Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:

The Theory of 16 Basic Desires

Steven Reiss
The Ohio State University
Review of eneral !sycholo"y# $%%&# '# 1()*1)+,
Please send reprint requests to: Steven Reiss, 321 McCampbell Hall, 1581 odd rive,
!"io State #niversit$, Columbus, !H %321&'12()* email: reiss*+,osu*edu
September, 2&&2
Revised: -ebruar$, 2&&3
. Cop$ri/"t Steven Reiss, 0ll Ri/"ts Reserved 1o part o2 t"is document ma$ be
reproduced, copied, distributed or stored 3it"out 3ritten permission 2rom t"e aut"or*
-.stract
4"ite 51(5(6 proposed t"at certain motives7suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, and
pla$ 5called intrinsic motives or 8Ms6 9 "ave common c"aracteristics t"at distin/uis"
t"em 2rom drives* :"e evidence t"at master$ is common to 8Ms is anecdotal, not
scienti2ic* :"e assertion t"at ;intrinsic en<o$ment= is common to 8Ms e>a//erates t"e
si/ni2icance o2 pleasure in "uman motivation and e>presses t"e "edonistic 2allac$ o2
con2usin/ consequence 2or cause* 1ot"in/ "as been s"o3n scienti2icall$ to be common to
8Ms t"at di22erentiate t"em 2rom drives* 0n empiricall$ testable t"eor$ o2 1) basic
desires is put 2ort" based on ps$c"ometric researc" and subsequent be"avior validation*
:"e desires are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er and ma$ "ave di22erent evolutionar$
"istories*

2
Multifaceted Nature of Intrinsic Motivation:
The Theory of 16 Basic Desires
Motives are reasons people "old 2or initiatin/ and per2ormin/ voluntar$ be"avior*
:"e$ indicate t"e meanin/ o2 "uman be"avior, and t"e$ ma$ reveal a person?s values*
Motives o2ten a22ect a person?s perception, co/nition, emotion, and be"avior* 0 person
3"o is "i/"l$ motivated to /ain social status, 2or e>ample, ma$ be observant o2 mar@s o2
social distinction, ma$ t"in@ o2ten about issues pertainin/ to 3ealt", ma$ especiall$ en<o$
t"e 2eelin/ o2 sel2'importance, and ma$ be"ave in 3a$s associated 3it" upper'class
status
1
* A$ de2inin/ motives as reasons, 3e do not impl$ t"at motives are primaril$
co/nitive, an$more t"an establis"in/ a motive 2or a crime in a court o2 la3 requires
conscious premeditation* 0 person can "ave a reason to be"ave, and t"us a motive,
3it"out necessaril$ bein/ a3are o2 it*
0ristotle 51(53B33& ACC6 divided motives into ends versus means based on t"e
individual?s purpose 2or per2ormin/ t"e be"avior* Cnds are indicated 3"en a person
en/a/es in a be"avior 2or no apparent reason ot"er t"an t"at is 3"at t"e person desires to
do* C>amples include a c"ild pla$in/ ball 2or p"$sical e>ercise and a student readin/ a
boo@ out o2 curiosit$* 8n eac" o2 t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal is desired 2or its o3n sa@e* 8n
contrast, means are indicated 3"en a person per2orms an act 2or its instrumental value*
C>amples include a pro2essional at"lete 3"o pla$s ball 2or a salar$ and a student 3"o
studies to improve a /rade* 8n eac" o2 t"ese e>amples, t"e /oal 5salar$, /rade6 is desired
because it produces somet"in/ else* 0 person mi/"t see@ a salar$, 2or e>ample, as a
means o2 en"ancin/ social status, or "i/" /rades as a means o2 pleasin/ a parent*
0n anal$sis o2 a person?s be"avior ma$ identi2$ a series o2 instrumental acts
2ollo3ed b$ one or more end /oals t"at complete t"e ;be"avior c"ain*= -or e>ample, a
person ma$ ta@e a second <ob 2or t"e e>tra salar$ 5instrumental motive6, desire t"e e>tra
salar$ to purc"ase "ealt" care 5instrumental motive6, and desire t"e "ealt" care to bene2it
"is or "er 2amil$ 5end /oal6* :"is e>ample o2 a simple be"avior c"ain s"o3s t"ree
be"aviors, t3o motivated b$ instrumental /oals and a t"ird motivated b$ an end /oal*
Do/icall$, onl$ /oals t"at are desired 2or t"eir o3n sa@e can serve as t"e ;end= o2 a
purpose2ul e>planation o2 a series o2 "uman acts*
:"e number o2 instrumental motives is 2or all practical purposes unlimited* !nl$
ima/ination limits "o3 man$ di22erent 3a$s individuals can pursue t"e end /oal o2, sa$,
po3er* Eenerall$, t"ere seems to be little or no point to listin/ instrumental motives
because no matter "o3 compre"ensive a list "appens to be somebod$ can probabl$
ima/ine an additional instrumental motive t"at 3as overloo@ed and could be added to t"e
list* 8n contrast, t"e number o2 ends is limited b$ "uman nature* 0 central issue 2or
ps$c"olo/$ s"ould be to identi2$ and classi2$ t"e end purposes o2 "uman be"avior,
because ends indicate t"e ultimate /oals o2 muc" o2 3"at people do*
:3o t"eoretical perspectives "ave been advanced concernin/ end /oals* Multi'
2aceted t"eor$ "olds t"at t"e various end /oals are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er,
per"aps to t"e point 3"ere t"e$ are /eneticall$ distinct sources o2 motivation 3it"
di22erent evolutionar$ "istories* Multi'2aceted t"eorists include p"ilosop"ers 3"o "ave
su//ested lists o2 t"e most 2undamental motives o2 "uman nature 5e*/*, SpinFoa,
1(%(B1)+56, ps$c"olo/ists 3"o "ave put 2ort" evolutionar$ t"eories o2 motivation 5e*/*,
3
Mcou/all, 1(2)6, and ps$c"olo/ists 3"o "ave su//ested t"eories o2 "uman needs 5e*/*,
Murra$, 1(386*
8n contrast, unitar$ or /lobal t"eorists "old t"at end /oals can be pro2itabl$
reduced to a small number o2 cate/ories based on common c"aracteristics* #nitar$
t"eorists see@ t"e underl$in/ ps$c"olo/ical principles t"at are e>pressed b$ diverse
motivational events* :"e ancient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, 2or e>ample, reduced end /oals
into cate/ories e>pressin/ t"e needs o2 t"e bod$, mind, and soul 5e*/*, Plato, 1())B3+5
ACC6* Hedonists distin/uis"ed bet3een end /oals associated 3it" pleasure en"ancement
versus pain reduction 5Russell, 1(%56* -reud 51()3B1(1)6 reduced motives to se>ual and
a//ressive instincts*
:oda$, some social ps$c"olo/ists classi2$ end /oals into t3o /lobal cate/ories,
called drives and intrinsic motives 58Ms6* :"e distinction "as been in2luential 7 1,(21
sc"olarl$ publications on intrinsic motivation 58M6 appeared durin/ t"e period o2 Ganuar$
1()+ to Ma$ 2&&2 5source: PsychInfo6* 8M "as been investi/ated in social ps$c"olo/$
5e*/, R$an H eci, 2&&&6, developmental ps$c"olo/$ 5e*/*, Harter, 1(816, clinical
ps$c"olo/$ 5e*/*, Cisenber/er H Cameron, 1(()6, or/aniFational ps$c"olo/$ 5e*/*,
Hou@es, Ganssen, Gon/e, H 1i<"uis, 2&&16, and in educational ps$c"olo/$ 5e*/*, Io"n,
1((36*
8n t"is article, 3e 3ill e>amine "o3 various end /oals relate to eac" ot"er* 4e
3ill consider t"e meanin/ o2 t"e concept o2 ;8M= and 3ill as@, ;4"at, i2 an$t"in/,
<usti2ies classi2$in/ end /oals into a unitar$, /lobal cate/or$ o2 intrinsic motivationJ= 8n
discussin/ t"is issue, 3e 3ill not consider t"e p"enomenon o2 ;underminin/ e22ects,= in
3"ic" e>trinsic re3ards decrease intrinsic motivation* :"ese e22ects "ave been discussed
in detail in numerous prior publications 5eci, Ioestner, H R$an, 1(((: Cisenber/er H
Cameron, 1(((K Reiss H Sus"ins@$, 1(+56* 4e 3ill propose a t"eor$ o2 end /oals, called
t"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires, and summariFe evidence s"o3in/ t"e multi2aceted nature
o2 end motives* 4e be/in our discussion b$ considerin/ t"e be"aviorist concept o2 drive,
because 8M 3as developed to s"o3 t"e limitations o2 t"is concept*
I, DRI/0 T10OR2
:"orndi@e?s 51(116 la3 o2 e22ect reduced "uman motivation to cate/ories o2
re3ard and punis"ment* :"is la3 "olds t"at responses are stren/t"ened 3"en t"e$ lead
to satis2action and 3ea@ened 3"en t"e$ lead to punis"ment* Ps$c"olo/ists stud$in/
learnin/ soon realiFed :"orndi@e?s la3 is a tautolo/$, or a proposition t"at is ;circular=
5true b$ de2inition*6 :"e 2ollo3in/ statements, 2or e>ample, are circular 3it" respect to
eac" ot"er: ;Re3ards stren/t"en be"avior,= and ;0n$ event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior is
a re3ard*=
:"e concept o2 drive 3as introduced to escape 2rom t"e circularit$ o2 t"e la3 o2
e22ect 5Aro3n, 1()1*6 8nstead o2 identi2$in/ ;re3ards= as an$ stimulus or satis2$in/
event t"at stren/t"ens be"avior, drive t"eorists de2ined ;re3ard= as a reduction in a state
o2 deprivation* :"e statements, ;drive reduction stren/t"ens be"avior,= and ;drive
reduction occurs 3"en a state o2 deprivation is lessened,= are not circular 3it" respect to
eac" ot"er*
Hull 51(%36 reco/niFed 2our t$pes o2 drives7"un/er, t"irst, se>, and escape 2rom
pain* 8n man$ animal learnin/ e>periments investi/ators induced drives b$ deprivin/
animals o2 an important need prior to t"e e>periment* :"e deprivation o2 2ood, 2or
e>ample, establis"es 2ood as a po3er2ul re3ard, increasin/ t"e animal?s motivation to
%
learn responses t"at produce 2ood 5S@inner, 1(386* Muc" o2 animal learnin/ t"eor$ is
based on t"e results o2 ps$c"olo/ical studies 3it" 2ood'deprived or 3ater'deprived
animals*
2

II, UNIT-R2 IM T10OR2
:"e unitar$ construct o2 8M 3as put 2ort" as an alternative to drive t"eor$* :"e
initial insi/"t 3as t"at man$ o2 t"e motives not e>plained 3ell b$ drive t"eor$ 9 motives
suc" as e>ploration 5curiosit$6, autonom$, and pla$ '' "ave common properties* :o a
lar/e e>tent, unitar$ 8M t"eor$ initiall$ represented an attempt to s"o3 t"e essential
di22erences bet3een drives and 3"at ps$c"od$namic t"eorists "ave called ;e/o motives*=
8n t"e past, t"e distinction bet3een drives and 8Ms "as been t"ou/"t to "ave a
p"$siolo/ical basis, at least accordin/ to some publis"ed remar@s* :"e /eneral idea 3as
t"at drives suc" as "un/er and t"irst arise 2rom ;tissue needs= involvin/ ;perip"eral=
components o2 t"e nervous s$stem, 3"ereas 8Ms arise 2rom ps$c"olo/ical or co/nitive
processes involvin/ primaril$ central neural activit$* eci 51(+56, 2or e>ample, 3rote
t"at t"e primar$ e22ects o2 8M ;are in t"e tissues o2 t"e central nervous s$stem rat"er t"an
in t"e non'nervous s$stem tissues= 5p* )16* :"is p"$siolo/ical paradi/m 2or
distin/uis"in/ drives 2rom 8Ms al3a$s lac@ed scienti2ic supportK indeed, 3e no3 @no3
t"at it is p"$siolo/ical nonsense* Motives suc" as "un/er and t"irst, 2or e>ample, involve
si/ni2icant central nervous s$stem or co/nitive activit$ 5Aerntson H Cacioppo, 2&&&6*
Aot" t"e be"aviorist concept o2 ;drive,= and t"e concept o2 8M as ;non'drive,= "ave no
precise p"$siolo/ical meanin/, and ori/inall$ 3ere put 2ort" at a time 3"en little 3as
@no3n about t"e p"$siolo/$ o2 motivation*
-, M-ST0R2
4"ite?s 51(5(6 paper on competence motivation 5master$6 3as ar/uabl$ t"e start
o2 t"e current era o2 sc"olars"ip on 8M* 4"ite 51(5(6 asserted t"at e>ploration,
manipulation, and pla$ are not drives ori/inatin/ 2rom states o2 deprivation partiall$
because t"e$ are not related to ;visceral needs comparable to "un/er, t"irst, or se>=
51(5(, p* 3&16* C>ploration and pla$ ;cannot be re/arded as leadin/ to an$ @ind o2
consummator$ response= 5p* 3&16* He 2urt"er ar/ued t"at motives t"at are not drives
"ave ;ver$ vital common properties= 5p* 3186* 8n particular, suc" motives are concerned
3it" ;e22ective interactions 3it" t"e environment, under t"e /eneral "eadin/ o2
competence= 5p* 31+6* 4"ite?s motive 2or competence "as been variousl$ called
effectance motivation, competence motivation, and mastery* eci 51(+56 later embraced
4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at competence motivation is a common propert$ o2 non'drives,
de2inin/ 8M as be"avior ;3"ic" a person en/a/es in to 2eel competent and sel2'
determinin/= 5p* )16*
4"ite appreciated t"e need to validate "is idea o2 e22ectance motivation* He
3rote, ;1o doubt it 3ill at 2irst seem arbitrar$ to propose a sin/le motivational
conception in connection 3it" so man$ diverse @inds o2 be"avior* 4"at do 3e /ain b$
attributin/ motivational unit$ to suc" a diverse arra$ o2 activities= 54"ite, 1(5(, p* 3186*
He cited bot" Pia/et 51(526 and anecdotal observations to support "is "$pot"esis t"at
e22ectance motivation is common to e>ploration, manipulation, and pla$*
4"ite speculated on t"e development o2 e22ectance motivation* He su//ested t"at
in bot" in2ants and $oun/ c"ildren ;it seems sensible to conceive o2 e22ectance motivation
as undi22erentiated* Dater in li2e it becomes pro2itable to distin/uis" various motives suc"
5
as co/niFance, construction, master$, and ac"ievement* 8t is m$ vie3 t"at all suc"
motives "ave a root in e22ectance motivation= 54"ite, 1(5(, p* 3236*
Some o2 t"e appeal o2 4"ite?s t"eor$ is su//ested b$ t"e be"avior o2 $oun/
animals and c"ildren* Loun/ lion cubs, 2or e>ample, sometime seem to be burstin/ 3it"
ener/$ 9 t"e$ /et into misc"ie2, pla$ 3it" t"e ot"er cubs, e>plore t"eir environment, and
"ave a tendenc$ to 3ander a3a$ 2rom t"e /roup* 8n ot"er 3ords, t"e$ e>press sel2'
assertive ener/$ as pla$, e>ploration, manipulation, a desire 2or p"$sical e>ercise, and a
desire 2or autonom$* :"e$ create a stron/ impression t"at t"ese be"aviors are lin@ed b$
a common motive o2 sel2'assertion*
0necdotal observations, "o3ever, do not constitute scienti2ic evidence* 0s 2ar as
3e could determine, no researc"er "as presented scienti2ic tests o2 t"e "$pot"esis t"at
master$ is t"e aim o2 e>ploration, autonom$, and pla$* 4"ite 51(5(6 cited as evidence
2or "is "$pot"esis anecdotal e>amples o2 c"ildren at pla$ and "is interpretations o2 3"at
t"ose c"ildren 3ere reall$ aimin/ 2or 3it" t"eir be"avior* 0lt"ou/" "is interpretations
3ere reasonable and per"aps even insi/"t2ul, t"e$ did not rise to t"e standards o2
scienti2ic evidence* Part o2 t"e di22icult$ 3it" 4"ite?s "$pot"esis is t"e lac@ o2
quanti2ication and measurement, 3"ic" are t3o pillars o2 a scienti2ic approac"* 0s Harter
51(816 put it, ;:"e /lobal nature o2 t"is construct Me22ectance motivationN "as made it
di22icult to operationaliFe* 4"ite?s 2ormulation does not readil$ lend itsel2 to an
empirical test*= 5p* 3&16*
4"ite did not develop a measure o2 competence motivation* He did not assess
correlations bet3een competence motivation and various 8Ms, s"o3in/ t"at t"e$ are
si/ni2icantl$ "i/"er t"an correlations bet3een competence motivation and drives* 4"ite
did not propose speci2ic studies to test "is concept* He did not sa$ 3"at mi/"t 2alsi2$ "is
t"eor$* He developed some interestin/ ideas, but "e did not put 2ort" scienti2ic support
2or t"ose ideas*
Ia/an 51(+26 reco/niFed t"e need to develop measures o2 e22ectance motivation*
He su//ested t"at t"e$ be developed based on principles similar to t"ose used in t"e
:"ematic 0pperception :est 5Murra$, 1(%36* 1o suc" measure, "o3ever, "as been
validated* :"e validit$ o2 t"e :"ematic 0pperception :est, moreover, "as been called
into question 5Oubin, Cron, H Sc"umer, 1()56* :oda$, 2e3 researc"ers use t"e :0: or
ot"er stor$'tellin/ tec"niques to measure motivation*
4"ite?s ar/ument t"at master$ is a common element o2 t"e 8Ms is based on a ver$
broad interpretation o2 competence motivation* He de2ined competence motivation so
broadl$ it includes nearl$ all motives* !ne could ar/ue, 2or e>ample, t"at drives also
e>press a desire to interact e22ectivel$ 3it" t"e environment* 8n "un/er, 2or e>ample,
people 3ant to become e22ective "unters to 2ind 2ood* Some people spend a considerable
amount o2 ener/$ to become se>uall$ e22ective in attractin/ ot"ers* A$ puttin/ 2ort" a
su22icientl$ /eneral de2inition o2 competence motivation, it seems possible to ar/ue t"at
nearl$ an$ collection o2 diverse motives ma$ "ave common elements*
:"e "$pot"esis t"at e22ectance motivation is undi22erentiated at birt" and later
di22erentiates into t"e various 8Ms "as not been tested* 1obod$ "as observed t"e
predicted process o2 di22erentiation o2 master$ motivation* 1obod$ "as conducted
measurements o2 e22ectance motivation in an undi22erentiated state and in its predicted
di22erentiated 2orm, s"o3in/ t"at t"e 2ormer is lin@ed to t"e later*
)
8n conclusion, c"ildren s"o3 a need to 2eel competent and master t"eir
environments* :"is need, called master$, is important in c"ild"ood development and in
"uman be"avior /enerall$* :"e relations"ip bet3een master$ and ot"er e/o motives,
"o3ever, is not 3ell understood* Researc"ers need to develop met"ods to e>plore more
2ull$ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at master$ is t"e aim o2 important e/o motives suc" as
e>ploration, manipulation, and autonom$*
A, INTRINSI3 !40-SUR0S
8ntrinsic pleasure is anot"er common c"aracteristics o2 8Ms, accordin/ to unitar$
t"eorists* :"is vie3point "olds t"at people are motivated to en/a/e in activities t"e$
e>pect to e>perience as pleasurable* 4"en t"e pleasures are in"erent to t"e be"avior or
activit$ itsel2 9 suc" as dra3in/ 2or its o3n sa@e78M is imputed 5R$an H eci, 2&&&K
4einer, 1((56* 4"en t"e pleasures are e>ternal to t"e be"avior or activit$7suc" as
dra3in/ 2or a Eood Pla$er 03ard7e>trinsic motivation 5CM6 is imputed* 0s eci and
R$an 51(856 put it, ;4"en people are intrinsicall$ motivated, t"e$ e>perience interest and
en<o$ment, t"e$ 2eel competence and sel2'determinin/, t"e$ perceive t"e locus o2
causalit$ 2or t"eir be"avior to be internal, and in some instances, and t"e$ e>perience
2lo3= 5p* 3%6* 4einer 51((56 de2ined 8M as a source o2 motivation arisin/ 2rom t"e
enjoyment o2 an activit$*
B1, -R0 IMs !40-SUR0-B40J 8M t"eorists ma$ "ave erred in embracin/
"edonism 9 t"e p"ilosop"$ t"at pleasure motivates be"avior* !ver t"e centuries, sc"olars
"ave s"o3n a number o2 si/ni2icant limitations o2 pleasure t"eories* 0pplied to t"e
concept o2 intrinsic pleasures, 2or e>ample, 3e ma$ question 3"et"er or not 8M t"eorists
"ave e>a//erated t"e e>tent to 3"ic" certain activities reall$ are pleasurable*
8M t"eorists ar/uabl$ "ave e>a//erated t"e motivational si/ni2icance o2
intellectual pleasures* :"e$ "ave "eld t"at ever$bod$ is born 3it" t"e potential to en<o$
learnin/ 5e*/*, Io"n, 1((36* 4"en students do not en<o$ learnin/, as in t"e e>ample o2
"i/" sc"ool underac"ievers, 8M t"eorists blame ine22ective teac"in/, borin/ curricula, and
t"e 3idespread use o2 e>trinsic incentives suc" as /rades 5Io"n, 1((36* 8n order to
motivate students in sc"ool, unitar$ 8M t"eorists advise teac"ers to 2ind 3a$s to ma@e
learnin/ 2un 5Depper and Cordova, 1((26 and to tap into students? natural curiosit$*
8M t"eorists "ave presented little scienti2ic evidence to support t"e "$pot"esis t"at
ever$bod$ is born 3it" t"e potential to en<o$ learnin/* 0necdotal e>amples o2
adolescents and adults s"o3 t"at man$ people react to intellectual activities as i2 t"e$
3ere unpleasant* People o2ten sustain t"ou/"t on a problem 2or no more t"an brie2
periods o2 timeK t"e over3"elmin/ ma<orit$ o2 adults do not read boo@sK documentaries
are amon/ t"e least popular 2orm o2 2ilmsK and even man$ academics reduce intellectual
activit$ soon a2ter t"e$ earn a tenured teac"in/ position* :"ese e>amples are ar/uabl$
si/ns t"at intellectual activit$ is naturall$ unpleasant under man$ circumstances or i2
en/a/ed in 2or more t"an a 2e3 minutes at a time*
8M t"eorists ma$ "ave put 2ort" a misleadin/, almost romanticiFed description o2
t"e inquir$ process* :"e inquir$ process is not al3a$s pleasurable and o2ten involves
si/ni2icant ne/ative emotions* Man$ scientists "ave 3ritten about t"e a/on$ o2 t"e
creative inquir$ process and t"e emotional ups and do3ns o2 researc"*
4"ereas 8M t"eorists "ave said t"at t"e ps$c"olo/ical aim o2 inquir$ is
intellectual pleasure, t"e multi2aceted t"eor$ 3e propose later in t"is article implies t"at
t"e aims o2 inquir$ are learnin/ and @no3led/e* #nder our vie3point, "i/"l$ curious
+
people desire @no3led/e and understandin/ so stron/l$ t"e$ pursue t"e inquir$ process
even 3"en t"e$ must endure an>ieties, severe criticism, devastatin/ 2ailures, and ot"er
2rustrations* Ino3led/e is t"e end /oal o2 curiosit$, but t"in@in/, e>ploration, and
problem solvin/ are not necessaril$ pleasurable* :"in@in/ can be 2rustratin/, e>ploration
can arouse 2ear 5Games, 1(5&B18(&6, and problem solvin/ can be 2rustratin/*
8n conclusion, one problem 3it" t"e concept o2 intrinsic pleasures is t"at it
implies t"at intrinsicall$ motivated be"avior is more en<o$able t"an it seems to be*
8ntrinsic pleasure ma$ not be a common c"aracteristic o2 8Ms because sometimes 8Ms are
not necessaril$ pleasurable*
B$, DO0S INTRINSI3 !40-SUR0 MOTI/-T0 MU31 B01-/IOR5
Cven 3"en t"e per2ormance o2 an intrinsicall$ motivated be"avior is en<o$able,
3e cannot assume t"at t"e be"avior 3as motivated b$ t"e anticipation o2 suc" pleasure*
Pleasure can be a consequence o2 be"avior rat"er t"an a motivatin/ cause*
0ccordin/ to p"ilosop"ical critiques o2 "edonism 5e*/*, Russell, 1(%56, pleasure
is a consequence of gratification of a motive other than pleasure seeking. Please
consider Csi@sFentmi"al$i?s 51(((6 "$pot"esis t"at intrinsicall$'motivated people climb
mountains in order to e>perience a special @ind o2 pleasure called 2lo3* Reiss 52&&&a6
su//ested t"at 2lo3 is a consequence o2 satiatin/ t"e desire 2or p"$sical activit$, not an
intrinsic propert$ o2 climbin/* Csi@sFentmi"al$i 52&&&6 replied t"at people 3"o "ave
never climbed be2ore ma$ not @no3 t"e <o$s o2 climbin/, but a2ter t"e person learns t"at
climbin/ is pleasurable, t"e individual subsequentl$ climbs in order to e>perience suc"
pleasures* ;82 8 2eel "app$ a2ter "i@in/ in t"e mountains,= ar/ued Csi@sFentmi"al$i
52&&&6, ;c"ances are 8 3ill 3ant to e>perience t"at "appiness a/ain and ta@e anot"er
"i@e= 5p* 11)36* Pleasures are bot" ;causes and consequences= o2 be"avior, accordin/ to
Csi@sFentmi"al$i 52&&&6*
1ot so* 82 8 am p"$sicall$ tired, 2or e>ample, 8 3ill not en<o$ climbin/ mountains*
:"e en<o$ment does not arise 2rom t"e act o2 climbin/ per se, onl$ 2rom t"e act o2
climbin/ 3"ile satiatin/ t"e motive 2or p"$sical e>ercise* :"e pleasure is not in"erent to
t"e activit$, but is a non'motivational b$product o2 satiatin/ t"e desire 2or p"$sical
activit$*
Suppose that Mary is a curious person who reads, learns, and then experiences
pleasure. Suppose that Susan is an active person who climbs a mountain and then
experiences pleasure. In predicting and explaining the behavior of these two people,
we need to know that one person is motivated by curiosity and the other is motivated by
fitness. We add nothing significant by invoking unitary IM theory and arguing that it
was anticipated pleasure! or flow! that motivated each.
3, INDI/IDU-4 DI660R0N30S
#nitar$ t"eor$ seems inconsistent 3it" individual di22erences re/ardin/ di22erent
8Ms* 82 competence motivation is t"e developmental ori/in o2 bot" autonom$ and
curiosit$, people 3it" above'avera/e competence motivation also s"ould develop above'
avera/e autonom$ and curiosit$, so trait autonom$ and trait curiosit$ s"ould be
si/ni2icantl$ correlated* Hi/"l$ autonomous people s"ould be "i/"l$ curious* :"ese
implications o2 unitar$ 8M t"eor$ are unsupported b$ scienti2ic evidence* 8n 2actor
studies o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile ps$c"ometric instrument 5Reiss H Havercamp, 1((86,
moreover, t"e correlation bet3een 2actors assessin/ trait autonom$ 5independence6 and
8
trait curiosit$ 3as virtuall$ nil, r P *&5, 1 P 1,15%* Since "i/"l$ autonomous people are
not necessaril$ "i/"l$ curious, "o3 can autonom$ and curiosit$ be about t"e same t"in/
5master$6J
D, 3ON34USIONS
4"ite 51(5(6 put 2ort" t"e t"esis t"at 8Ms suc" as curiosit$, autonom$, and pla$
"ave common c"aracteristics <usti2$in/ a ;sin/le name= 5p* 31+6, meanin/ a sin/le
cate/or$ o2 motivation* 1o common c"aracteristics "ave been s"o3n scienti2icall$*
1eit"er competence motivation nor intrinsic pleasure "as been s"o3n to distin/uis" 8Ms
2rom drives* 4"ite?s "$pot"esis lac@s adequate scienti2ic support and seems inconsistent
3it" individual di22erences* 4"ite "imsel2 admitted t"at "is "$pot"esis 3as speculative
in t"at t"e 8Ms appear to be too diverse to "ave si/ni2icant common c"aracteristics*
III, MU4TI6-30T0D N-TUR0 O6 0ND O-4S
:"rou/"out "istor$ man$ sc"olars "ave e>pressed a multi2aceted t"eor$ o2 end
motivation 5;doin/ somet"in/ 2or its o3n sa@e*=6* 0ristotle, 2or e>ample, identi2ied 12
end motives: con2idence, pleasure, savin/, ma/ni2icence, "onor, ambition, patience,
sincerit$, conversation, social contact, modest$, and ri/"teousness* escartes
51(58B1)3+6, on t"e ot"er "and, listed si> ;passions o2 t"e soul*= He 3rote, ;:"ere are
onl$ si> Mintrinsic motivesN 3"ic" are simple and primitive, viF*, 3onder, love, "atred,
desire, <o$ and sadness* 0ll ot"ers are composed o2 t"ese si> Q= 5p* 2(16* Games
51(5&B18(&6 and Mcou/all 51(2)6 reco/niFed bet3een 8 and 2& ;instincts*=
3
4"en
ps$c"od$namic ps$c"olo/$ /ained in2luence, Murra$ 51(386 reinterpreted Mcou/all?s
list o2 instincts into a list o2 2& basic ps$c"olo/ical needs*
%
Maslo3 51(%36 also put 2ort"
a t"eor$ o2 diverse "uman motives*
Some ps$c"olo/ists "ave ta@en stron/ e>ception to e22orts to develop lists o2 end
motives* Critics "ave ar/ued t"at 8 to 2& 2undamental motives are too man$ to be studied
pro2itabl$ 5-reeman, 0nderson, 0Fer, Eirolami, H Scotti, 1((86* Aiolo/ists stud$ scores
o2 enF$mes, and c"emists stud$ 115 elements* Since 3e do not sa$ t"at biolo/ists stud$
;too man$= enF$mes, or t"at c"emists stud$ ;too man$= elements, 3"$ s"ould 3e t"in@
t"at 8 to 2& basic motives are ;too man$= 2or ps$c"olo/ists to stud$J Scienti2ic rules
permit ps$c"olo/ists to stud$ as man$ 2undamental motives as can be identi2ied* 4e do
not 3ant to invent a motive 2or ever$ be"avior, o2 course, but 3e also do not 3ant to
proceed based on invalid, preconceived notions o2 "o3 man$ motives t"ere are*
Cvolutionar$ t"eor$ su//ests a multi'2aceted model o2 8Ms* 4"en 3e consider
t"e various 8Ms, t"e$ seem relevant to di22erent survival needs, su//estin/ possibl$
distinct motives controlled b$ di22erent /enes* C22icac$, 2or e>ample, motivates buildin/
nests and ot"ers 2orms o2 s"elter, 3"ic" "ave t"e survival value o2 protectin/ animals
2rom "ars" environmental elements* 0utonom$ 9 t"e desire 2or 2reedom 9 motivates
animals to leave t"e nest 3"en t"e$ come o2 a/e, spreadin/ t"e searc" 2or 2ood over a
lar/er /eo/rap"ical area* :"ese considerations su//est at least a possibilit$ o2 separate
evolutionar$ "istories, 3"ic" supports t"e idea t"at 8Ms are multi2aceted*
-, 6-3TORI-4 STUDI0S O6 0ND MOTI/-TION
Since 1((5, 8 "ave been developin/ a list o2 diverse 8Ms, variousl$ called t"e
theory of 16 basic desires or sensitivity theory* M$ /raduate students and 8 "ave been
(
/at"erin/ evidence s"o3in/ t"e reliabilit$, 2actorial validit$, and be"avioral validit$ o2
t"is list* A$ validatin/ a variet$ o2 lar/el$ unrelated end motives 53"at people see@ 2or
its o3n sa@e6, m$ collea/ues and 8 "ave sou/"t to s"o3 t"at end motivation is, in 2act,
multi2aceted*
Reiss and Havercamp 51((), 1((86 de2ined basic or 2undamental motives to "ave
t"ree 2eatures: 516 end purposes 58Ms6, 526 universal motivators, and 536 ps$c"olo/ical
importance* :"e criterion o2 ps$c"olo/ical importance is intended to 2ocus multi2aceted
t"eor$ on be"aviors t"at "istoricall$ "ave been central to ps$c"olo/ical personalit$
t"eor$* Catin/, 2or e>ample, is considered to be ps$c"olo/icall$ important because
aspects o2 culture, man$ ever$da$ activities, and some clinical disorders are concerned
3it" 2ood and 2ood preparationK on t"e ot"er "and, t"irst is not considered to be a
2undamental motivator because it does not account 2or a si/ni2icant amount o2 ever$da$
be"avior o2 interest to ps$c"olo/ists* 4it"out t"e criterion o2 ps$c"olo/ical si/ni2icance,
t"ere ma$ be scores o2 basic motives additional to t"ose considered in t"is article,
includin/ one 2or eac" biolo/ical need*
4e be/an our e22ort to identi2$ t"e basic motives o2 "uman be"avior b$
developin/ a list o2 ever$ motive 3e could ima/ine* 4e consulted a variet$ o2 re2erence
sources and as@ed collea/ues 2or su//estions* 4e obtained ideas 2rom Murra$?s 51(386
t"eor$ o2 needs, motivational studies, ps$c"opat"olo/$ articles and boo@s, and
ps$c"iatric classi2ication manuals* 4e pared do3n our initial list o2 items b$ eliminatin/
redundancies and motives t"at "ave relativel$ little ps$c"olo/ical si/ni2icance* 0s a
result o2 t"is process, an initial list o2 nearl$ 5&& items 3as reduced to 328 items*
Reiss and Havercamp 51((86 as@ed researc" participants to rate "o3 important
eac" o2 t"e motives 3e identi2ied 3as in determinin/ t"eir be"avior* 8nitiall$, 3e
conducted 2our 2actor studies 53 e>plorator$ studies and 1 con2irmator$ stud$6, eac" 3it"
a di22erent sample o2 participants* :"e combined total o2 2,55% people included people o2
diverse a/es 512 to +)6 and stations in li2e 5e*/*, "i/" sc"ool students, colle/e students,
militar$ people, 2ast 2ood 3or@ers, seminar$ student, "uman service providers, nursin/
"ome residents6* :"e results o2 an initial con2irmator$ 2actor stud$ supported a 15'2actor
solution* Aased on t"ese results, 3e constructed a sel2'report instrument, called t"e Reiss
Pro2ile o2 -undamental Eoals and Motivational Sensitivities* :"e initial version o2 t"e
instrument assessed 15 2undamental motives*
4e developed a scale to assess Savin/, or t"e desire to collect, 3"ic" 3as added
as a si>teent" 2actor because 3e became convinced t"at collectin/ is an end motive 3e
"ad overloo@ed* 8n a stud$ o2 512 adults solicited 2rom sources in urban and rural !"io,
Havercamp 51((86 con2irmed t"e 1)'2actor solution 5t"e ori/inal 15 2actors plus savin/6
to t"e revised 128'item Reiss Pro2ile instrument*
8n conclusion, 3"en people 3ere as@ed to sel2'report t"eir motives, t"e$ reported
1) 2actor'distinct cate/ories o2 ps$c"olo/icall$ si/ni2icant end motives 58Ms6* 0n$ e22ort
to reduce t"is list to onl$ a 2e3 cate/ories 3ould result in t"e loss o2 si/ni2icant
in2ormation, and t"is s"ould produce a vastl$ in2erior s$stem 5compared to t"e 2ull 1)
basic desires6 2or anal$Fin/ and predictin/ people?s be"avior*
Reliability of Factors* :est'retest reliabilities 2or t"e Reiss Pro2ile "ave been
reported 5Reiss H Havercamp, 1((8K Reiss H Havercamp, in press6, 3it" mean r?s o2 *83
5ran/e *8& to *()6 2or t3o 3ee@ reliabilit$ and *8& 5ran/e *)( to *886 2or 2our 3ee@
reliabilit$* :"ese test'retest reliabilities e>ceed t"ose reported 2or some personalit$ tests
1&
suc" as t"e MMP8'2 5Autc"er, a"lstrom, Era"am, :elle/en, H Iaemmer, 1(8(6* :"e$
support t"e "$pot"esis t"at t"e Reiss Pro2ile assesses trait motives*
Reiss and Havercamp 51((86 reported Cronbac"?s alp"a coe22icients o2 internal
reliabilit$ 2or eac" o2 15 scales 5all e>cept savin/*6 :"e median alp"a value 3as *8)
5ran/e *+& to *(26, su//estin/ /ood internal reliabilit$ 2or t"e Reiss Pro2ile scales*
Social Desirability* Havercamp and Reiss 5in press6 assessed t"e social
desirabilit$ o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile 3it" a sample o2 1+1 under/raduate student volunteers,
3"o completed bot" t"e Reiss Pro2ile and t"e Marlo3e'Cro3ne Social esirabilit$ Scale
5MCSSK Cro3ne H Marlo3e, 1()&6* :"e r values computed bet3een t"e MCSS and
eac" o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile scales ran/ed in absolute value 2rom *&1 to *3( 5Mdn*P *&(, M
P *1)6* -or sa@e o2 comparison, Gac@son 51(8%6 reported correlations bet3een t"e
Personalit$ Researc" -orm 5PR-6 and social desirabilit$ scales ran/in/ 2rom *&1 to *%%
5Mdn P *2&, M P *226* :"ese results s"o3 t"at t"e Reiss Pro2ile sel2'reports are
minimall$ a22ected b$ social desirabilit$*
Universal values. 0dditional support 2or t"e multi2aceted model comes 2rom
researc" on values* -actorial studies o2 values s"ould produce results similar to 2actorial
studies o2 end /oals because, as a matter o2 lo/ic, all end /oals are values, and ultimate
values are potentiall$ motivatin/, or reasons to insti/ate be"avior* 5Aecause ends and
values are lo/icall$ related ideas, 2or centuries motivation 3as studied under t"e topic o2
et"ics 9 2or e>ample, 0ristotle?s lecture notes on motivation 3ere publis"ed in "is boo@,
ichomachean !thics*6
:"ese considerations impl$ t"at empiricall$'derived lists o2 basic desires and
universal "uman values s"ould be similar* 8n a series o2 studies anal$Fin/ surve$ data
2rom (+ samples 2rom %% countries, Sc"3artF 51((%6 identi2ied 1& universal values* 0ll
ten o2 Sc"3artF?s universal values correspond to basic motives in Reiss?s s$stem*
Sc"3artF?s value o2 po3er, 2or e>ample, 2alls under Reiss?s motive called po3er*
0dditional ;matc"es= are Sc"3artF?s value o2 ac"ievement and Reiss?s motive o2 po3erK
Sc"3artF?s "edonism and Reiss?s social contact are similar because eac" includes 2un'
lovin/ be"aviorK Sc"3artF?s e>citement is t"e opposite o2 Reiss?s tranquilit$ 5t"e same
motive but assessed 2rom di22erent ends o2 a continuum6K Sc"3artF?s sel2'directin/ 2alls
under Reiss?s motive o2 independenceK Sc"3artF?s value universalism is Reiss?s motive
o2 idealismK Sc"3artF?s benevolence 2alls under Reiss?s motives o2 2amil$ and social
contactK Sc"3artF?s tradition 2alls under Reiss?s "onorK t"e value o2 con2ormit$ as de2ined
b$ Sc"3artF 2alls under Reiss?s motive 2or ven/eanceK and Sc"3artF?s value o2 securit$
2alls under Reiss?s motive o2 order* :"e t3o bodies o2 researc", t"us, produced
si/ni2icantl$ similar results, s"o3in/ t"e multi'2aceted nature o2 ultimate values or 8Ms*
T10OR2 O6 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0S
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
See :able 1
RRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
Reiss?s t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires, 3"ic" is summariFed in :able 1, is put 2ort" as
a multi2aceted model o2 8M, alternative to t"e unitar$ models o2 8M* H$pot"esis 1 is t"at
eac" o2 t"e 1) basic desires is a trait motive* 4it" t"e possible e>ceptions o2 t"e motives
11
o2 idealism and acceptance, t"e 1) basic desires motivate animals as 3ell as people
5H$pot"esis 26* :"eoreticall$, t"e 1) basic desires are considered to be /eneticall$
distinct 3it" di22erent evolutionar$ "istories 5H$pot"esis 36* :"e satiation o2 eac" basic
desire produces an intrinsicall$ valued 2eelin/ or <o$, a di22erent <o$ 2or eac" basic desire
5H$pot"esis %6* Doosel$ spea@in/, people be"ave as i2 t"e$ are tr$in/ to ma>imiFe t"eir
e>periences o2 t"e 1) intrinsic <o$s*
0lt"ou/" ever$bod$ embraces t"e 1) basic desires, individuals prioritiFe t"em
di22erentl$ 5H$pot"esis 56* Eenerall$, t"e most important basic desires 2or e>plainin/ a
person?s be"avior are t"ose t"at are unusuall$ stron/ or unusuall$ 3ea@ compared to
appropriate norms* -or e>ample, some people devote muc" o2 t"eir time to satiatin/ t"eir
desire 2or curiosit$, ot"ers see@ po3er, and still ot"ers are out 2or reven/e* :"ose basic
desires t"at are neit"er stron/ nor 3ea@ compared 3it" appropriate norms are /enerall$
less important in e>plainin/ a person?s be"avior* :"e satiation o2 a basic desire is al3a$s
temporar$K soon a2ter 3e satis2$ a basic desire, t"e motive reasserts itsel2 and needs to be
satis2ied a/ain* 02ter 3e socialiFe, 2or e>ample, t"e desire 2or social contact ma$ reassert
itsel2 3it"in "ours*
Cac" basic desire is t"eoreticall$ re/arded as a continuum o2 potential motivation
anc"ored b$ opposite values 5H$pot"esis )6* 0s s"o3n in -i/ure 1, t"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic
desires "olds t"at individuals are motivated to aim 2or a point o2 moderation 5called a set
point or sensitivity6 '' in ot"er 3ords, people /enerall$ are motivated to e>perience 3"at
0ristotle called a moderate mean* Most people aim 2or a moderate de/ree o2 po3er, a
moderate de/ree o2 status, a moderate de/ree o2 @no3led/e, and so on 2or eac" basic
desire* 8ndividual di22erences, "o3ever, are si/ni2icant 5H$pot"esis 56* 8n -i/ure 1, 2or
e>ample, Henr$ aims 2or a lo3er de/ree o2 social contact t"an does Ga@e* 4"en t"e
amount o2 social contact Henr$ or Ga@e e>perience is less t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are
motivated to socialiFe* 4"en t"e amount o2 social contact t"e$ e>perience is about 3"at
t"e$ desire, t"e$ are temporaril$ satiated* 4"en t"e amount o2 social contact is more
t"an t"e$ desire, t"e$ are motivated to be alone to balance out t"eir e>periences*
6i"ure 1, The .asic desire for social contact as a continuu7 of end 7otivation,
!rivate84oner999999999999999999999999999999999999Socia.le
S S
Henr$ Ga@e
Suppose t"at Henr$ and Ga@e attend a part$ t"at lasts t"ree "ours* Henr$ en<o$s
t"e part$ at 2irst, but t"en 2eels uncom2ortable because "e is e>periencin/ muc" more
social activit$ t"an "e desires* Ga@e, on t"e ot"er "and, still 3ants more 2un 3"en t"e
part$ ends* 02ter t"e part$, Henr$ /oes "ome and spends t"e ne>t mornin/ alone to
balance "is e>perience to3ard a lo3 avera/e amount o2 social contact, 3"ereas Ga@e /oes
to t"e nearest bar to @eep t"e part$ rollin/*
:"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires "olds t"at 3"at is motivatin/ are discrepancies
bet3een t"e amount o2 an intrinsic satis2ier t"at is desired and t"e amount t"at 3as
recentl$ e>perienced 5H$pot"esis +6* 4"en a person e>periences more po3er t"an "e or
12
s"e desires, t"e individual is motivated to be submissive 2or a period o2 time to balance
e>perience to3ard t"e desired rate* 4"en a person e>periences less po3er t"an "e or s"e
desires, t"e individual is motivated to be domineerin/ 2or a period o2 time* :"us, a
person 3"o /enerall$ "as a po3er2ul personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be
submissive, and a person 3it" a submissive personalit$ ma$ at times be motivated to be
dominant*
0ccordin/ to t"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires, ven/e2ul people are motivated to
e>perience "i/" de/rees o2 vindication, competition, contentiousness, con2lict, and
a//ression, 3"ereas peacema@ers are motivated to e>perience lo3 de/rees o2 t"ese
e>periences* 4"en a ven/e2ul person e>periences a period o2 time 9 sa$ a 2e3 da$s 9
t"at are con2lict 2ree, t"e individual is motivated to /et into ar/uments, 2i/"ts, and
competitions* :"e lon/er t"e period o2 time t"at is con2lict 2ree, t"e stron/er becomes t"e
motivation to pic@ a 2i/"t 3it" somebod$* 82 t"e individual ;/oes too 2ar= and provo@es
more o2 a 2i/"t t"an "e or s"e "ad anticipated, t"e person becomes motivated b$
peacema@in/ be"avior to balance e>perience bac@ to3ard t"e individual?s 0ristotlean
mean 5de 4aal, 1(8(6* !n t"e ot"er "and, peacema@ers are /enerall$ con2lict'avoidant
and motivated to e>perience a belo3'avera/e de/ree o2 stri2e* 4"en peacema@ers
e>perience even ordinar$ amounts o2 ever$da$ stri2e and con2lict, t"e$ become motivated
to ma@e peace* :"eir tolerance 2or stri2e is muc" belo3 t"at o2 t"e avera/e individual*
0s 3as noted previousl$, basic desires or/aniFe our attention, co/nitions, 2eelin/s,
and be"avior into a co"erent action or 3"ole 5H$pot"esis 86* 4e pa$ attention to stimuli
t"at are relevant to t"e satis2action o2 our desires, and 3e tend to i/nore stimuli t"at do
not satis2$ our desires* 0 person 3it" a stron/ desire 2or ven/eance, 2or e>ample, is
attentive to possible insults or provocations, 3"ereas a person 3it" a 3ea@ desire 2or
ven/eance ma$ not even notice an insult* 0 person 3it" a stron/ desire 2or order pa$s
attention to "o3 neat and clean a room is and notices 3"en t"in/s are out o2 place* 8n
contrast, a person 3it" a 3ea@ desire 2or order ma$ not even notice 3"en dirt$ dis"es are
in t"e sin@ or t"e "ouse is a mess*
/-4ID-TION O6 16 B-SI3 D0SIR0S
8n science 3e c"oose t"e competin/ t"eor$ t"at potentiall$ e>plains t"e most data*
Multi2aceted t"eor$ seems to "ave si/ni2icant /eneralit$ o2 application: Reiss 52&&&b6 "as
s"o3n "o3 it is at least t"eoreticall$ possible to "old t"at "uman relations"ips, careers,
2amil$ li2e, sports, and spiritualit$ are or/aniFed to satiate t"e 1) basic desires* :"e 1)
basic desires also "ave been applied to ps$c"opat"olo/$ 5Reiss H Havercamp, 1(()6 and
to mental retardation 5$@ens H Rosner, 2&&&K 4iltF H Reiss, in press6* Reiss?s model
o2 1) basic desires 3as developed in t"e tradition o2 compre"ensive personalit$ t"eories,
but unli@e previous /lobal personalit$ t"eories, Reiss?s model is testable*
8s sel2'report a valid basis to determine t"at motives are multi'2acetedJ o people
validl$ sel2'report t"eir motivesJ 0re t"e$ <ust ;tal@in/J= Talidation researc" on t"e 1)
basic desires "as produced si/ni2icant evidence t"at 3"at people sa$ motivates t"em is
consistent 3it" "o3 t"e$ be"ave in t"e ;real 3orld*=
"onver#ent $alidity* :"e conver/ent validit$ o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile is t"e e>tent to
3"ic" individual 2actors correlate 3it" ot"er scales intended to measure t"e same or
similar constructs* Havercamp and Reiss 5in press6 s"o3ed t"at t"e Reiss Pro2ile po3er
and order scales correlated *55 and *)&, respectivel$, 3it" t"e dominance and order scales
o2 t"e PR-* :"is is note3ort"$ because t"e PR- scales "ave been validated a/ainst t"e
13
Stron/ Tocational 8nterest Alan@* -or colle/e student populations, t"e PR- scale 2or
dominance predicts social be"avior 5Gaccard, 1(+%6 and participation in student activities
5Pierce H Sc"3artF, 1(+16* -urt"er, t"e Reiss Pro2ile scale 2or tranquilit$ "as been
correlated 3it" t"e Reiss'Cpstein'Eurs@$ 0n>iet$ Sensitivit$ 8nde> 50S8K Peterson H
Reiss, 1((26 because o2 si/ni2icant overlappin/ item content 5Havercamp H Reiss, in
press6*
$alidated Profiles* 0 series o2 studies 3ere conducted to evaluate "o3 t"e 1)
motives are related to be"avior* Since motivation "as diverse applications, t"ese studies
evaluated issues as varied as spiritualit$, sports, and c"oice o2 club or colle/e ma<or*
8n a stud$ o2 reli/ious motivation, Reiss 52&&&c6 tested 558 adults 3"o "ad
identi2ied t"emselves as ver$, some3"at, or not reli/ious* Ho3 reli/ious a person
identi2ied "imsel2 5called reli/iosit$6 3as associated 3it" above'avera/e 5"i/"6 Reiss
Pro2ile motivational 2or "onor and 2amil$, and 3it" belo3'avera/e 5lo36 Reiss Pro2ile
motivational scores 2or ven/eance and independence 5autonom$6* :"e stud$ s"o3ed t"at
reli/iosit$ is a valid predictor o2 "o3 people sel2'report t"eir 1) basic desires*
:"e 2indin/ t"at reli/iosit$ is associated 3it" "i/" "onor su//ests t"at people
c"oose a reli/ion partiall$ out o2 a desire to be lo$al to one?s parents and "erita/e* People
over3"elmin/l$ c"oose t"e reli/ion o2 t"eir parents* :"e 2indin/ t"at lo3 ven/eance is
associated 3it" reli/iosit$ ma$ re2lect t"e C"ristian value o2 @indness and ;turnin/ t"e
ot"er c"ee@*= -amil$ values also drive people to reli/ion, su//estin/ t"at reli/ion
provides a ps$c"olo/ical means o2 stren/t"enin/ 2amil$ li2e*
:"e 2indin/ t"at reli/iosit$ is associated 3it" a desire 2or lo3 independence 5lo3
autonom$6 is particularl$ interestin/* Man$ reli/ious 3ritin/s encoura/e people to ;open
one?s "eart to Eod*= #nder t"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires, t"is messa/e e>presses a desire
2or ps$c"olo/ical support, 3"ic" pla$s a central role in t"e universal "uman need to
moderate t"e ps$c"olo/ical sense o2 autonom$ 5e>istence as an independent bein/*6 :"e
results o2 testin/ 3it" t"e Reiss Pro2ile in 2act s"o3ed t"at t"e more reli/ious a person
3as, t"e /reater 3as t"e individual?s motivational score 2or ps$c"olo/ical support 5lo3
independence6* :"e results implied t"at people embrace ima/es o2 supportive and
attentive deities, not because t"e$ 2ear deat", but primaril$ because ima/es o2 t"ese /ods
moderate 2eelin/s o2 autonom$, 3"ic" man$ people e>perience as aversive 3"en t"e
2eelin/s are too stron/*
0lt"ou/" turnin/ to /od ima/es 2or ps$c"olo/ical support is sometimes
misunderstood as a 3ea@ness o2 reli/ious people 5"ence, t"e criticism t"at people use
Eod as a ;ps$c"olo/ical crutc"=6, t"e results o2 testin/ 3it" t"e Reiss Pro2ile s"o3ed
t"at, at least 2or t"e sample o2 people tested, t"e reli/ious desire 2or ps$c"olo/ical support
3as unrelated to an$ desire 2or 3ea@ness* 0lt"ou/" reli/ious people "ad a lo3 score 2or
independence 5probabl$ re2lectin/ t"e desire 2or support 2rom Eod6, t"e$ "ad an avera/e
score 2or po3er 5impl$in/ t"e$ do not see@ submission to secular leaders6* Hence, man$
reli/ious people 2ind appealin/ t"e messa/e t"at openin/ onesel2 to Eod is a si/n o2
stren/t"* :"e Aible, 2or e>ample, teac"es t"at submission to Eod can produce suc"
stren/t" t"at t"e 2ait"2ul 3ill be able to toss mountains into t"e sea*
Since antiquit$ reli/ious leaders "ave tau/"t t"at autonom$ needs to be
moderatedK in Audd"ism, 2or e>ample, t"e ultimate aim is to become !ne 3it" t"e
1irvana* :"e t"eor$ o2 1) basic desires reco/niFes a "uman need to moderate autonom$
to an individuall$ determined sensitivit$ level, so t"at too muc" autonom$ relative to t"e
1%
sensitivit$ point is e>perienced as aversive* 8n unitar$ 8M t"eor$, "o3ever, autonom$ is
e>plicitl$ re/arded as a <o$ and implicitl$ re/arded as an in2inite <o$* 0s 3e "ave seen,
t"e results o2 studies o2 spiritualit$ support multi2aceted t"eor$*
82 t"e 1) basic desires are trul$ 2undamental to "uman be"avior, "o3ever, t"e$
s"ould be able to e>plain not onl$ deepl$ meanin/2ul activities suc" as reli/ion but also
recreational activities suc" as sports* Reiss, 4iltF, and S"erman 52&&16 administered t"e
Reiss Pro2ile to %15 colle/e students 3"o "ad participated in Fero, one, or t3o varsit$
sports at t"e "i/" sc"ool or colle/e level* Ho3 man$ sports t"e student participated in,
called athleticism, 3as 2ound to be associated 3it" motivational traits 2or p"$sical
e>ercise, social contact, 2amil$, ven/eance, po3er, and lo3 curiosit$* 0s 3as e>pected,
t"e sin/le most important correlate o2 sports participation 3as t"e intrinsic en<o$ment o2
p"$sical e>ercise* :"e di22erence in t"e stren/t" o2 t"e motive 2or p"$sical e>ercise
bet3een students 3"o "ad pla$ed Fero versus t3o or more varsit$ sports 3as about a 2ull
standard deviation* 0lt"ou/" t"e association bet3een intrinsic en<o$ment o2 p"$sical
e>ercise and at"letic participation ma$ seem ;obvious= to some, actuall$ it is inconsistent
3it" unitar$ 8M t"eor$, 3"ic" "as "eld t"at master$ is t"e primar$ intrinsic motivation
s"o3n b$ at"letic participation 5eci H R$an, 1(856*
Havercamp and Reiss 5in press6 s"o3ed motivational pro2iles 2or ei/"t interest
/roups, providin/ additional evidence lin@in/ t"e 1) basic desires to real'3orld be"avior*
:"e /roups 3ere colle/e students 3"o <oined 2raternities and sororities at a state
universit$, p"ilosop"$ ma<ors, R!:C students, Tolunteers, culinar$ students, dieters,
seminarians, and varsit$ at"letes*
Iavanau/" 52&&2, personal communication6 tested on t"e Reiss Pro2ile a /roup o2
%( "i/" sc"ool sop"omores 3"o 3ere doin/ poorl$ in sc"ool* :"e$ scored lo3 2or
curiosit$, "onor, and idealismK and moderatel$ "i/" 2or ven/eance and social contact*
:"is pattern o2 results su//ests t"at t"e students 3ere easil$ 2rustrated b$ intellectual
e22ort and t"at t"e$ 3ere ps$c"olo/icall$ disconnected 2rom t"eir parents 5lo3 "onor6 and
communit$ 5lo3 idealism6, but 3ere connected to peers 5"i/" social contact*6 Ho3 t"ese
students sel2'reported t"eir motives 3as consistent 3it" 3"at 3as @no3n about t"e$
be"aved in terms o2 t"eir lo3 ac"ievement and "i/" rate o2 disciplinar$ problems*
0, 3ORR04-TION M-RI:
Cvidence t"at t"e 1) basic desires are lar/el$ unrelated to eac" ot"er supports
multi2aceted t"eor$* Havercamp 51((86 calculated t"e avera/e correlations amon/ t"e 1)
2actors o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile at about *15* More t"an 81U o2 t"e r?s in t"e inter'correlation
matri> "ad an absolute value o2 less t"an *2, indicatin/ t"at t"e scales 3ere lar/el$
unrelated* :"e most stron/l$ related scales are po3er and status, r P*58K ven/eance and
status, rP*5%K and "onor and idealism, rP*%8* :"ese results support a multi'2aceted
approac" to end motivation and ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eories*
/, 3ON34USIONS
Since antiquit$ sc"olars "ave debated 3"et"er or not "uman motives can be
reduced to a 2e3 /lobal cate/ories* 0ncient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, 2or e>ample,
15
distin/uis"ed bet3een motives associated 3it" t"e bod$ 5suc" as "un/er and t"irst6
versus t"ose associated 3it" t"e intellect 5suc" as curiosit$, moralit$, and 2riends"ip6* 8n
t"e earl$ part o2 t"e t3entiet" centur$, -reud 51(1)B1()36 ar/ued t"at all motives are
ultimatel$ about se>* Hedonists, on t"e ot"er "and, reduced all motives to pleasure
see@in/ versus pain avoidance*
:"e concept o2 8M can be vie3ed as a modern e>ample o2 t"e e22ort in
motivational reductionism* 8M t"eorists divide motives into /lobal cate/ories called
drives 5also called e>trinsic motivation6 versus intrinsic motivation 9 drives are about
biolo/ical survival needs, 3"ereas 8Ms pertain to 3"at some "ave called ;e/o motives*=
Hun/er, t"irst, and pain avoidance are paradi/m e>amples o2 drives, 3"ereas curiosit$,
autonom$, and pla$ are paradi/m e>amples o2 8Ms*
4"ite 51(5(6 put 2ort" t"e t"esis o2 commonalities amon/ 8Ms ''' speci2icall$, "e
ar/ued t"at 8Ms are about competence 5master$6* 8n advancin/ "is idea o2 competence
motivation, 4"ite e>plicitl$ ac@no3led/ed t"at "is t"esis seems implausible because "e
3as assertin/ commonalities amon/ a diverse collection o2 motives* 0lt"ou/" man$
embraced 4"ite?s ideas because t"e$ seemed to broaden t"e stud$ o2 motivation to
include e/o motives, 4"ite 51(5(6 o22ered no scienti2ic evidence to support "is t"eor$ o2
competence motivation 9 "e developed no measure, conducted no studies to test "is idea,
and did not su//est an$ speci2ic studies t"at mi/"t con2irm or 2alsi2$ "is "$pot"esis* 8n
t"e 2i2t$ $ears since 4"ite 3rote "is article, no scienti2ic evidence "as emer/ed directl$
s"o3in/ t"at competence motivation is t"e underl$in/ t"eme o2 diverse e/o motives suc"
as pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$* -urt"er, no scienti2ic evidence "as been put 2ort"
directl$ supportin/ 4"ite?s "$pot"esis t"at 8Ms "ave a common ori/in 9 t"ere is no direct
scienti2ic evidence 2or t"e "$pot"esis t"at people are born 3it" ;undi22erentiated=
competence motivation, 3"ic" later is mani2ested as t"e motives o2 master$, autonom$,
pla$, and curiosit$* -urt"er, t"e distinction bet3een drive motivation arisin/ 2rom t"e
or/ans or perip"er$, versus intrinsic motivation arisin/ 2rom t"e C1S or brain, is
p"$siolo/ical nonsense*
:"e "$pot"esis t"at ;intrinsic en<o$ment= is common to 8Ms also remains
unproved* 0r/uabl$, t"is "$pot"esis implies si/ni2icant similarities bet3een /lobal 8M
t"eor$ and t"e 2la3ed p"ilosop"$ o2 "edonism* 8t is unclear i2 ;intrinsic en<o$ment= is a
unitar$ p"enomenon: 0ncient Eree@ p"ilosop"ers, 2or e>ample, ar/ued t"at pleasures
di22er in @ind 50ristotle, 1(53B33&ACC6, impl$in/ t"at pleasure t"eor$ cannot support
unitar$ or /lobal t"eories o2 motivation* -urt"er, lo/icians "ave identi2ied errors in
pleasure t"eor$, notin/ t"at pleasure t"eorists sometimes con2use consequence 2or cause*
Pleasure is o2ten not ;intrinsic= to an activit$K it occurs as a consequence o2 satiatin/
motives 5Russell, 1(%56* 4"et"er or nor pleasure is e>perienced depends on a person?s
motivation 9 2or e>ample, mountain climbin/ can be pleasant 3"en one desires p"$sical
e>ercise but unpleasant 3"en one is tired and desires rest* :"us, it is not mountain
climbin/ per se t"at is pleasurable but t"e potential t"e activit$ "olds 2or satiatin/
motives, suc" as t"e motive 2or p"$sical activit$ or t"e motive 2or ac"ievement*
Do/icians sa$ t"at pleasure is usuall$ a non'motivational b$product o2 satiatin/ motives,
not t"e aim o2 t"e motive 5Russell, 1(%56*
0 number o2 empirical considerations ar/ue a/ainst unitar$ t"eor$ and in 2avor o2
multi2aceted t"eories* Human individualit$ ma$ be too diverse to be described
adequatel$ in terms o2 /lobal cate/ories suc" as 8M and CM* Man$ people 3"o are
1)
stron/l$ motivated to3ard pla$ are not necessaril$ stron/l$ motivated b$ intellectual
curiosit$ or autonom$* 82 curiosit$ and autonom$ bot" are motivational because o2 a
universal desire 2or competence, 3"$ are some people motivated muc" more b$ curiosit$
t"an autonom$ or vice versaJ 8t is unclear "o3 observations o2 suc" individual
di22erences can be made consistent 3it" t"e t"eor$ t"at pla$, curiosit$, and autonom$ are
reall$ about t"e same motive, a desire 2or competence*
Reiss and Havercamp?s researc" on 1) 2undamental desires provides additional
evidence o2 t"e multi2aceted nature o2 end motivation* :"is t"eor$ provides a
compre"ensive anal$sis o2 individual di22erences in trait motives* 0 series o2 2actorial
studies "ave con2irmed t"e 1)'2actor model 5Reiss H Havercamp, 1((86K similarl$, values
5lo/icall$, values e>press end motives6 also "ave been s"o3n to be multi2aceted
5Sc"3artF, 1((%6* Competence is onl$ one o2 t"e values people "old 9 it is not t"e
common root o2 diverse values* People also value ends suc" as status, social contact,
reven/e, p"$sical activit$, and autonom$*
Cvidence 2or multi2aceted t"eor$ e>tends si/ni2icantl$ be$ond t"e initial 2actorial
studies su//estin/ 15 and 1) 2actor solutions 2or basic motivation* 1ine o2 t"e 1) basic
motives "ave been validated a/ainst criterion be"avior outside laboratories and
e>periments 5see Havercamp H Reiss, in press6* Concurrent validit$ and social
desirabilit$ studies also support t"e multi2aceted model*
:"e sensitivit$ model "olds t"at 1) /eneticall$ distinct desires 58Ms6 combine to
determine man$ ps$c"olo/icall$ si/ni2icant motives* :"e model supports numerous
predictions about be"avior and provides standardiFed measures 5suc" as t"e Reiss Pro2ile
sel2'report version6 needed to test t"e validit$ o2 t"e predictions* -uture researc" is
indicated to stud$ t"is model and t"e role o2 t"e 1) basic desires in "uman be"avior* :"is
t"eor$, i2 valid, s"o3s t"e multi2aceted nature o2 "uman 8Ms* Researc"ers stud$in/
unitar$ 8M t"eor$ need to s"o3 t"e$ can predict be"avior as 3ell or better t"an Reiss?s
model b$ reducin/ t"e 1) motives to one or t3o cate/ories* 8n contrast, multi2aceted
t"eorists need to continue to s"o3 t"at be"avior is better predicted and e>plained 3it" a
compre"ensive, multi2aceted list o2 8Ms t"an is possible 3it" a reductionism approac"*

1+
6OOTNOT0S
1
C>ample based partiall$ on empirical 2indin/s o2 a correlation bet3een
motivation 2or status and motivation 2or 3ealt" 5see Reiss H Havercamp, 1((86*
2
8nducin/ drive prior to e>periments lessens t"e in2luence o2 individual
di22erences in motivation 5trait motives6, 3"ic" 8 3ill later ar/ue is t"e @e$ to
understandin/ and predictin/ muc" o2 "uman be"avior* 82 Go"n "as a muc" stron/er
appetite t"an Sam, 2or e>ample, t"is ma$ be evident under man$ circumstances, but less
so 3"en bot" Go"n and Sam are si/ni2icantl$ deprived o2 2ood and e>tremel$ "un/r$*
:"e t$pical be"aviorist animal learnin/ e>periment 3as poorl$ suited 2or observin/ t"e
e22ects o2 individual di22erences in motivation 5Reiss H Havercamp, 1(()6*
3
8n t"e Games'Mcou/all t"eor$, a "uman instinct is an automaticall$ occurrin/
desire or motive, not a ri/id pattern o2 unlearned be"avior* :"e idea is t"at people do not
deliberatel$ c"oose t"eir ps$c"olo/ical needs* 0s 0ristotle 51(53B33& ACC6 put it,
people ;c"oose means, not ends*= 0ristotle 3as ma@in/ a valid point in lo/ic 5i2 an
individual attempted to c"oose an end, t"e option t"at is c"osen 3ould be instrumental to
t"e criteria on 3"ic" t"e c"oice 3as based*6 8n contrast, Games and Mcou/all 3ere
reportin/ anecdotal observations o2 "uman be"avior*
%
Henr$ 0* Murra$ 51(386 ac@no3led/ed t"e ori/in o2 "is 2amous list o2 needs
3"en "e 3rote, ;:"is classi2ication o2 needs is not ver$ di22erent 2rom lists constructed
b$ Mcou/all, Earnett, and a number o2 ot"er 3riters= 5p* 8%6*
References
0dler, 0* 51()%6* %he practice and theory of individual psycholo#y. 1e3 Lor@: Harcourt
Arace Govanovic"*
0ristotle 51(53B33& ACC6* %he nicomachean ethics* 1e3 Lor@: Pen/uin*
Aro3n, G* S* 51()16* %he motivation of behavior* 1e3 Lor@: McEra3'Hill*
Autc"er, G* 1*, a"lstrom, 4* E*, Era"am, G*R*, :elle/en, 0* H Iaemmer, A* 51(8(6*
&innesota &ultiphasic Personality Invesotry'( )&&PI'(*+ &anual for
administration and scorin#* Minneapolis: #niversit$ o2 Minnesota Press*
Cro3ne, * P*, H Marlo3e, * 51()&6* 0 ne3 scale o2 social desirabilit$ independent o2
ps$c"opat"olo/$* ,ournal of "onsultin# Psycholo#y, 2%, 3%('35%*
Csi@sFentmi"al$i, M* 52&&&6* Happiness, 2lo3, and "uman economic equalit$*
-merican Psycholo#ist, 55, 11)3'11)%*
Csi@sFentmi"al$i, M* 51((&6* Flo.+ %he psycholo#y of optimal e/perience* 1e3 Lor@:
Harper H Ro3*
eC"arms, R* 51()86* Personal causation* 1e3 Lor@: 0cademic Press*
eci, C* D* 51(+56* Intrinsic motivation* 1e3 Lor@: Plenum*
eci, C*D*, Ioestner, R*, R$an, R* 51(((6* 0 meta'anal$tic revie3 o2 e>periments
e>aminin/ t"e e22ects o2 e>trinsic re3ards on intrinsic motivation* Psycholo#ical
0ulletin, 125, )2+'))8*
eci, C* D*, H R$an, R* M* 51(856* Intrinsic motivation and self'determination in human
behavior* 1e3 Lor@: Plenum*
escartes, R* 51(58B1)3+6* %he passions of the soul* 1e3 Lor@: Modern Dibrar$*
18
e 4aal, -* 51(8(6* Peacema1in# amon# primates* Cambrid/e, M0: Harvard
#niversit$ Press*
$@ens, C*M*, H Rosner, A*0* 51(((6* Rede2inin/ be"avioral p"enot$pes: Personalit$'
motivation in 4illiams and Prader'4illi S$ndromes* 0merican Gournal o2 Mental
Retardation, 1&%526, 158'1)(*
Cisenber/er, R*, H Cameron, G* 51(()6* :"e detrimental e22ects o2 re3ard: M$t" or
realit$J -merican Psycholo#ist, 51, 1153'11))*
-reeman, I* 0*, 0nderson, C* M*, 0Fer, R* H*, Eirolami, P* 0*, H Scotti, G* 0* 51((86*
4"$ 2unctional assessment is enou/": a response to Reiss and Havercamp*
-merican ,ournal of &ental Retardation, 1&3, 8&'(1*
-reud, S* 51(1)B1()36* Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis* Dondon: Ho/art"
Press*
Harter, S* 51(816* 0 ne3 sel2'report scale o2 intrinsic versus e>trinsic orientation in t"e
classroom: Motivational and in2ormational components* Developmental
Psycholo#y, 1+, 1&&'112*
Havercamp, S* M* 51((86* %he Reiss Profile of motivation sensitivity+ reliability2 validity2
and social desirability* octoral dissertation* epartment o2 Ps$c"olo/$, :"e
!"io State #niversit$*
Havercamp, S* M*, H Reiss, S* 5in press6* 0 compre"ensive assessment o2 "uman
strivin/: :est'retest reliabilit$ and validit$ o2 t"e Reiss Pro2ile* ,ournal of
Personality -ssessment*
Hou@es, 8*, Ganssen, P*M*, H Gon/e, G* de, 1i<"us, -* G* 1* 52&&16* Speci2ic relations"ips
bet3een 3or@ c"aracteristics and intrinsic 3or@ motivation, burnout and turnover
intentionK 0 multi'sample anal$sis* !uropean ,ournal of 3or1 and
4r#ani5ational Psycholo#y, 1&, 1'23*
Hull, C* D* 51(%36* Principles of behavior* 1e3 Lor@: 0ppleton Centur$*
Gaccard, G*G* 51(+%6* Predictin/ social be"avior 2rom personalit$ traits* ,ournal of
Research in Personality, +, 358'3)+*
Gac@son, *1* 51(8%6 Personality research form manual* Port Huron, M8: Researc"
Ps$c"olo/ists Press*
Games 51(5&B18(&6* %he problem of psycholo#y )$ol. (6* 1e3 Lor@: over* !ri/inal
3or@ publis"ed in 18(&*
Ia/an, G* 51(+26* Motives and development* ,ournal of Personality and Social
Psycholo#y, 22, 51'))*
Iavanau/", P* 52&&26* Personal communication on unpublis"ed data sample*
Io"n, 0* 51((36* Punished by re.ards* 1e3 Lor@: Hou/"ton Mi22lin Compan$*
Depper, M* R*, Cordova, * D* 51((26* 0 desire to be tau/"t: 8nstructional consequences
o2 intrinsic motivation* &otivation and !motion, 1), 18+'2&+*
Maslo3, 0* H* 51(%36* 0 t"eor$ o2 motivation* Psycholo#ical Revie., 5&, 3+&'3()*
Masson, G* M* 51((56* 3hen !lephants .eep* 1e3 Lor@: ell*
Mcou/all, 4* 51(2)6* -n introduction to social psycholo#y* Aoston: Go"n 4* Duce*
Mc1all$, R*G* 51(((6* :"eoretical approac"es to t"e 2ear o2 an>iet$* 8n S* :a$lor 5ed*6,
-n/iety sensitivity 5pp* 3'1)6* Ma"3a", 1*G*: Da3rence Crlbaum 0ssociates*
Mill, G* S* 518+36* -utobio#raphy* 1e3 Lor@: Holt*
Murra$, H*0* 51(%36* %hematic -pperception %est* Cambrid/e, M0: Harvard #niversit$
Press*
1(
Murra$, H*0* 51(386* !/plorations in personality+ - clinical and e/perimental study of
fifty men of colle#e a#e* 1e3 Lor@: !>2ord #niversit$ Press*
Peterson, R* 0*, H Reiss, S* 51((26* -n/iety sensitivity inde/ revised test manual*
4ort"in/ton: 8S Publis"in/*
Pia/et, G* 51(526* %he ori#ins of intelli#ence in children* 1e3 Lor@* 1e3 Lor@:
8nternational Press* 5:rans* b$ M* Coo@6*
Pierce, R* 0*, H Sc"3artF, 0* G* 51(+16* Personalit$ st$le o2 student activists* %he
,ournal of Psycholo#y, +(, 21'231*
Plato 51())B3+5 ACC6* %he Republic, 1e3 Lor@: !>2ord #niversit$, 5:ranslated b$ -*
M* Corn2ord6*
Reiss, S* 52&&&a6* Human individualit$, "appiness, and 2lo3* -merican Psycholo#ist,
55, 11)1'11)2*
Reiss 52&&&b6* 3ho am I+ %he 16 basic desires that motivate our actions and define our
personality* 1e3 Lor@: :arc"erBPutnam*
Reiss 52&&&c6* 4"$ people turn to reli/ion* ,ournal for the Scientific Study of Reli#ion,
3(, %+'52*
Reiss, S*, H Havercamp, S*M* 51((86* :o3ard a compre"ensive assessment o2
2undamental motivation: -actor structure o2 t"e Reiss Profile* Psycholo#ical
-ssessment, 1&, (+'1&)*
Reiss, S*, H Havercamp, S*H* 51(()6* :"e sensitivit$ t"eor$ o2 motivation: 8mplications
2or ps$c"opat"olo/$* 0ehaviour Research and %herapy, 3%, )21')32*
Reiss, S*, H Sus"ins@$, D*4* 51(+56* !ver<usti2ication, competin/ responses, and t"e
acquisition o2 intrinsic interest* Gournal o2 Personalit$ and Social Ps$c"olo/$,
31, 11)'1125*
Reiss, S*, 4iltF, G*, H S"erman, M* 52&&16* :rait motivational correlated o2 at"leticism*
Personality and Individual Differences, 3&, 113('11%5*
Russell, A* 51(%56* - history of 3estern philosophy* 1e3 Lor@: Simon H S"uster*
R$an, R* M*, H eci, C* D* 52&&&6* Sel2'determination t"eor$ and t"e 2acilitation o2
intrinsic motivation, social development, and 3ell bein/* -merican Psycholo#ist,
55, )8'+8*
Sc"3artF, S* H* 51((%6* 0re t"ere universal aspects in t"e structure and contents o2
"uman values* ,ournal of Social Issues, 5&, 1('%5*
S@inner, A*-* 51(386* %he behavior of or#anisms* 1e3 Lor@K 0ppleton'Centur$'Cro2ts*
SpinoFa, A** 51(%(B1)+56* %he ethics* 1e3 Lor@: Ha2ner*
:"orndi@e, C* D* 51(116* -nimal intelli#ence2 e/perimental studies* 1e3 Lor@:
Macmillan*
4einer, A* 51((56* 8ntrinsic motivation* 8n 0* Manstead, M* He3stone, S, -is@e, M*
Ho//s, H* Reis, H E* Samin 5eds*6, %he 0lac1.ell encyclopedia of social
psycholo#y* Cambrid/e: Alac@3ell*
4"ite, R* 4* 51(5(6* Motivation reconsidered: :"e concept o2 competence*
Psycholo#ical Revie., )), 2(+'333*
4iltF, G*, H Reiss, S* 5in press6* Compatibilit$ "ousemates 3it" mental retardation*
0merican Gournal o2 Mental Retardation*
Oubin, G*, Cron, D* *, H Sc"umer, -* 51()56* -n e/perimental approach to projective
techni6ues* 1e3 Lor@: 4ile$*
2&
:able 1 9 Reiss?s 1) Motives
Motive Na7e Motive -ni7al Behavior Intrinsic 6eelin"
po3er
desire to in2luence 5incl*
Deaders"ipK related to
master$6
dominant animal eats
more 2ood
e22icac$
curiosit$
desire 2or @no3led/e animal learns to 2ind
2ood more e22icientl$
and learns to avoid pre$
3onder
independence
desire to be autonomous motivates animal to
leave nest, searc"in/ 2or
2ood over lar/er area
2reedom
status
desire 2or social standin/
5incl* desire 2or
attention6
attention in nest leads to
better 2eedin/s
sel2'importance
social contact
desire 2or peer
companions"ip 5desire
to pla$6
sa2et$ in numbers 2or
animals in 3ild
2un
ven/eance
desire to /et even 5incl*
desire to compete, to
3in6
animal 2i/"ts 3"en
t"reatened
vindication
"onor
desire to obe$ a
traditional moral code
animal runs bac@ to "erd
3"en stared at b$ pre$
lo$alt$
idealism
desire to improve
societ$ 5incl* altruism,
<ustice6
#nclear: do animals
s"o3 true altruismJ
compassion
p"$sical e>ercise
desire to e>ercise
muscles
stron/ animals eat more
and are less vulnerable
to pre$
vitalit$
romance
desire 2or se> 5incl*
courtin/6
reproduction essential
2or species survival
Dust
2amil$
desire to raise o3n
c"ildren
protection o2 $oun/
2acilitates survival
Dove
order
desire to or/aniFe 5incl*
desire 2or ritual6
cleanliness rituals
promote "ealt"
stabilit$
eatin/
desire to eat nutrition essential 2or
survival
satiation 5avoidance o2
"un/er6
acceptance
desire 2or approval unclear: animal sel2'
conceptJ
sel2'con2idence
tranquilit$
desire to avoid an>iet$,
2ear
animal runs a3a$ 2rom
dan/er
sa2e, rela>ed
savin/
desire to collect, value
o2 2ru/alit$
animal "oards 2ood and
ot"er materials
o3ners"ip
21