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Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or structure. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications.
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or structure. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications.
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or structure. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications.
4.1: Normal Beam Inspection 4.2: Angle Beams 4.3: Reflector Sizing 4.4: Automated Scanning 4.5: Precision Velocity Measurements 4.6: Attenuation Measurements 4.7: Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics 4.8: Signal Processing Techniques 4.9: Flaw Reconstruction Techniques 4.10: Scanning Methods 4.11: Scanning Patterns 4.12: Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration 4.13: Interferences & Non Relevant Indications 4.14: Exercises Expert at works 4.1: Normal Beam Inspection Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect from the back or the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. The result is expressed in the well- known relationship: d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece, v is the velocity of sound waves in the material, and t is the measured round-trip transit time. d 2 = vt d 1 = vt = d 1 +d 2 2vt 2vt A-Scan A Scan http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/MeasurementTech/applet_4_1/applet_4_1.htm Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500 kHz and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. A wide variety of transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications. Typically, 1. lower frequencies are used to optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly attenuating or highly scattering materials, 2. while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize resolution in thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials. 0.5 MHz ~ 100 MHz In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and reliable measurement of thickness without requiring access to both sides of a part. Accuracy's as high as 1 micron or 0.0001 inch can be achieved in some applications. It is possible to measure most engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, composites, epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal often is possible, as is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer materials. Modern handheld gages are simple to use and very reliable. 4.2: Angle Beams I Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. = Angle of reflection, T=Material thickness, S= Sound path, Surface distance = Sin x S, Depth= Cos x S A-Scan http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/MeasurementTech/applet_4_2/applet_4_2.htm Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material. The geometry of the sample below allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. = Angle of reflection, T=Material thickness, S= Sound path, Skip = 2(T x Tan), Leg = T/Cos, V Path = 2 x Leg A-Scan http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/MeasurementTech/applet_4_3/applet_4_3.htm Flaw Location and Echo Display Flaw Location and Echo Display Flaw Location and Echo Display Flaw Location and Echo Display Flaw Location and Echo Display Flaw Location and Echo Display Dead Zone Near Surface Detectability with Angle Beam Transducer Flaw Location Flaw Location with Angle Beam Transducer Flaw Location with Angle Beam Transducer Flaw Location with Angle Beam Transducer Flaw Location with Angle Beam Transducer Why angle beam assemblies are used Cracks or other discontinuities perpendicular to the surface of a test piece, or tilted with respect to that surface, are usually invisible with straight beam test techniques because of their orientation with respect to the sound beam. Perpendicular cracks do not reflect any significant amount of sound energy from a straight beam because the beam is looking at a thin edge that is much smaller than the wavelength, and tilted cracks may not reflect any energy back in the direction of the transducer. This situation can occur in many types of welds, in structural metal parts, and in many other critical components. An angle beam assembly directs sound energy into the test piece at a selected angle. A perpendicular crack will reflect angled sound energy along a path that is commonly referred to as a corner trap, as seen in the illustration below. http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/angle-beam-transducers/ The angled sound beam is highly sensitive to cracks perpendicular to the far surface of the test piece (first leg test) or, after bouncing off the far side, to cracks perpendicular to the coupling surface (second leg test). A variety of specific beam angles and probe positions are used to accommodate different part geometries and flaw types. In the case of angled discontinuities, a properly selected angle beam assembly can direct sound at a favorable angle for reflection back to the transducer. http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/angle-beam-transducers/ How they work -- Snell's Law A sound beam that hits a surface at perpendicular incidence will reflect straight back. A sound beam that hits a surface at an angle will reflect forward at the same angle. Sound energy that is transmitted from one material to another bends in accordance with Snell's Law of refraction. Refraction is the bending of a sound beam (or any other wave) when it passes through a boundary between two materials of different velocities. A beam that is traveling straight will continue in a straight direction, but a beam that strikes a boundary at an angle will be bent according to the formula: Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's Law to generate a shear wave at a selected angle (most commonly 30, 45, 60, or 70 degrees) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident longitudinal wave with respect to a surface increases, an increasing portion of the sound energy is converted to a shear wave in the second material, and if the angle is high enough, all of the energy in the second material will be in the form of shear waves. There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon: (1) First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles that generate shear waves in steel and similar materials. (2) Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the use of shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear wave is approximately 60% the wavelength of a comparable longitudinal wave, and minimum flaw size resolution increases as the wavelength of a sound beam gets smaller. Selecting the right angle beam assembly The parameters that affect angle beam performance include not only the (1)beam angle generated by the wedge, but also (2) transducer frequency and (3) element size. The optimum beam angle will generally be governed by the geometry of the test piece and the orientation of the discontinuities that the test is intended to find. Transducer frequency affects penetration and flaw resolution: 1. As frequency increases, the distance the sound wave will travel in a given material decreases, but resolution of small discontinuities improves. 2. As frequency decreases, the distance the sound wave will travel increases but the minimum detectable flaw size will become larger. 3. Similarly, larger element sizes may decrease inspection time by increasing coverage area, but the reflected echo amplitude from small discontinuities will decrease. Smaller element sizes will increase reflection amplitude from small discontinuities, but the inspection may take longer because the smaller beam covers less area. These conflicting factors must be balanced in any given application, based on specific test requirements. Contoured wedges The IIW recommends the use of a contoured wedge whenever the gap between the wedge and the test surface exceeds 0.5 mm (approximately 0.020 in.). Under this guideline, a contoured wedge should be used whenever part radius is less than the square of a wedge dimension (length or width) divided by four: where R = radius of test surface W = width of wedge if testing in axial orientation, length of wedge if testing in circumferential orientation Of course switching to a small wedge, if possible within the parameters of inspection requirements, will improve coupling on curved surfaces. As a practical matter, contouring should be considered whenever signal strength diminishes or couplant noise increases to a point where the reliability of an inspection is impaired. Focused dual element angle beams The vast majority of angle beam assemblies use single element, unfocused transducers. However, in some tests involving highly attenuating or scattering materials such as coarse grain cast stainless steel, focused dual element angle beams are useful. Because they have separate transmitting and receiving elements, dual element transducers can typically be driven at higher excitation energies without noise problems associated with ringdown or wedge noise. Focusing permits a higher concentration of sound energy at a selected depth within the test piece, increasing sensitivity to discontinuities in that region. High temperature wedges Standard angle beam assemblies are designed for use at normal environmental temperatures only. For situations where metal must be inspeced at elevated temperature, special high temperature wedges are available. Some of these wedges will tolerate brief contact with surfaces as hot as 480 C or 900 F. However, it is important to note that high temperature wedges require special attention with regard to the sound path they generate. With any high temperature wedge, sound velocity in the wedge material will decrease as it heats up, and thus the refracted angle in metals will increase as the wedge heats up. If this is of concern in a given test, refracted angle should be verified at actual operating temperature. As a practical matter, thermal variations during testing will often make precise determination of the actual refracted angle difficult. Surfaces as hot as 480 C / 900 F http://www.namicon.com/products.xpg?catid=84&prodid=43 snap-in threaded steel with a shear wave velocity of approximately 3,250 M/S or 0.1280 in/uS. 4.3: Reflector Sizing There are many sizing methods, these include: 4.3.1 Crack Tip Diffraction When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the orientation of a flaw is well known, the length (a) of a crack can be determined by a technique known as tip diffraction. One common application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length of a crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this case, when an angle beam transducer is scanned over the area of the flaw, the principle echo comes from the base of the crack to locate the position of the flaw (Image 1). A second, much weaker echo comes from the tip of the crack and since the distance traveled by the ultrasound is less, the second signal appears earlier in time on the scope (Image 2). Crack Tip Diffraction Methods No animation. Crack height (a) is a function of the ultrasound velocity (v) in the material, the incident angle (Q2) and the difference in arrival times between the two signal (dt). Since the incident angle and the thickness of the material is the same in both measurements, two similar right triangle are formed such that one can be overlayed on the other. A third similar right triangle is made, which is comprised on the crack, the length dt and the angle Q2. The variable dt is really the difference in time but can easily be converted to a distance by dividing the time in half (to get the one-way travel time) and multiplying this value by the velocity of the sound in the material. Using trigonometry an equation for estimating crack height from these variables can be derived as shown below. Crack Tip Diffraction Method The equation is complete once distance dt is calculated by dividing the difference in time between the two signals (dt) by two and multiplying this value by the sound velocity. 4.3.2 6 dB Drop Sizing- For Large Reflector (greater than beam width), i.e. there is no BWE. 6 dB Drop Method 6 dB Drop Method 6 dB Drop Method www.youtube.com/embed/hsR17WA3nHg 6 dB Drop Method 4.3.3 The 20 dB drop sizing method We can use a beam plot to find the edge of a defect by using the edge of the sound beam. If we know the width of a beam at a certain distance from the crystal, we can mark the distance across a defect from where the extreme edges of the beam touch each end of the defect and then subtract the beamwidth to get the defect size. When the signal from the defect drops by 20dB from its peak, we judge that the edge of the beam is just touching the end of the defect. We can find the width of the sound beam at that range by consulting the beam plot that we have made Note: The peak of the defect is normally taken as being the last peak on the screen before the probe goes off the end of the defect, not necessarily the maximum signal from a defect. 20 dB Drop Method 20 dB Drop Sizing- For Small Reflector (smaller than beam width). To use this method the transducer beam width need to be first determined. Construction of a beam edge plot -20dB Normal Beam Find the hole at a depth of 13mm on an IOW block with a 0 degree probe and maximise the signal. Move the probe until you get the highest signal you can from the hole, then turn the signal to FSH using gain. Mark the position of the middle of the probe on the side of the block. Move the probe to one side until the signal drops to 10%FSH (-20dB) and mark the centre of the probe on the side of the block. Move the probe to the other side of the hole until the signal drops to 10%FSH (-20dB) and mark the centre of the probe on the block. Use the distances between the marks on the block to plot the beam on a piece of graph paper. Measure 13mm depth on the paper then mark the distances of the probe centre at -20dB from the beam centre at 100%FSH on either side. Now find the 25mm hole and maximise the signal, turning it to 100%FSH. Move the probe to either side of the hole marking the centre of the probe on the side of the block where the signal drops by 20dB. Measure 25mm on the paper and use the distances on the block to plot the beam dimensions at 25mm. Repeat using the 32mm hole. J oin up the points marking the probe centre at 20dB to obtain a beam plot. Note that we have only drawn the beam width in one plane, so the probe must be marked accordingly and used to measure defects in this plane. We use knowledge of the beam spread to size defects, find the edges and hence their width, length and sometimes orientation. Construction of a beam edge plot -20dB Angle Beam 4.3.4 Equalization Back Wall Sizing- The probe moving off the edges of the reflector until the amplitude is equal to the rising BWE 4.3.5 Maximum Amplitude Techniques The technique is used for small reflector. The probe moving off the edges of the reflector until the amplitude is maximum and the line joining the boundary is the size of reflector cluster. 4.3.6 The DGS Method Distance Gain Size Method. The technique is used to find the equivalent reflector size by comparing the gain between the flaw and the known size reflector. 4.4: Automated Scanning Ultrasonic scanning systems are used for automated data acquisition and imaging. They typically integrate a ultrasonic instrumentation, a scanning bridge, and computer controls. The signal strength and/or the time-of-flight of the signal is measured for every point in the scan plan. The value of the data is plotted using colors or shades of gray to produce detailed images of the surface or internal features of a component. Systems are usually capable of displaying the data in A-, B- and C-scan modes simultaneously. With any ultrasonic scanning system there are two factors to consider: how to generate and receive the ultrasound. how to scan the transducer(s) with respect to the part being inspected. Automatic Scanning The most common ultrasonic scanning systems involve the use of an immersion tank as shown in the image above. The ultrasonic transducer and the part are placed under water so that consistent coupling is maintained by the water path as the transducer or part is moved within the tank. However, scanning systems come in a large variety of configurations to meet specific inspection needs. In the image to the right, an engineer aligns the heads of a squirter system that uses a through-transmission technique to inspect aircraft composite structures. In this system, the ultrasound travels through columns of forced water which are scanned about the part with a robotic system. A variation of the squirter system is the "Dripless Bubbler" scanning system, which is discussed below. Dripless Bubbler It is often desirable to eliminate the need for the water coupling and a number of state-of-the-art UT scanning systems have done this. Laser ultrasonic systems use laser beams to generate the ultrasound and collect the resulting signals in an noncontact mode. Advances in transducer technology has lead to the development of an inspection technique known as air-coupled ultrasonic inspection. These systems are capable of sending ultrasonic energy through air and getting enough energy into the part to have a useable signal. These system typically use a through-transmission technique since reflected energy from discontinuities are too weak to detect. The second major consideration is how to scan the transducer(s) with respect to the part being inspected. When the sample being inspected has a flat surface, a simple raster-scan can be performed. If the sample is cylindrical, a turntable can be used to turn the sample while the transducer is held stationary or scanned in the axial direction of the cylinder. When the sample is irregular shaped, scanning becomes more difficult. As illustrated in the beam modeling animation, curved surface can steer, focus and defocus the ultrasonic beam. For inspection applications involving parts having complex curvatures, scanning systems capable of performing contour following are usually necessary. http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/AppleScan/Apple2.swf 4.5: Precision Velocity Measurements Changes in ultrasonic wave propagation speed, along with energy losses, from interactions with a materials microstructures are often used to nondestructively gain information about a material's properties. Measurements of sound velocity and ultrasonic wave attenuation can be related to the elastic properties that can be used to characterize the texture of polycrystalline metals. These measurements enable industry to replace destructive microscopic inspections with nondestructive methods. Of interest in velocity measurements are longitudinal wave, which propagate in gases, liquids, and solids. In solids, also of interest are transverse (shear) waves. The longitudinal velocity is independent of sample geometry when the dimensions at right angles to the beam are large compared to the beam area and wavelength. The transverse velocity is affected little by the physical dimensions of the sample. Pulse-Echo and Pulse-Echo-Overlap Methods Rough ultrasonic velocity measurements are as simple as measuring the time it takes for a pulse of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to another (pitch-catch) or return to the same transducer (pulse-echo). Another method is to compare the phase of the detected sound wave with a reference signal: slight changes in the transducer separation are seen as slight phase changes, from which the sound velocity can be calculated. These methods are suitable for estimating acoustic velocity to about 1 part in 100. Standard practice for measuring velocity in materials is detailed in ASTM E494. ASTM E494 - 10 Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials Active Standard ASTM E494 | Developed by Subcommittee: E07.06 Book of Standards Volume: 03.03 Precision Velocity Measurements (using EMATs) Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) generate ultrasound in the material being investigated. When a wire or coil is placed near to the surface of an electrically conducting object and is driven by a current at the desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will be induced in a near surface region. If a static magnetic field is also present, these currents will experience Lorentz forces of the form F = J x B where F is a body force per unit volume, J is the induced dynamic current density, and B is the static magnetic induction. EMATs http://www.resonic.com/emar_how_it_works.html http://www.resonic.com/error%20scan.swf http://www.resonic.com/scan2.swf The most important application of EMATs has been in nondestructive evaluation (NDE) applications such as flaw detection or material property characterization. Couplant free transduction allows operation without contact at elevated temperatures and in remote locations. The coil and magnet structure can also be designed to excite complex wave patterns and polarizations that would be difficult to realize with fluid coupled piezoelectric probes. In the inference of material properties from precise velocity or attenuation measurements, use of EMATs can eliminate errors associated with couplant variation, particularly in contact measurements. Differential velocity is measured using a T1-T2---R fixed array of EMAT transducer at 0, 45, 90 or 0, 90 relative rotational directions depending on device configuration: EMAT Driver Frequency: 450-600 KHz (nominal) Sampling Period: 100 ns Time Measurement Accuracy: -- Resolution 0.1 ns -- Accuracy required for less than 2 KSI Stress Measurements: Variance 2.47 ns -- Accuracy required for texture: Variance 10.0 Ns ------ W440 < 3.72E-5 ------ W420 < 1.47E-4 ------ W400 < 2.38E-4 Time Measurement Technique Fourier Transform-Phase-Slope determination of delta time between received RF bursts (T2-R) - (T1-R), where T2 and T1 EMATs are driven in series to eliminate differential phase shift due to probe liftoff. Slope of the phase is determined by linear regression of weighted data points within the signal bandwidth and a weighted y-intercept. The accuracy obtained with this method can exceed one part in one hundred thousand (1:100,000). 4.6: Attenuation Measurements Ultrasonic wave propagation is influenced by the microstructure of the material through which it propagates. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves is influenced by the elastic moduli and the density of the material, which in turn are mainly governed by the amount of various phases present and the damage in the material. Ultrasonic attenuation, which is the sumof the (1)absorption and the (2)scattering, is mainly dependent upon the damping capacity and scattering from the grain boundary in the material. However, to fully characterize the attenuation required knowledge of a large number of thermo-physical parameters that in practice are hard to quantify. U t A o A A o A U t A o A U t A o A A o U t A A o A o U t A o A U t A o Relative measurements such as the change of attenuation and simple qualitative tests are easier to make than absolute measure. Relative attenuation measurements can be made by examining the exponential decay of multiple back surface reflections. However, significant variations in microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties often produce only a relatively small change in wave velocity and attenuation. Absolute measurements of attenuation are very difficult to obtain because the echo amplitude depends on factors in addition to amplitude. The most common method used to get quantitative results is to use an ultrasonic source and detector transducer separated by a known distance. By varying the separation distance, the attenuation can be measured from the changes in the amplitude. To get accurate results, the influence of coupling conditions must be carefully addressed. To overcome the problems related to conventional ultrasonic attenuation measurements, ultrasonic spectral parameters for frequency-dependent attenuation measurements, which are independent from coupling conditions are also used. For example, the ratio of the amplitudes of higher frequency peak to the lower frequency peak, has been used for microstructural characterization of some materials. Attenuation: A U t A o Attenuation: 4.7: Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics Spread spectrum ultrasonics makes use of the correlation of continuous signals rather than pulse-echo or pitch-catch techniques. Spread spectrum ultrasonics is a patented new broad band spread-spectrum ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation method. In conventional ultrasonics, a pulse or tone burst is transmitted, then received echoes or through- transmission signals are received and analyzed. In spread spectrum ultrasonics, encoded sound is continuously transmitted into the part or structure being tested. Instead of receiving echoes, spread spectrum ultrasonics generates an acoustic correlation signature having a one-to-one correspondence with the acoustic state of the part or structure (in its environment) at the instant of the measurement. In its simplest embodiment, the acoustic correlation signature is generated by cross correlating an encoding sequence, with suitable cross and auto correlation properties, transmitted into a part (structure) with received signals returning from the part (structure). Section of bi-phase modulated spread spectrum ultrasonic waveform Multiple probes may be used to ensure that acoustic energy is propagated through all critical volumes of the structure. Triangulation may be incorporated with multiple probes to locate regions of detected distress. Spread spectrum ultrasonics can achieve very high sensitivity to acoustic propagation changes with a low level of energy. Spread Spectrum UT Two significant applications of Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics are: 1. Large Structures that allow ultrasonic transducers to be "permanently" affixed to the structures, eliminating variations in transducer registration and couplant. Comparisons with subsequent acoustic correlation signatures can be used to monitor critical structures such as fracture critical bridge girders. In environments where structures experience a great many variables such as temperature, load, vibration, or environmental coupling, it is necessary to filter out these effects to obtain the correct measurements of defects. In the example below, simulated defects were created by setting a couple of steel blocks on the top of the bridge girder. Spread Spectrum UT 2. Piece-part assembly line environments where transducers and couplant may be precisely controlled, eliminating significant variations in transducer registration and couplant. Acoustic correlation signatures may be statistically compared to an ensemble of known "good" parts for sorting or accepting/rejecting criteria in a piece-part assembly line environment. Impurities in the incoming steel used to forge piece parts may result in sulfite stringer inclusions. In this next example simulated defects were created by placing a magnetized steel wire on the surface of a small steel cylindrical piston used in hydraulic transmissions. Two discrimination technique are tested here, which are SUF-1 and SUF-2, with the latter giving the best discrimination between defect conditions. The important point being that spread spectrum ultrasonics can be extremely sensitive to the acoustic state of a part or structure being tested, and therefore, is a good ultrasonic candidate for testing and monitoring, especially where scanning is economic unfeasible. EMATs with Spread Spectrum Ultrasonic http://www.resonic.com/emar_how_it_works.html http://www.resonic.com/error%20scan.swf http://www.resonic.com/scan2.swf 4.8: Signal Processing Techniques Signal processing involves techniques that improve our understanding of information contained in received ultrasonic data. Normally, when a signal is measured with an oscilloscope, it is viewed in the time domain (vertical axis is amplitude or voltage and the horizontal axis is time). For many signals, this is the most logical and intuitiveway to view them. Simple signal processing often involves the use of gates to isolate the signal of interest or frequency filters to smooth or reject unwanted frequencies. When the frequency content of the signal is of interest, it makes sense to view the signal graph in the frequency domain. In the frequency domain, the vertical axis is still voltage but the horizontal axis is frequency. Display Time/Magnitude domain Frequency /Magnitude domain The frequency domain display shows how much of the signal's energy is present as a function of frequency. For a simple signal such as a sine wave, the frequency domain representation does not usually show us much additional information. However, with more complex signals, such as the response of a broad bandwidth transducer, the frequency domain gives a more useful view of the signal. Fourier theory says that any complex periodic waveform can be decomposed into a set of sinusoids with different amplitudes, frequencies and phases. The process of doing this is called Fourier Analysis, and the result is a set of amplitudes, phases, and frequencies for each of the sinusoids that makes up the complex waveform. Adding these sinusoids together again will reproduce exactly the original waveform. A plot of the frequency or phase of a sinusoid against amplitude is called a spectrum. Fourier Analysis Fourier Analysis Fourier Analysis The following Fourier J ava applet, adapted with permission of Stanford University, allows the user to manipulate discrete time domain or frequency domain components and see the relationships between signals in time and frequency domains. The top row (light blue color) represents the real and imaginary parts of the time domain. Normally the imaginary part of the time domain signal is identically zero. The middle row (peach color) represents the the real and imaginary parts of the frequency domain. The bottom row (light green color) represents the magnitude (amplitude) and phase of the frequency domain signal. Magnitude is the square root of the sum of the squares of the real and imaginary components. Phase is the angular relationship of the real and imaginary components. Ultrasonic transducer manufactures often provide plots of both time domain and frequency domain (magnitude) signals characteristic of each transducer. Use this applet to explore the relationship between time and frequency domains. Fourier Analysis Exercise: Try replicating time domain signal in the upper left box with a pattern similar to the image on the right. Note the resulting bandwidth in the frequency domain (magnitude) in the lower left box. Next try changing the magnitude, perhaps more of a "mountain" shape tapering to zero. Note that "narrowing" the magnitude, results in more cycles in the time domain signal. 4.9: Flaw Reconstruction Techniques In nondestructive evaluation of structural material defects, the size, shape, and orientation are important flaw parameters in structural integrity assessment. To illustrate flaw reconstruction, a multiviewing ultrasonic transducer system is shown below. A single probe moved sequentially to achieve different perspectives would work equally as well. The apparatus and the signal-processing algorithms were specifically designed at the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation to make use of the theoretical developments in elastic wave scattering in the long and intermediate wavelength regime. 4.10: Scanning Methods 4.10.1 Pulse Echo Method Pulse Echo Method Amplitude loss: Inverse Square Law Influence of Shadow on axial defects Influence of reflector orientation on signal Influence of reflector size on signal 4.10.2 Pitch-Catch Methods Advantage: Sensitive to near surface defect Capable of penetrating thicker material due to pitch-catch mode. Disadvantage: It measures only sound energy loss at the receiver, without giving details information of location. Pitch-Catch Methods- Tandem Pitch-Catch Methods- Tandem Pitch-Catch Methods- Through Transmission Video on Through Transmission Methods www.youtube.com/embed/bRgCLb2cDU4?list=UUSOUDD4-FPV4tzqvUnquwXQ 4.10.3 Immersion Methods For immersion testing of steel and aluminum in water, the water path shall be at least 1for every 4thickness of the specimen (or of specimen thickness minimum). If the transducer is too close, the 2 nd front reflection will appeared between the 1 st front reflection and the 1 st backwall echo and this may be wrong interpreted as discontinuity. Immersion Methods- The water path shall be of specimen thickness minimum. Minimum + [ (?)] Q. In immersion testing, to remove the second water reflection (2nd entry surface signal) from between the entry surface signal and the first back reflection, you should: a) Increase repetition rate b) Decrease frequency c) Decrease sweep length d) Increase water depth Immersion Methods- The water path shall be of specimen thickness minimum. (plus 6mm) Minimum + [ (?)] Modified Immersion Methods- Bubbler Chamber Modified Immersion Methods Irrigation Dam Angle Beam Immersion Methods Note the small front surface reflection. This due to the inclined incident angle reflected away from the transducer. Angle Beam Immersion Methods- Pipe & Tubing Testing . Angle Beam Immersion Methods- Weld Testing Other Reading (Olympus)- Angle Beam Immersion Methods Immersion transducers offer three major advantages over contact transducers: 1. Uniform coupling reduces sensitivity variations. 2. Reduction in scan time due to automated scanning. 3. Focusing of immersion transducers increases sensitivity to small reflectors. Focusing Configurations Immersion transducers are available in three different configurations: unfocused (flat), spherically (spot) focused, and cylindrically (line) focused. Focusing is accomplished by either the addition of a lens or by curving the element itself. The addition of a lens is the most common way to focus a transducer. Cylindrical Spherical An unfocused transducer may be used in general applications or for penetration of thick materials. A spherically focused transducer is commonly used to improve sensitivity to small flaws and a cylindrical focus is typically used in the inspection of tubing or bar stock. Examples of spherical and cylindrical focusing are shown in Figure (17) below. Unfocused transducer By definition, the focal length of a transducer is the distance from the face of the transducer to the point in the sound field where the signal with the maximum amplitude is located. In an unfocused transducer, this occurs at a distance from the face of the transducer which is approximately equivalent to the transducers near field length. Because the last signal maximum occurs at a distance equivalent to the near field, a transducer, by definition, can not be acoustically focused at a distance greater than its near field. Focus may be designated in three ways: FPF (Flat Plate Focus) - For an FPF focus, the lens is designed to produce a maximum pulse/echo response from a flat plate target at the distance indicated by the focal length PTF (Point Target Focus) - For a PTF focus, the lens is designed to produce a maximum pulse/echo response from a small ball target at the distance indicated by the focal length OLF (Optical Limit Focus) - The OLF designation indicates that the lens is designed according to the lens makers formula from physical optics and without reference to any operational definition of focal length. The OLF designation describes the lens and ignores diffraction effects. Video on Immersion Testing www.youtube.com/embed/W07-Z9at=UUSOUDD4-FPV4tzqvUnquwXQ Q1: Which of the following scanning methods could be classified as an immersion type test? A. Tank in which the transducer and test piece are immersed B. Squirter bubbler method in which the sound is transmitted in a column of flowing water C. Scanning with a wheel-type transducer with the transducer inside a liquid filled tire D. All of the above Q2: In an immersion test of a piece of steel or aluminum, the water distance appears on the display as a fairly wide space between the initial pulse and the front surface reflection because of: A. Reduced velocity of sound in water as compared to test specimen B. Increased velocity of sound in water as compared to test specimen C. Temperature of the water D. All of the above 4.11: Scanning Patterns Scanning Patterns 4.12: Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration The energy of the generated sound depend on the pulse repetition rate, the higher the repetition rate the higher the energy and the sound able to penetrate thicker material. However if the PRR is excessive, ghost signal may formed, this is due to the fact that the next sequence of pulse is generated before the expected returning signal reaching the receiver. 1. The pulse repetition frequency or pulse repetition rate PRR: is the number of pulse of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given time (per second). Each pulse of energy that leave the probe must return before the next pulse leave, otherwise they will collide causing ghost echoes. 2. Transit time: The time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and return 3. Clock interval: The time between pulse leaving the probe. The transit time must be shorter than the Clock interval else, ghost signal may formed. Typically the Clock interval should be 5 time the transit time. PRR- Pulse Repetitive Frequency/Rate and Maximum Testable Thickness Clock interval = 1/PRR When Transit time = Clock interval For pulse echo method: Maximum testable length = x Velocity x Clock interval Typically the Clock interval should be 5 time the transit time, i.e. the sound path should travel 5 times the maximum testable length. (1st BWE, 2nd BWE, 3rd BWE, 4th BWE to 5th BWE.) Note: The Clock interval has neglected the time occupied by each pulse. Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration Pulse Repetition Rate and Near Surface Sensitivity 4.13: Interferences & Non Relevant Indications Following are signal interferences that may produce non-relevant UT indications: 1. Electrical interference 2. Transducer interference 3. Test specimen geometric interference 4. Test specimen surface interferences 5. Test material structure interferences 6. Test material internal mode conversion interference 7. UT techniques induced interferences (In correct PRR/ Band width/ Frequency selection/ Excessive Beam Spread/ etc.) Transducer Interference- Transducer internal reflections & Mode conversion may cause interference Specimen Surface Interference Excessive surface roughness, air bubbles on the surface (on the transducer front, specimen front and back for immersion techniques. Surface wave for testing near the edges Specimen Surface Interference ? ? Specimen Surface Interference- You can determined whether the signal is from the surface wave or the refracted wave simply by touching the surface ahead of the wave (assuming the velocity of surface wave at 0.9 of the shear wave) Mode Conversion Interference The mode conversion interference during testing of long cylindrical specimen with longitudinal wave often appeared after the first back wall echo. The signal can be easily distinguished and ignore. Material Geometric Interference False signals may generated due to the test specimen structural configurations resulting in spurious signals. Non Relevant Indications Transducer with Excessive Beam Spread may generate signal, usually after the 1 st BWE. The example below the convex surface defocused the beam and lead to excessive beam spread, using a proper contoured probe may eliminate the problem. However excessive contour may results in generation of surface wave. Non Relevant Indication Large grain size especially casting may cause excessive hash or grass signal. Properly selecting probe with lower frequency may relieve the problem. However this can only de accomplished with reduction in sensitivity. Non Relevant Indication Large grain size at heat affected zone HAZ (CGHAZ) may cause localized signal due to large grain size. The signal may be wrongly assessed as a defect. Non Relevant Indications The geometric abnormalities at root penetration and weld surface (crown) may reflect the sound path, returning to the receiver as signals. To distinguished the non relevant indications, finger touching will damped the signals. Further testing may be necessary to ensure the signals were not from the surface defects like surface crack. Any near surface indication that are unusually consistent could be a non relevant indication. 4.14: Exercises 4.14-1: Compared 6 dB Drop Sizing with Equalization Technique The 6 dB Method For Large Reflector (greater than beam width), i.e. there is no BWE. Compared 6 dB Drop Sizing with Equalization Technique The Equalization Back Wall Sizing- The probe moving off the edges of the reflector until the amplitude is equal to the rising BWE Q1 What is the correct water path between the transducer and the steel front surface to focused a transducer for a area of interest at below a steel surface? Given that: Focal length of transducer in water = 6 Velocity of sound in water= 1484 m/s Velocity of sound in steel = 5920 m/s Equivalent depth in water for steel depth = 4x = 2 The water path= 6- 2= 4 Break Time mms://a588.l3944020587.c39440.g.lm.akamaistream.net/D/588/ 39440/v0001/reflector:20587?BBC- UID=e5203c9d59fef1a79c12d8c601e839f58db16f7d5d6448f556 74c540f1856834&SSO2-UID=