3. Eddy current damping:
4. Electromagnetic damping:

Functions of instruments and measuring systems

There is another way in which instruments or measurement systems may be classified. This
classification is based upon the functions they perform. The three main functions are:

__________________________________________________

1. Indicating function:
Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying information concerning
the variable quantity under measurement. Most of the time this information is obtained as a
deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument. In this way, the instrument performs a
function which is commonly known as indicating function. For example, the deflection of
pointer if a speedometer indicated the speed of the automobile at that moment. A pressure
gauge is u8sed for indicating pressure.
2. Recording function:
In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper pf the value of the
quantity under measurement against time or against some other variable. Thus the
instrument performs a recording function. For example, a potentiometer type of recorder
used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous values of temperatures on a strip
chart recorder.
3. Controlling function:
This is one of the most important functions especially in the foeld of industrial control
processes. In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the system to control
the original measured quantity.
Permanent magnets & pointers and scales
Permanent Magnets:
Permanent magnets are made of hard materials i.e., materials which have a broad hysteresis
loop so that they are not subject to self-demagnetization. In order that the volume of the
permanent magnet is small, the product of the material used should be large.
Pointers and scales:
Instrument scales and pointers may be considered together in two classes;
(i) those intended for reading quickly (in case of switchboard instruments at a distance) and
(ii) those intended for close accurate reading.
__________________________________________________

However , in all cases, the weight and inertia of pointer must be reduced so as to reduce the
load on the bearing and to avoid necessity of excessive damping torque.
The pointer motion is limited by buffers or stops to a little more than the scale. These stops
are constructed as very light springs so that the pointer is not bent when it strikes them
sharply on a sudden overload or reversal of the operating current.

__________________________________________________

Unit - II
Measurement of voltage, Current & Resistance
Types of instruments:
The main types of instruments used as ammeters and
voltmeters are;
1. Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
2. Moving Iron
3. Electro-dynamometer
4. Hot wire
5. Thermocouple
6. Induction
7. Electrostatic
8. Rectifier
Permanent magnet moving coil Instrument:
There are several variations on the basic instrument, all intended to improve accuracy or
reduce size and weight. An ammeter or other electrical instrument in which a small coil of
wire, supported on jeweled bearings between the poles of a permanent magnet, rotates when
current is carried to it through spiral springs which also exert a restoring torque on the coil;
the position of the coil is indicated by an attached pointer.
Shunt:
A shunt is a physically large, low-resistance conductor connected in parallel (shunt) with the
meter terminals. It is used to carry the majority of the load current. Such a shunt is designed
with the correct amount of resistance so that only a small portion of the total current flows
through the meter coil. The meter current is proportional to the total load current. If the
shunt is of such a value that the meter is calibrated in mill amperes, the instrument is called
a Milli ammeter If the shunt has such a value that the meter must be calibrated in terms of
amperes, it is called an Ammeter .A meter designed to measure electrical current is
popularly called an "ammeter" because the unit of measurement is "amps."

__________________________________________________

Shunt construction:
The terminal blocks on the ammeter shunts are made of high quality brass to allow proper
heat dissipation and provide strong support for the entire shunt. The resistance blades are
made from manganin shunt metal for its low temperature co-efficient, long-term stability and
strength. The manganin strips are soldered into slots in the brass terminal blocks with high
quality solder to provide a strong, lasting bond. Where mounting bases are provided, high
strength phonemic is used with mounting holes designed in for ease of use.
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope:
A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is used to see the waveform of a repetitive electronic signal.
The signal is amplified or attenuated as required and used to deflect an electron beam in the
vertical direction. This electron beam is deflected in the horizontal direction at a suitable
speed. The electron beam impinging on a phosphorescent screen enables the viewer to see
the wave shape of the signal.

__________________________________________________

Oscilloscope phase shift measurement:

Cathode ray tube

__________________________________________________

Astigmatism
An optical system with astigmatism is one where rays that propagate in two perpendicular
planes have different focus. If an optical system with astigmatism is used to form an image of
a cross, the vertical and horizontal lines will be in sharp focus at two different distances. The
term comes from the Greek - (a-) meaning "without" and stigma, "a mark, spot, puncture"

Fig (Astigmatism)

__________________________________________________

CRT Construction

Electron gun:

The ELECTRON GUN consists of a HEATER and a CATHODE to generate electrons, a CONTROL
GRID to control brightness by controlling electron flow, and two ANODES (FIRST and
SECOND). The main purpose of the first (FOCUSING) anode is to focus the electrons into a
narrow beam on the screen. The second (ACCELERATING) anode accelerates the electrons as
they pass. The control grid is cylindrical and has a small opening in a baffle at one end. The
anodes consist of two cylinders that contain baffles (or plates) with small holes in their
centers

Fluorescent Screen

A sheet of material coated with a fluorescent substance so as to emit visible light
when struck by ionizing radiation such as x-rays or electron beams. A fluorescent screen
includes a substrate made of a light-scattering material and a mixture of an organic
fluorescent substance and a binder dispersed therein. Since the luminescent light is scattered
by the light-scattering material, the light emitted from the screen is increased to a level
higher than that of a conventional fluorescent screen to enhance brightness thereof.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Fluorescent Screen)
__________________________________________________

Time Base Generator
An electronic clock that creates its own timing signals for synchronization and measurement
purposes. Radar sets, oscilloscopes, and computer circuits all use saw tooth (voltage or
current) waveforms. A saw tooth wave shape must have a linear rise. The saw tooth
waveform is often used to produce a uniform, progressive movement of an electron beam
across the face of an electrostatic cathode ray tube.
This movement of the electron beam is known as a SWEEP. The voltage which causes this
movement is known as SWEEP VOLTAGE and the circuit which produces this voltage is the
SWEEP GENERATOR, or TIME-BASE GENERATOR. Most common types of time-base
generators develop the saw tooth waveform by using some type of switching action with
either the charge or discharge of an RC or RL circuit.
Current transformer
What is Current Transformer
In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of
electric currents. Current transformers, together with potential transformers (PT), are known
as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to
measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately
proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring
and recording instruments.
A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be
very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in
metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.
A current transformer is a device for measuring a current flowing through a power
system and inputting the measured current to a protective relay system. Electrical power
distribution systems may require the use of a variety of circuit condition monitoring devices
to facilitate the detection and location of system malfunctions.
Current transformers and current sensors are well known in the field of electronic
circuit breakers, providing the general function of powering the electronics within the circuit
breaker trip unit and sensing the circuit current within the protected circuit.
__________________________________________________

Ground fault circuit breakers for alternating current distribution circuits are
commonly used to protect people against dangerous shocks due to line-to-ground current
flow through someone's body. Ground fault circuit breakers must be able to detect current
flow between line conductors and ground at current levels. Upon detection of such a ground
fault current, the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened to de energize the circuit.
Current transformers are an integral part of ground fault circuit breakers. Current
transformer assemblies are often positioned between the line side of a trip unit of a circuit
breaker and the load side in order to monitor the current there between.
Current transformers in electrical substations measure the system currents at
predetermined measuring points of the switchgear with a certain measurement inaccuracy.
The measuring points are typically located at all incoming and outgoing lines and possibly
also within the system, e.g. for the bus bar protection.

The current measurement signals are used for protective functions, for
monitoring the substation, for calculating performance data for operating purposes or for
consumption billing and for the representation on a display.
The output of the current transformer provides a representation of the current
flowing through the assembly that is being monitored. Associated monitoring and control
instrumentation in combination with the current transformer may provide critical system
functions such as overload protection and power usage monitoring.
__________________________________________________

Fig (Current Transformer)
Design
A current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary
winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core,
which then induces current flow in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of
current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently
coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current.

__________________________________________________

Instrument Current Transformer
The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a
lower value and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is
done by constructing the secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary
coil, which contains only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of
current can be obtained.
A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an
external load. Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low
magnetizing current when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will
build up a large flux in the magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a
step-up transformer, inducing an excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no
load.
Dynamometer
A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, moment of
force (torque), or power. For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other
rotating prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously measuring torque and rotational
speed (rpm).
A dynamometer can also be used to determine the torque and power required to
operate a driven machine such as a pump. In that case, a motoring or driving dynamometer
is used. A dynamometer that is designed to be driven is called an absorption or passive
dynamometer. A dynamometer that can either drive or absorb is called a universal or active
dynamometer.
Dynamometers are specialized instruments used to measure an engine's
revolutions per minute (RPM) and torque. RPM is a measurement of the number of times the
crankshaft revolves inside an engine. The more revolutions a crankshaft makes each minute,
the faster and more powerful the engine is.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Dynamometer)

Fig (dynamometer OutLine)

__________________________________________________

Types of Dynamometer
There are two basic types of Dynamometer
Absorption Dynamometer
Universal or Motoring Dynamometer
Absorption dynamometer is designed for driving purpose where as Universal
dynamometer is used both for absorption and driving. Apart from these two there are also
other types of dynamometer used for various other functions. In fact dynamometer is an
important device in the world of engineering which finds its application in many sectors.

Fig (absorption Dynamometer)
Engine dynamometer
One of the most important types of Dynamometer is the Engine dynamometer. It
is directly attached to the engine of the car. Chassis dynamometer is another type of specific
dynamometer, which is used to measure the twisting movement (torque) and the power or
the energy emitted by the power train of an automobile directly from the wheels or the drive
wheels. This should be done without the removal of the engine from the framework of the
vehicle.
The classification of the dynamometer is also done on the basis of the style of
the absorption unit or the driver or the absorber used by a vehicle. The dynamometers that
are used only for absorption can be connected with the universal dynamometer. There are
various types of absorption or the driver units. They can be classified accordingly:
__________________________________________________

EC dynamometer
EC dynamometer is the most commonly used dynamometer in modern Chassis
dynos in the present days. They are capable of changing the load most efficiently at a rapid
speed. Most of them require an external cooling system where as some, although very few,
have an automatic cooling system. In a good model 5 amps at 220 v ac can give more or less
150 HP load. Eddy current Dynamometer has a core made of iron, which rotates in the
magnetic area to produce the twisting movement known as Torque. Due to this technique
present in the Eddy Motor current stopping a motor is not feasible.

__________________________________________________

Fig (EC Dynamometer)
Power Dynamometer
Power dynamometer is another kind, which is very similar to eddy current. The
only difference between the former and the latter is that a magnetic powder is present in the
space between the coil and the rotor. The fluctuation lines generate metal chains, which are
continuously built up and are broken due to the twisting movement (torque). The speed of
the power dynamometer is restricted due to the indulgence of heat.
Hysteresis dynamometer
The third important type of absorption dynamometer is Hysteresis dynamometer.
It uses the rotor made of steel, which moves in between the fluctuation lines, which are
further in between magnetic poles. It enables the torque to be produced at the speed of zero
and also in full speed. The air that is forced in produces heat. Electric motor or the Generator
motor is also another type. It adjusts the speed of the drive. It can have both alternating and
direct current motor. This motor when prepared properly with proper mechanism can be used
as universal motor. It can also transfer the power to electric current if the situation demands.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Hysteresis Dynamometer)
Measurement of resistance
A high percentage of technical manuals contain point-to-point resistance charts that list
correct resistance readings for major test points. These resistance charts are extremely
useful when you troubleshoot faulty equipment. Without them, equipment resistance
measurements within a complicated circuit would not mean much. Many circuits contain other
circuit elements, such as capacitors, coils, or other resistors in parallel with the resistances
being measured.
This is a possible source of measurement error that you eliminate when you disconnect or
unsolder one side of the resistor or a group of resistors under test. You should be thoroughly
familiar with the calibration of your ohmmeter. Analog meters are typically more accurate
and easier to read at mid scale. With the exception of bridge circuits, a meter may provide
only approximate resistance readings. However, these readings may be adequate when you
also consider the wide tolerances of resistors themselves.
An ohmmeter that you use in field testing should be portable, convenient, and simple to
operate - factors that usually are more important than extreme accuracy. When an ohmmeter
is used, completely de-energize the circuit under test and remove any current- sensitive
elements before the resistance measurement is performed. Low-resistance measurements
that require precision readings should be taken with a bridge type of instrument.
__________________________________________________

An ohmmeter consists of a galvanometer, batteries, and resistors of known value that are
connected in such a way that unknown resistors to be measured are compared with standard
values. There are three basic circuit type
(A) single range type,
(B) series multi range type, and
(C) shunt type

Fig(Circuit Diagram of Measurement of Resistance)

Moving Coil And Moving Iron

Moving Coil
Moving Coil Instruments are used for measuring DC quantities. They can be used on
AC systems when fed through bridge rectifiers. Center magnet system is incorporated in our
moving coil instruments which completely shields the movement from the effect of external
magnetic fields. The movement is pivoted between synthetic sapphire jewel bearings for
frictionless operation.

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

Fig (Moving Coil)

__________________________________________________

Moving Iron
Moving Iron Instruments are generally used for measuring AC Voltage and
Currents. A feature of the moving element is that it is fitted with synthetic sapphire jewels.
The movement is light, quick acting, but extremely robust. An efficient system of fluid
damping is employed. The movement is efficiently shielded against the effect of external
magnetic fields.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Moving Iron)
__________________________________________________

Ohm Meter
Definition
An ohmmeter is an electronic device which measures resistance in an electronic component
or circuit. It is composed of a ruled scale with an indicator needle or digital display, a range
selector, and two probes. in electricity, property of an electric circuit or part of a circuit that
transforms electric energy into heat energy in opposing electric current.
Resistance involves collisions of the current-carrying charged particles with fixed particles
that make up the structure of the conductors. Resistance is often considered as localized in
such devices as lamps, heaters, and resistors, in which it predominates, although it is
characteristic of every part of a circuit, including connecting wires and electric transmission
lines.

Fig (Ohm Meter)
__________________________________________________

Potential Transformer
What is Potential Transformer
Potential Transformer is designed for monitoring single-phase and three-phase power line
voltages in power metering applications. The primary terminals can be connected either in
line-to-line or in line-to-neutral configuration. Fused transformer models are designated by a
suffix of "F" for one fuse or "FF" for two fuses.
A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take readings
from electrical service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is normally
capable of handling without at potential transformer.

Fig (potential Transformer)

__________________________________________________

Instrument Potential Transformer
The instrument potential transformer (PT) steps down voltage of a circuit to a low value that
can be effectively and safely used for operation of instruments such as ammeters,
voltmeters, watt meters, and relays used for various protective purposes.

Shaded Pole Construction
Introduction
Shaded pole motor is one of the types of single phase induction motors, which are
used for producing a rotating stator flux in order to make the single phase induction motor a
self starting one.

Fig (Shaded Pole Motor)

__________________________________________________

Shaded-Pole SIngle-Phase Motors
Like any other motors the shaded pole induction motor also consists of a stator
and rotor. The stator is of salient pole type and the rotor is of squirrel cage type.
The poles of shaded pole induction motor consist of slots, which are cut across
the laminations. The smaller part of the slotted pole is short-circuited with the help of a coil.
The coils are made up of copper and it is highly inductive in nature. This coil is known as
shading coil. The part of the pole which has the coil is called the shaded part and the other
part of the pole is called unshaded part.
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications
The various advantages of Shaded pole motors includes
* Very cheap and reliable
* Easy to construct
* Extremely rugged in nature
Disadvantages includes
* Low efficiency
* Low starting torque
* Since the shading coil is made of copper, the copper loss is high.

Tong Tester
Definition
In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an
electrical device having two jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical
conductor. This allows the electrical current in the conductor to be measured, without having
to make physical contact with it, or to disconnect it for insertion through the probe. Some
types of current clamp are used to induce current in the conductor.Tong tester also called
current clamo.
__________________________________________________

Fig (Tong Tester)
Torque Equation of DC Motor
Defintion
Torque -- also called MOMENT OF A FORCE, in physics, the tendency of a force to rotate the
body to which it is applied.
The torque, specified with regard to the axis of rotation, is equal to the magnitude of the
component of the force vector lying in the plane perpendicular to the axis, multiplied by the
shortest distance between the axis and the direction of the force component. Regardless of
its orientation in space, the force vector F can always be located in a plane parallel to the
axis.
__________________________________________________

Torque Equations of Motors:

Fig (Moving Coil using Torque Equation)

__________________________________________________

Fig (Torque equation using the Motor)

__________________________________________________

Unit - III
Measurement of Power & Energy

Types of wattmeter - Construction and operation of dynamometer type wattmeter & LPF
wattmeter 3 phase two element wattmeter - Construction and working of induction type
single phase energy meter friction compensation -creep and prevention Errors and
adjustments in energy meters- 3 phase energy meter (connection circuit only) - Testing of
energy meter with RSS meter - Measurement of power and energy using CT and PT (Circuit
only) Construction and working of single phase dynamometer type power factor meter.
Introduction to Digital Energy meter calibration of Energy meter.

CT Circuit
we can use a transformer to step down current through a power line so that we are able to
safely and easily measure high system currents with inexpensive ammeters. Of course, such
a transformer would be connected in series with the power line

__________________________________________________

while the PT is a step-down device, the Current Transformer (or CT) is a step-up device
(with respect to voltage), which is what is needed to step down the power line current. Quite
often, CTs are built as donut-shaped devices through which the power line conductor is run,
the power line itself acting as a single-turn primary winding.
CTs are designed to be powering ammeters, which are low-impedance loads, and they are
wound as voltage step-up transformers, they should never, ever be operated with an open-
circuited secondary winding. Failure to heed this warning will result in the CT producing
extremely high secondary voltages, dangerous to equipment and personnel alike.
To facilitate maintenance of ammeter instrumentation, short-circuiting switches are often
installed in parallel with the CT's secondary winding, to be closed whenever the ammeter is
removed for service:

__________________________________________________

Digital Energy Meter
A digital energy meter for providing energy measurements of non sinusoidal waveforms.
Voltage and related current components of a digitally sampled waveform are multiplied to
form a product representative of instantaneous power. The products are summed or
accumulated over a first time period, and the sums then accumulated over a second time
period to form a second sum representative of total power over the second time period. An
energy measurement is then obtained by an algorithm which requires only a simple division
by a power of two.

Fig (Digital Energy Meter)

__________________________________________________

Dynamometer
Definiton
A dynamometer or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, moment of force
(torque), or power. For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating
prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously measuring torque and rotational speed
(rpm).
A dynamometer can also be used to determine the torque and power required to operate a
driven machine such as a pump. In that case, a motoring or driving dynamometer is used. A
dynamometer that is designed to be driven is called an absorption or passive dynamometer.
A dynamometer that can either drive or absorb is called a universal or active dynamometer.
Energy Meter
Introduction
The energy meter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to record
Electrical Energy Consumed over a specified period of time in terms of units.Electric meters
are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour. Periodic
readings of electric meters establishes billing cycles and energy used during a cycle.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Energy Meter)

Features:
* Display of current time (24 hours type), week, load power and cost tariff .
* Display of total on time, total used energy and accrued energy cost.
* Display of total record time, total on time and percentage .
* Dual programmable power tariffs .
* Connection, operation settings

PT Circuit
Transformers can also be used in electrical instrumentation systems. Due to
transformers' ability to step up or step down voltage and current, and the electrical isolation
they provide, they can serve as a way of connecting electrical instrumentation to high-
voltage, high current power systems. Suppose we wanted to accurately measure the voltage
of a 13.8 kV power system

__________________________________________________

Designing, installing, and maintaining a voltmeter capable of directly measuring
13,800 volts AC would be no easy task. The safety hazard alone of bringing 13.8 kV
conductors into an instrument panel would be severe, not to mention the design of the
voltmeter itself. However, by using a precision step-down transformer, we can reduce the
13.8 kV down to a safe level of voltage at a constant ratio, and isolate it from the instrument
connections, adding an additional level of safety to the metering system:

__________________________________________________

Power Factor Meter
The single-phase meter contains a fixed coil that carries the load current, and crossed coils
that are connected to the load voltage. There is no spring to restrain the moving system,
which takes a position to indicate the angle between the current and voltage. The scale can
be marked in degrees or in power factor.
The angle between the currents in the crossed coils is a function of frequency, and
consequently each power-factor meter is designed for a single frequency and will be in error
at all other frequencies.
A power factor meter is a type of electrodynamometer movement when it is
made with two movable coils set at right angles to each other. The method of connection
of this type of power factor meter, in a 3f circuit.
The two stationary coils, S and S1, are connected in series in Phase B. Coils M and
M1 are mounted on a common shaft, which is free to move without restraint or control
springs. These coils are connected with their series resistors from Phase B to Phase A
and from Phase B to Phase C. At a power factor of unity, one potential coil
current leads and one lags the current in Phase B by 30; thus, the coils are
balanced in the position shown in Figure.

__________________________________________________

A change in power factor will cause the current of one potential coil to become more
in phase and the other potential coil to be more out of phase with the current in
Phase B, so that the moving element and pointer take a new position of balance to show the
new power factor.

Fig (Power Factor Meter)
Wattmeter

Definition
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the
supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electric power is measured by
means of a wattmeter. This instrument is of the electrodynamic type. It consists of a pair of
fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil. The fixed
coils are made up of a few turns of a comparatively large conductor. The potential coil
consists of many turns of fine wire. It is mounted on a shaft, carried in jeweled bearings, so
that it may turn inside the stationary coils. The movable coil carries a needle which moves
over a suitably marked scale. Spiral coil springs hold the needle to a zero position. The figure
below shows the circuit of a simple wattmeter.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Wattmeter)
__________________________________________________

THE TWO-METER WATTMETER METHOD
The wattmeter consists of two circuits, either of which will be damaged if too much current
is passed through them. This fact is to be especially emphasized in the case of watt meters,
because the reading of the instrument does not serve to tell the user that the coils are being
overheated.
If an ammeter or voltmeter is overloaded, the pointer will be indicating beyond the upper
limit of its scale. In the wattmeter, both the current and potential circuits may be carrying
such an overload that their insulation is burning, and yet the pointer may be only part way up
the scale.
This is because the position of the pointer depends upon the power factor of the circuit as
well as upon the voltage and current. Thus, a low power-factor circuit will give a very low
reading on the wattmeter even when the current and potential circuits are loaded to the
maximum safe limit.
This safe rating is generally given on the face of the instrument. A wattmeter is always
distinctly rated, not in watts but in volts and amperes. The Bellow Figure shows the proper
way to connect a wattmeter in various circuits.

Fig (A wattmeter connected in various circuits of TWO-PHASE SYSTEM )

__________________________________________________

Unit - IV
Special Instruments & Bridges

Merz price maximum demand indicator Tri vector meter - Synchroscope - Construction and
working of Weston type - Phase sequence indicator construction and working of rotating
type - Frequency meter mechanical resonance (vibrating reed type) and Weston type
frequency meters digital frequency meter (simplified composite block diagram) -XY
recorder Block diagram and applications - Electronic Multimeter Digital Multimeter -
Bridges - Wheatstone Bridge Basic form of AC bridge Anderson and Schering bridge for
measurement of Inductance and capacitance (No derivation Formula only)
Bridges
A circuit composed of a source and four impedances that is used in the measurement of a
wide range of physical quantities. The bridge circuit is useful in measuring impedances
(resistors, capacitors, and inductors) and in converting signals from transducers to related
voltage or current signals

The bridge impedances Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, shown in the illustration may be single impedances
(resistor, capacitor, or inductor), combinations of impedances, or a transducer with varying
impedance. For example, strain gages are resistive transducers whose resistance changes
when they are deformed.
Bridge circuits are often used with transducers to convert physical quantities (temperature,
displacement, pressure) to electrical quantities (voltage and current). High-accuracy
voltmeters and ammeters are relatively inexpensive, and the voltage form of a signal is
usually most convenient for information display, control decisions, and data storage. Another
__________________________________________________

important advantage of the bridge circuit is that it provides greater measurement sensitivity
than the transducer.
The bridge circuit is balanced when the output read by the meter is zero. In this condition
the voltages on both sides of the meter are identical. The bridge is used in two forms. The
null adjustment method requires adjustment of a calibrated impedance to balance it. In this
case the meter is usually a highly sensitive current-measuring galvanometer.
The null adjustment method is often used to measure impedances, with the output read
from a dial attached to the adjustable impedance. The deflection method requires on accurate
meter in the bridge to measure the deviation from the balance condition. The deviation is
proportional to the quantity being measured.
There are many special forms of the bridge circuit. When all of the impedances are
resistive, it is commonly called a Wheatstone bridge. Other common forms use a current
source in place of the voltage source, a sinusoidal source in place of a constant (dc) source,
or branch impedances which are specific combinations of single passive impedances.
The bridge circuit is also used in a variety of electrical applications varying from oscillators
to instrumentation amplifier circuits for extremely accurate measurements.

Schering Bridge
A Schering Bridge is a bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical capacitance
and its dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the the ratio of its
resistance to its capacitive reactance. The Schering Bridge is basically a four-arm
alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the loads
on its arms. Below the figure shows a diagram of the Schering Bridge.

__________________________________________________

In the Schering Bridge above, the resistance values of resistors R1 and R2 are known, while
the resistance value of resistor R3 is unknown. The capacitance values of C1 and C2 are also
known, while the capacitance of C3 is the value being measured.
To measure R3 and C3, the values of C2 and R2 are fixed, while the values of R1 and C1 are
adjusted until the current through the ammeter between points A and B becomes zero. This
happens when the voltages at points A and B are equal, in which case the bridge is said to be
'balanced'.
When the bridge is balanced, Z1/C2 = R2/Z3, where Z1 is the impedance of R1 in parallel
with C1 and Z3 is the impedance of R3 in series with C3. In an AC circuit that has a capacitor,
the capacitor contributes a capacitive reactance to the impedance. The capacitive reactance
of a capacitor C is 1/2fC.
As such, Z1 = R1/[2fC1((1/2fC1) + R1)] = R1/(1 + 2fC1R1) while Z3 = 1/2fC3 + R3.
Thus, when the bridge is balanced:
2fC2R1/(1+2fC1R1) = R2/(1/2fC3 + R3); or
2fC2(1/2fC3 + R3) = (R2/R1)(1+2fC1R1); or
C2/C3 + 2fC2R3 = R2/R1 + 2fC1R2.
When the bridge is balanced, the negative and positive reactive components are equal and
cancel out,
so 2fC2R3 = 2fC1R2 or
R3 = C1R2 / C2.
__________________________________________________

Similarly, when the bridge is balanced, the purely resistive components are equal, so
C2/C3 = R2/R1 or
C3 = R1C2 / R2.
Wheatstone Bridges
Define
An instrument or a circuit consisting of four resistors or their equivalent in series, used to
determine the value of an unknown resistance when the other three resistances are known as
Wheatstone Bridges.
A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833
and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. It is used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which
includes the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.

An instrument or a circuit consisting of four resistors or their equivalent in series, used to
determine the value of an unknown resistance when the other three resistances are known.
If the network is adjusted so that Eq. (1) is satisfied, the
1.
detector current will be zero and this adjustment will be independent of the supply voltage,
the supply resistance, and the detector resistance. Thus, when the bridge is balanced, Eq. (2)
__________________________________________________

2.
holds, and, if it is assumed that the unknown resistance is the one in the CD arm of the
bridge, then it is given by Eq. (3).
3.

APPLICATIONS OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
A number of resistance measuring devices have been devised on the principle of Wheatstone
bridge.
Meter bridge
Post office box
Potentiometer
Carey Foster's bridge
Callendar bridge
Griffith's bridge
Tri vector meter
Tri vector meter can measure active power ,reactive power ,apparent power i.e. with the
help of a single meter we can measure kva,kw,kvar. The power triangle is sum of (kW ,
kVAR, kVA) and the meter which gives readings all of the above variables is called TRI vector
meter.
__________________________________________________

Fig (Trivector Meter)
Electronic Multi meter
A multi meter suitable for indicating the ampere-squared hours, the volt-
squared hours, and the watt-hours in an electrical circuit. Three separate voltage-to-
frequency circuits are connected to shared timing and power supply circuits. Electrical signals
corresponding to the voltage and current in the monitored electrical circuit are applied by
appropriate connections to the voltage-to-frequency circuits through multiplier circuits.
One multiplier circuit squares the current, another multiplier circuit squares the
voltage, and still another multiplier circuit provides the product of the current and voltage to
__________________________________________________

yield a power indication. Programmable dividing circuits reduce the number of pulses which
are counted and displayed by the multi meter and enable the display of measured parameters
in exact engineering units. An output is included for applying a digital signal responsive to the
indicated quantities to a recorder or computer.

Fig(Electronic Muliti meter)
Digital Frequency Meter

__________________________________________________

Fig (Digital Frequency Meter)

Frequency Meter
A Frequency meter device for measuring the repetitions per unit of time (customarily, a
second) of a complete electromagnetic waveform. Various types of frequency meters are
used. Many are instruments of the deflection type, ordinarily used for measuring low
frequencies but capable of being used for frequencies as high as 900 Hz. These operate by
balancing two opposing forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured cause a change in
this balance that can be measured by the deflection of a pointer on a scale.

__________________________________________________

Fig(Frequency Meter)
Frequency Meter Block Diagram

__________________________________________________

Phase Sequence Indicator
An electronic phase-sequence indicator for indicating the cyclic sequence order for
three-phase electric systems using a single-phase indicator-detector having an ammeter
circuit and a voltmeter circuit interconnected to the three-phase system with resistors and
capacitors, or alternatively with inductances and capacitors.
The voltmeter moving element is placed between the pole pieces of a ferromagnetic
circuit and is composed of a small freely Rotatable frame, upon which the voltmeter small coil
is wound and which is composed of many turns of a very thin copper wire. Upon the axle of
the small frame two spiral springs are mounted having the functions of determining the
counteracting torque and of conveying the voltmeter current to the small coil.
The voltmeter pointer is mounted upon the axle of the voltmeter moving element and is
of the center-zero type, with a dial, divided by a line into two sectors, each of which
respectively represents a predetermined indication for the correct and simple use of the
sequence-phase indicator.

Fig (Phase Sequence Indicator)
__________________________________________________

Synchroscope
A synchroscope indicates when two AC generators are in the correct phase
relation for connecting in parallel and shows whether the incoming generator is running
faster or slower than the on-line generator. The synchroscope consists of a two-phase
stator.
The two stator windings are at right angles to one another, and by means of a phase-
splitting network, the current in one phase leads the current of the other phase by 90,
thereby generating a rotating magnetic field.
The stator windings are connected to the incoming generator, and a polarizing coil is
connected to the running generator. The rotating element is unrestrained and is free to rotate
through 360.
It consists of two iron vanes mounted in opposite directions on a shaft, one at the
top and one at the bottom, and magnetized by the polarizing coil
An instrument used for indicating whether two alternating-current (ac) generators or other
ac voltage sources are synchronized in time phase with each other. Its main use is in power
supply networks where, if two generators are to be operated in parallel or an additional
generator is to be coupled into the grid, it is essential that the generator voltages should be
matched in amplitude, frequency, and phase.
New power stations are often equipped with automatic means of synchronizing generators.
But many synchroscopes of the traditional types are still in use and are likely to remain so for
many years.
The term synchroscope is also sometimes applied to a special type of cathode-ray
oscilloscope designed for observing extremely short pulses, using fast sweeps synchronized
with the signal to be observed.
__________________________________________________

Fig (Synchronizing System for a Substation Breaker)
Transducers
Definition
Transducers are electric or electronic devices that transform energy from one manifestation
into another. Most people, when they think of transducers, think specifically of devices that
perform this transformation in order to gather or transfer information, but really, anything
that converts energy can be considered a transducer.
Transducers that detect or transmit information include common items such as microphones,
Geiger meters, potentiometers, pressure sensors, thermometers, and antennae. A
microphone, for example, converts sound waves that strike its diaphragm into an analogous
electrical signal that can be transmitted over wires. A pressure sensor turns the physical force
being exerted on the sensing apparatus into an analog reading that can be easily
represented.
Capacitive sensors
Capacitive sensors can directly sense a variety of thingsmotion, chemical composition,
electric fieldand, indirectly, sense many other variables which can be converted into motion
or dielectric constant, such as pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition.

__________________________________________________

Fig(Capacitive Sensor)
Capacitive sensors use the electrical property of "capacitance" to make measurements.
Capacitance is a property that exists between any two conductive surfaces within some
reasonable proximity. Changes in the distance between the surfaces changes the capacitance.
It is this change of capacitance that capacitive sensors use to indicate changes in position of
a target. High-performance displacement sensors use small sensing surfaces and as result
are positioned close to the targets (0.25-2 mm).

__________________________________________________

Inductive sensors
Inductive proximity sensors are used in many areas of factory automation & control. These
highly reliable sensors detect metals by using a high-frequency electromagnetic field.
Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, traffic lights, car washes,
and a host of automated industrial processes. Because the sensor does not require physical
contact it is particularly useful for applications where access presents challenges or where dirt
is prevalent. The sensing range is rarely greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no
directionality.

Fig (Inductive Sensors)
__________________________________________________

LVDT

Proximity sensors
A Proximity sensor can detect objects without physical contact. A proximity sensor often
emits an electromagnetic field or beam and look for changes in the field. The object being
sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor targets
demand different sensors. For example, a capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable
for a plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor requires a metal target.
A proximity sensor that measures current flow between the sensing electrode and the target
provides readouts in appropriate engineering units. Usually, one side of the voltage source or
oscillator connects to the sensing electrode, and the other side connects through a current-
measuring circuit to the target, which generally is a metal part at earth or ground potential.

__________________________________________________

Fig (Proximity Sensors)

RVDT
The Rotational Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) is used to measure rotational
angles and operates under the same principles as the LVDT sensor. Whereas the LVDT uses a
cylindrical iron core, the RVDT uses a rotary ferromagnetic core. A schematic is shown below.

__________________________________________________

Advantage and Disadvantage
Advantage:
1. Relative low cost due to its popularity.
2. Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments.
3. No friction resistance, since the iron core does not contact the transformer coils, resulting
in an very long service life.
4. High signal to noise ratio and low output impedance.
5. Negligible hysteresis.
6. Infinitesimal theoretical resolution. In reality, angle resolution is limited by the resolution
of the amplifiers and voltage meters used to process the output signal.
7. No permanent damage to the RVDT if measurements exceed the designed range.
Disadvantage:
- The core must be in contact (directly or indirectly) with the measured surface which is
not always possible or desirable.

__________________________________________________

Thermistors

Fig (Thermistors)
__________________________________________________

Thermocouples

__________________________________________________

Fig (Thermocouples)

__________________________________________________

Application Thermistor
There are 6 basic applications in the thermistor
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Differential
Temperature Control
Temperature Compensation
Time Delay
Surge Suppression

Metal Resistance Thermometer
A class of alloys, when converted to amorphous form by quenching from the molten state, is
useful for sensing temperature by virtue of a temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity
that is negative over a usefully wide range, including the neighborhood of absolute zero. Such
alloys comprise three components: a metal of the platinum series, silicon or germanium, and
an inner member of the first series of transition metals. A preferred type of composition is
Pd80-x Si20 Crx, where x may have any value.
Tachometer
An instrument that measures angular speed, as that of a rotating shaft. The measurement
may be in revolutions over an independently measured time interval, as in a revolution
counter, or it may be directly in revolutions per minute.
The instrument may also indicate the average speed over a time interval or the
instantaneous speed. Tachometers are used for direct measurement of angular speed and as
elements of control systems to furnish a signal as a function of angular speed.
A tachometer is an instrument designed to measure the speed of an object or substance.
The word is formed from Greek roots: tachos, meaning speed, and metron, meaning
measure. The traditional tachometer is laid out as a dial, with a needle indicating the current
reading and marking safe and dangerous levels. Recently, digital tachometers giving a direct
numeric output have become more common.
__________________________________________________

In its most familiar form, a tachometer measures the speed at which a mechanical device is
rotating. A common example is the tachometer found on automobile dashboards. In this
application, the tachometer measures the revolutions per minute (RPMs) of the engine drive
shaft. It is important to monitor engine RPMs, as running the engine at excessively high rates
can drastically shorten engine life.

Fig (Tachnometer)

ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST

MI

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

MI

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

E EE E- -- -Learning Learning Learning Learning Material Material Material Material

Вам также может понравиться