Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures using Biological Approach

M V Seshagiri Rao 1
a
, V Srinivasa Reddy 2
b
, Y Shireesha
c
, M A!"atunnisa #
d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Professor,JNTUH College of Enginnering,Hyderbad,500085,ndia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, !sso"iate Professor, #$ET, Hyderabad, 5000%0, ndia
"
Department of Civil Engineering, P# &t'dent ,JNTUH College of Enginnering,Hyderbad,500085,ndia
d
Centre for Environment, JNTU Hyderbad,500085,ndia
Abstract
T(e e)tent of deterioration to "on"rete str'"t'res globally is o""'rring at an alarming rate, *(i"( "(allenges engineers
t(ro'g(o't t(e *orld on a daily basis+ T(is in"l'des damage to bridges, b'ildings, par,ing str'"t'res, environmental fa"ilities, as *ell as
ot(er str'"t'res+ Unfort'nately, repair "osts "an be staggering+ Delaying repairs 's'ally res'lts in m'"( more "ostly repairs later+
-'rt(ermore, if "on"rete deterioration or damage is not timely addressed, some of t(ese str'"t'res event'ally may "ease to be
servi"eable and *orse yet, fail'res "o'ld o""'r+ T(e mi"ro."ra",s and porosity of "on"rete str'"t'res are very "ommon problems d'e to
t(e fa"t t(at t(is material (as a (ig( permeability *(i"( allo*s *ater and ot(er aggressive media to enter t('s leading to deterioration+
T(e 'se of traditional organi" polymer based "ra", sealers is a "ommon *ay of "ontrib'ting to "on"rete d'rability+ Ho*ever, t(e most
"ommon organi" polymers (ave some degree of to)i"ity and are not environmental friendly+ $e"ent investigations in t(e field of
biote"(nology s(o* t(e potential of bio.inspired materials in t(e development of lo* to)i" sol'tions+ Cal"i'm "arbonate is one of t(e
most *ell ,no*n mineral t(at ba"teria deposit by t(e p(enomenon "alled bio."ementation or mi"robiologi"ally ind'"ed "al"ite
pre"ipitation /0CP1+ !n aerobi" al,alop(ili" soil ba"teri'm 2a"ill's s'btilis JC3 *as in"orporated into "on"rete at different "ell
"on"entrations *it( t(e mi)ing *ater+ T(e st'dy s(o*ed t(at a 30 4 in"rease in 58 days "ompressive strengt( of "on"rete *as a"(ieved
*it( t(e addition of 60
5
ba"terial "ells per ml of mi)ing *ater+ T(is paper presents t(e resear"( findings to s'ggest t(e potential 'se of t(e
mi"robial "al"ite pre"ipitation pro"ess in remediation of t(e s'rfa"e "ra",s and pores present in "on"rete+
$ey%ords& 2a"terial Con"rete, bio."al"ifi"ation, mi"robiologi"ally ind'"ed "al"ite pre"ipitation, self.(ealing, 2a"ill's s'btilis JC3+
'ntroduction
Concrete is most used construction material in the world today. There are two probable reasons for deterioration of
concrete; they are human inflicted causes such as low strength concrete, inadequate concrete cover, poor construction
techniques etc and environment related causes freezing and thawing, early-drying shrinkage, chemical attack, carbonation
etc. Concrete crack repair could be done to accomplish the following obectives such as restoring and increasing strength
and stiffness, to improve structural integrity, to provide water tightness, improve appearance of the concrete crack surface
area, to improve durability and to prevent corrosion in steel. !o there are many different forms of causes for cracking to
deal with on a daily basis. "hen ignored can lead to more serious problems with corrosion. #efore you begin to repair these
cracks in concrete, identifying the nature of cause and method of repair is chosen based on whether to achieve structural
integrity, focus on aesthetics, seal against intrusion of foreign materials, protect against carbonation, protect against chloride
and water ingress; and$or seal in preparation for additional topping material. %airline cracks are often ignored because they
are thought of as nonstructural and, therefore, not a threat to the integrity of the structure. &f left untreated, hairline cracks
will eventually become larger and lead to more costly repairs. To minimize future deterioration of concrete, cracks e'posed
to a moist or corrosive environment should be sealed by using various available engineering solutions for structural crack
repair. (n innovation based on biomimicry and biotechnology has lead to the method of sealing up of micro cracks in
concrete by itself using microorganisms as a sustainable alternative to other available chemical methods of crack repair
such as epo'y treatment etc.
Bio(deposition Versus )atural Carbonation
Compared to natural carbonation of concrete, bio-deposition is a relatively quick process. )atural carbonation
occurs from the dissolution of atmospheric C*+ in the pore solution and formation of CaC*, from C!% or portlandite. &n
the bio-deposition treatment however, calcium ions are also provided by an e'ternally added calcium source, while the
carbonate ions result from the microbiological hydrolysis of amino acids. (s a result of the rapid hydrolysis of amino acids
-under optimal conditions., the maority of the calcium ions added to the specimens are precipitated within a couple of
days.
Mechanis" of Bio(based Concrete Crac* Repair
&n nature, microorganisms can induce calcite mineral precipitation through nitrogen cycle either by
ammonification of amino acids$ nitrate reduction$ hydrolysis of urea. 2a"ill's s'btilis /C, is able to precipitate calcium
carbonate -CaC*,. in its micro-environment by the ammonification of amino acids into ammonium -)%0
1
. and carbonate
-C*,
+-
. ions. The precipitated bio-CaC*, has a great potential ability to heal concrete cracks because it is natural,
environmentally friendly and compatible with the concrete matri'. #iomineralization in concrete is the process by which
micro organisms that produces minerals is uses as a possible method to promote concrete crack remediation. #ut the
challenge was finding the bacteria that would be active in concrete2s environment of high alkalinity and low o'ygen.
2a"ill's s'btilis /C, a non-pathogenic alkalophilic microorganism commonly found in soil and is known to deposit the
calcite minerals when it is supplied with nutrients and right conditions to grow. The bacteria introduced into the concrete
during mi'ing process will form spores in the highly alkaline environment of concrete. *nce a crack forms, the p% level at
the cracked surface will drop due to the e'posure to air. The combination of the p% drop and a flow of o'ygen, moisture
and carbon dio'ide at the crack face will activate the microorganisms and will provide the conditions favorable for growth.
The microorganisms will deposit calcium carbonate, and as the crack fill up, the supply of o'ygen and carbon dio'ide will
be interrupted, causing the microorganisms to hibernate again, ensuring the continual effectiveness of the microorganisms
in filling up cracks at the same location. #io-mineralization by !mmonifi"ation -(mmo acid degradation+ is mediated by
2a"ill's s'btilis /C,. (mmonification usually occurs under aerobic conditions -known as o'idative deamination. with the
liberation of ammonia -)%,. or ammonium ions -)%0. when dissolved in water. The ammonia liberated will provide the
conditions favorable for growth and also maintains the p% of concrete.
,-peri"ental 'nvestigations
1. ,ffect of Bacterial Cell Concentration on Strength
3ffect of cell concentration of 2a"ill's s'btilis /C, on the strength is studied by determining the compressive strength
of standard cement mortar cubes incorporated with various bacterial cell concentrations as per &!4 05,6-part 7 as shown in
8igure 6.
2. Co"pressive Strength Studies on Bacterial Concrete
Compressive strength of bacterial concrete is tested as per &!4 967-6:9: and plotted in 8igure +.
. /ltrasonic 0ulse Velocity 1est 2/S0V+
The test is performed as per &! code 6,,66 -;art 6. 6::+ to find out the homogeneity of bacterial concrete, presence of
cracks, voids and other imperfections and changes in concrete structure with time. &n this method, velocity is co-related to
strength and quality of bacterial concrete specimens as shown in Table 9.
1able 1& 3uality of concrete based on /ltrasonic pulse velocity
<elocity =uality of concrete
> 0.9 km$s e'cellent
,.9 to 0.9 km$s ?ood
,.5 to ,.9 km$s medium
@ ,.5 km$s doubtful
#. Rebound 4a""er 1est
(s per &! 6,,66, -;art +.4 6::+, this test measures the surface hardness of concrete and is co-related to the strength and
quality of concrete. %arder the surface of the material tested, greater is the rebound. Table+ shows ?uidelines for qualitative
interpretation of rebound hammer test results as tabulated in Table 7.
1able 2& 3uality of concrete based on Average Rebound 4a""er
(verage rebound number =uality of concrete
> 05 <ery good hard layer
,5 to 05 ?ood layer
+5 to ,5 8air
@ +5 ;oor concrete
5. 6iffusion Characteristics of Bacterial Concrete
Anderstanding transport phenomena in concrete at its micro-structural level has become of increasing importance in
elucidating the deterioration process of concrete such as corrosion of reinforcement embedded in concrete which is caused
2
by penetration of aggressive substances into concrete. The chloride resistance of concrete is governed primarily by the pore
structure and the concrete diffusivity. Chloride ion penetration is one of the main parameter affecting the durability of
reinforced cement concrete structures. The most important concrete characteristic, apart from permeability, is diffusion. The
mode of transport of chloride ion through concentration gradient is called Biffusion. The rate at which chloride ions
penetrate into concrete determines the time period after which the passivity of reinforcing bars begin to break down.
Chloride diffusivity in terms of charge passed of bacterial concrete using Capid Chloride ;enetration Test -CC;T. as per
(!TD C 6+5+ is investigated. Asually chlorides penetrate in concrete by diffusion along water paths or open pores. !ome
of these chlorides can react with the cement compounds, mainly tri-calcium aluminates -C,(., forming stable chloro
comple'es. The e'cess of chloride, which is free, leads to the initiation of the corrosion process.
&n the ((!%T* T+EE -(!TD C6+5+. test -3lectrical indication of concrete2s ability to resist chloride ion penetration+,
a water-saturated, 95-mm thick, 655-mm diameter concrete specimen is subected to a 75 < applied BC voltage for 7 hours.
&n upstream reservoir is a ,.5F )aCl solution of +.0) concentration -Cathode. and in the downstream reservoir is a 5., D
)a*% solution -chloride free. -(node.. The total charge passed is determined and this is used to rate the quality of the
concrete according to the criteria rating mentioned in the code. Capid chloride ion penetrability tests were conducted on
controlled and bacterial specimens. The total charge passing through from one reservoir to another reservoir through
centrally placed concrete specimen in 7 hrs was measured, at an interval of ,5 min, indicating the degree of resistance of
the specimen to chloride ion penetration as shown in Table E. The following formula, based on the trapezoidal rule can be
used to calculate the average current flowing through one cell.
= G :55-&51+&,51+&751+&:51+&6+51H1+&,551+&,,51&,75.
"here, = G current flowing through one cell -coulombs.
&5 G Current reading in amperes immediately after voltage is applied, and
&t G Current reading in amperes at t minutes -,5 min interval. after voltage is applied
The electric charge passed, = in coulombs, obtained from Capid chloride ion penetrability test was used to
calculate Chloride Digration Biffusion Coefficient in steady state conditions from #erke2s empirical 3quation.
BCG5.565, ' 65
-6+
' =
5.I0
m
+
$s
The calculated diffusion coefficient values, in Table I, are used to classify the concrete in terms of their permeability as per
the recommendations of the Concrete !ociety, AJ4
%igh permeability concrete4 >9'65
-6+
m
+
$s.
(verage permeability concrete4 -6 to 9. ' 65
-6+
m-$s.
Kow permeability concrete 4@ 6 ' 65
-6+
m
+
$s.
&n addition, resistivity or conductivity can also be determined from the initial current reading, since the resistance
of the specimen can be calculated immediately from *hm2s law4
CG<$&
"here C is electrical resistance in ohm -L., < is voltage in volts, and & is current in ampere.
The electrical resistivities of normal and bacterial concrete specimens, shown in Table : are determined4
Cesistivity -L .cm. GC($K
"here ( is area of the specimen, and K is thickness of the specimen.
1able & RC01 and Resistivity Criteria Ratings
;ermeability Class
Capid Chloride ;ermeability
Charge ;assed -Coulombs.
as per (!TD C6+5+
3lectrical Cesistivity
-kM-cm.
as per Concrete !ociety, AJ
%igh > 0,555 @ 6+
Doderate +,555 - 0,555 6+ - +6
Kow 6,555 - +,555 +6-,E
<ery Kow 655 - 6,555 ,E-+90
)egligible @ 655 >+90
7. Sea 8ater Resistance
!ea water is a comple' solution of many salts containing living matter, suspended silt, dissolved gases and decaying
organic material. The average salt concentration of sea water is about ,.9F although it varies from sea to sea depending
upon geological location. !eawater containing up to ,9,555 ppm of dissolved salts is generally suitable as mi'ing water for
concrete not containing steel. (bout EIF of the salt is sodium chloride, and 69F is chloride and sulfate of magnesium.
(lthough concrete made with seawater may have higher early strength than normal concrete, strengths at later ages -after
+I days. may be lower. This strength reduction can be compensated for by reducing the water-cement ratio. !eawater is not
suitable for use in making steel reinforced concrete and it should not be used in prestressed concrete due to the risk of
corrosion of the reinforcement, particularly in warm and humid environments.!odium or potassium in salts present in
3
seawater used for mi' water can aggravate alkali-aggregate reactivity. Thus, seawater should not be used as mi' water for
concrete with potentially alkali-reactive aggregates. !eawater used for mi' water also tends to cause efflorescence and
dampness on concrete surfaces e'posed to air and water. Concrete e'posed to sea water is wetted by a solution of salts--
principally sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate. Bamage to concrete, if it occurs, usually results from failure to use
good practices in concrete construction, and often is the result of freezing and thawing or wetting and drying as much as or
more than the results of the effects of sea water as such. Dagnesium sulfate may attack most, if not all, of the constituents
of hardened ;ortland cement paste, especially the aluminate constituent; chlorides may promote corrosion of steel; and
alkalies may participate in alkali-aggregate reaction.
The amounts of salts in Table 0 were dissolved in plain water to prepare 6555gm of sea water of 6) concentration.
Cubes of 655mm size were weighed and immersed in water diluted with composition of sea water prepared in the
laboratory as per (!TD B6606 for :5 days continuously and then the cubes were taken out and weighed. The percentage
losses in weight, percentage reductions in compressive strength, (cid durability factors -(B8. and (cid (ttack
factors-((8. were calculated and tabulated in Table 65.
1able #& Co"position of artificial sea %ater
Composition Concentration, g$lit
!odium chloride +0.9,
Dagnesium chloride 9.+
!odium sulphate 0.5:
Calcium chloride 6.67
;otassium chloride 5.7:9
9. Cost Analysis
The cost$benefit analysis of bacterial concrete balances the increased cost of the concrete against substantial repair
material costs, enhanced durability and aesthetic benefits. The benefits are apparent at strength and performance of the
finished product. *nly e'pensive component in the development of bacterial concrete is nutrients. &n this proect, one litre
of nutrients mi'ed bacterial culture costs Cs 75.
1,S1 R,S/:1S A)6 6'SC/SS';)S
The following plot shows effect of bacterial cell concentration on the compressive strengths of cement mortar cubes.
<igure 1& ,ffect of bacterial cell concentration on the strength of concrete
4
<igure 2& Strength develop"ent of a )or"al concrete and Bacterial concrete
1able 5& /ltrasonic pulse velocity test results of various grades of nor"al and bacterial concretes
Type of
Concrete
(ge of
Concrete
-in days.
D+5 D05 D75 DI5
<elocity
=uality
of
Concrete
<elocity
=uality
of
Concrete
<elocity
=uality
of
Concrete
<elocity
=uality
of
Concrete
)ormal
Concrete
+I ,.+7 medium 0.,: ?ood 0.I: 3'cellent 9.6, 3'cellent
75 ,.,7 medium 0.0, ?ood 0.:+ 3'cellent 9.6: 3'cellent
:5 ,.06 medium 0.95 ?ood 0.:: 3'cellent 9.,, 3'cellent
#acterial
Concrete
+I 0.+E ?ood 0.E, 3'cellent 9.++ 3'cellent 9.:0 3'cellent
75 0.,, ?ood 0.I: 3'cellent 9.,7 3'cellent 7.5+ 3'cellent
:5 0.,: ?ood 0.:+ 3'cellent 9.06 3'cellent 7.59 3'cellent
1able 7& Rebound ha""er test results of various grades of nor"al and bacterial concrete speci"ens
Type of
Concrete
(ge of
Concrete
-in days.
D+5 D05 D75 DI5
(verage
Cebound
)umber
=uality
of
Concrete
(verage
Cebound
)umber
=uality
of
Concrete
(verage
Cebound
)umber
=uality
of
Concrete
(verage
Cebound
)umber
=uality
of
Concrete
)ormal
Concrete
+I +9 8air ,0
?ood
Kayer
07
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
96
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
75 +I 8air ,7
?ood
Kayer
0:
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
9,
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
:5 +: 8air ,I
?ood
Kayer
96
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
90
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
#acterial +I ,, ?ood 00 <ery 9, <ery 9: <ery
5
Concrete
Kayer
?ood
%ard
Kayer
?ood
%ard
Kayer
?ood
%ard
Kayer
75 ,9
?ood
Kayer
0E
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
99
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
75
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
:5 ,E
?ood
Kayer
0:
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
9I
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
7,
<ery
?ood
%ard
Kayer
1able 9& Chloride ion 0er"eability of )or"al and Bacterial Concretes
Charge ;assed
-Coulombs.
Chloride
;ermeability as
per (!TD
C6+5+
Charge ;assed
-Coulombs.
Chloride
;ermeability as
per (!TD
C6+5+
Charge ;assed
-Coulombs.
Chloride
;ermeability as
per (!TD
C6+5+
(ge-days. +I 75 :5
Concrete without #acteria
D+5 +06: Doderate ++6, Doderate +655 Doderate
D05 +55I Doderate 6::6 Kow 6I6E Kow
D75 65++ Kow ::E Kow :0, Kow
Concrete with #acteria
D+5 ,7E <ery Kow ,96 <ery Kow ,+E <ery Kow
D05 +,I <ery Kow +++ <ery Kow +5+ <ery Kow
D75 6E, <ery Kow 69: <ery Kow :7 <ery Kow
1able =& Chloride 6iffusion Coefficients of )or"al and Bacterial Concretes
Chloride
Digration
Biffusion
Coefficient
-BC.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
Chloride
Digration
Biffusion
Coefficient
-BC.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
Chloride
Digration
Biffusion
Coefficient
-BC.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
(ge-days. +I 75 :5
Concrete without #acteria
D+5 E.673-6+ %igh 7.703-6+ %igh 7.,73-6+ %igh
D05 7.6+3-6+ %igh 7.5I3-6+ %igh 9.7,3-6+ %igh
D75 ,.0E3-6+ Dedium ,.053-6+ Dedium ,.+03-6+ Dedium
Concrete with #acteria
D+5 6.0E3-6+ Dedium 6.063-6+ Dedium 6.,,3-6+ Dedium
D05 6.5+3-6+ Dedium 5.:73-6+ Kow 5.I:3-6+ Kow
D75 5.EI3-6+ Kow 5.E,3-6+ Kow 5.773-6+ Kow
1able >& ,lectrical Resistivity of )or"al and Bacterial Concretes
3lectrical
resistivity -N.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
3lectrical
resistivity -N.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
3lectrical
resistivity -N.
Chloride
;ermeability
as per
Concrete
!ociety,AJ
(ge-days. +I 75 :5
Concrete without #acteria
D+5 I0 <ery Kow I7 <ery Kow :9 <ery Kow
D05 656 <ery Kow 659 <ery Kow 66, <ery Kow
6
D75 +55 <ery Kow +5: <ery Kow +0+ <ery Kow
Concrete with #acteria
D+5 990 )egligible 9I: )egligible 7+I )egligible
D05 I97 )egligible :0+ )egligible 66EI )egligible
D75 66EI )egligible 69E5 )egligible 6II0 )egligible
1able 1?& Sea%ater resistance studies on Bacterial Concrete
S,A 8A1,R A11AC$ R,S'S1A)C, S1/6',S
@rade of
concrete M2? M#? M7? M=? M2? M#? M7? M=?
Age Koss in weight -F.
+I days ,.06 6.9I 6.+, 6.59 +.++ 6.5: 5.I9 5.EE
75 days 9.6+ 6.:I 6.09 6.,, ,.56 6.97 6.+6 6.50
:5 days E.9I ,.99 +.6: 6.:E 0.67 +.06 6.77 6.,5
Koss in compressive strength -F.
+I days 65.06 7.95 ,.79 ,.,9 E.+9 0.96 6.II 6.70
75 days 69.9I :.6+ 9.+7 0.9I :.6+ 7.5I ,.96 6.::
:5 days 6:.+9 66.5+ E.67 7.6: 65.97 I.5: 0.66 ,.69
(cid Burability 8actor -(B8.-F.
+I days 6:.++ +7.9+ 6:.++ ,E.5+ 06.I0 +E.7+ ,:.E6 96.E+
75 days ,E.79 06.56 ,E.79 0:.E9 90.6I 07.00 96.7, 9I.7E
:5 days 0E.,E 9+.+I 0E.,E 99.I0 9:.+E 97.E5 76.E9 79.6I
(cid (ttack 8actors -((8.-mm.
+I days 5.65 5.5: 5.57 5.50 5.5E 5.57 5.59 5.5,
75 days 5.+E 5.+, 5.67 5.65 5.+9 5.6I 5.65 5.57
:5 days 5.0E 5.05 5.+I 5.6E 5.05 5.,0 5.+0 5.60
&n bacterial concrete, as it gains strength, hardness increases and as a result, the rebound hammers values are more
because of greater elastic rebound. &n order to assess particle continuity inside the concrete specimen, A!;< test is
recommended.
?rades of )ormal concrete have higher current flow when compared to ?rades of #acterial concrete. The
diffusivity of chloride through concrete therefore depends on the microstructure of the concrete cover. #acterial concrete
will have dense microstructure due to precipitation of mineral in pores of concrete. The impermeability of concrete can be
represented by the rate of flow or diffusion coefficient of chloride ions through the unit area of concrete. Biffusion
Coefficient -BC. of chloride ions decreases with increase in higher grades in normal concrete but with introduction of
bacteria into concrete further decreased the effective diffusion coefficient. Ceduction in chloride ion permeability values
indicates that bacteria induced concrete has shown between I9F to :5 F higher resistance against the chloride ion
movements in bacterial concrete as compared to the chloride movements in normal concrete.
&nduction of bacteria increases the electrical resistivity -N.. The concretes containing bacteria presented a higher
resistivity than the reference one. Therefore, the resistivity of the concrete is related to the inhibition of the migration of
chloride ions, which are subordinated to the flow paths in the microstructure of the paste. The formation of flow paths in the
reference concrete results from the hydration of the cement. The mineral precipitation alters the original microstructure
formed by the cement and fills the pores increasing the tortuosity of the capillary network, resulting in longer paths and
smaller pore diameters. The reduction in pore diameter intensifies the interaction between the soluble ions, the particles,
and the hydrates. &n consequence, the ionic mobility in electrolytic solutions is decreased.
8rom the results of percentage loss in weight and percentage reduction in compressive strengths as shown in Table
65, it has been observed that bacterial concrete of all grades were less attacked by sea water and are more durable than
controlled concrete. The loss in mass and the reduction in compressive strength in chloride solution were reduced by around
7
+9 to ,9F in bacterial concrete specimens for all grades. The hydration of cement fills the volume initially occupied by the
water, reducing the total porosity of the systems. The mineral precipitation in #acterial concrete reduces the
interconnectivity of the pore structure by decreasing the pore size -pores refinement., which is directly related to durability.
C;)C:/S';)
&mprovement in compressive strength reaches a ma'imum at about 65
9
$ml cell concentration. !3D e'amination
reveals the growth of fibrous filler material within the pores due to the presence of such microorganisms. This growth is
beneficial by the modification of the porosity and pore size distribution of cement mortar which it generates. The presence
of biogenic calcite crystals in pores of concrete resulted in a decrease of its permeation properties. (s a result, an increased
resistance towards chloride migration and freezing and thawing was noticed. ;recipitation of these crystals inside the gel
matri' may enhance the durability of concrete significantly. #acteria incorporated concrete specimens reports an increase in
ultrasonic pulse velocity, indicating that pore structure is modified.
R,<,R,)C,S
O6P. (!TD C6+5+-:E, !tandard Test Dethod for 3lectrical &ndication of Concrete2s (bility to Cesist Chloride &on
;enetration, (nnual #ook of (!TD !tandards, vol. 50.5+, (merican !ociety for Testing and Daterials,
;hiladelphia, +55,.
O+P. *h, #.%. Q /ang, !.R.. 3ffects of material and environmental parameters on chloride penetration profiles in
concrete structures, Cement and Concrete Cesearch, ,E, +55E, 0ES9,.
O,P. 8erreira, D. Q /alali, !., =uality control based on electrical resistivity measurements, 3uropean !ymposium on
!ervice Kife and !erviceability of Concrete !tructures, 3!C!-+557, 3spoo, 8inland /une 6+-60, +557, ,+9-,,+.
O0P. !hi, C, 3ffect of Di'ing ;roportions of Concrete in its 3lectrical Conductivity and the Capid Chloride
;ermeability Test -(!TD C 6+5+ or ((!%T* T +EE. Cesults, Cement and Concrete Cesearch, <ol. ,0-,., -+550.,
9,E-909.
O9P. ?orv, *.3., TKong-Time Burability of Concrete in !eawaterU, (C& /ournal, Title )o. I7-65, 6:E6, pp. 75 S 7E
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Cesearch /ournal of 3ngineering !ciences - &nternational !cience Congress (ssociation -&!!) ++EI-:0E+ <olume
+ &ssue 7 /une +56, pp 09-96
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Aniversity, (ustralia, pp. 699. http4$$wwwlib. murdoch.edu.au$adt$browse$view$adt-DA+5506656.60+750.
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