Lecture Notes AT308,Inc.

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PHYSICAL METALLURGY
PHYSICAL METALLURGY
The PURPOSE of changing physical metallurgy is typically either the
REDUCTION OF INTERNAL STRESSES; or to
ENHANCE CERTAIN DESIRABLE PROPERTIES of a material
THROUGH either
REALIGNMENT OF CRYSTALS;
RECRYSTALLIZATION; or
GRAIN GROWTH.
Figure 1
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The change in grain structure during heating and cooling cycles is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 3, shows the difference in impact strength between annealed and hardened steels.
Figure 2
Figure 3
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BASIC PROCESS DESCRIPTION AND TERMINOLOGY
The process involves heating the material to a desired temperature and then controlling the rate of
cooling. In discussing the heat treatment processes the term SOAK (or soaking) refers to the time that
the material is maintained at a given temperature in order to insure that the materials temperature is
uniform throughout.
The QUENCH is the medium used to lower the temperature of the material (at a controlled rate).
Quenching may be accomplished using all three materials states:
AIR;
LIQUID, such as, water or oils; and
SOLIDS, such as salts and salt.
The type of quench used is determined by the material's characteristics. For example a material that
oxidizes easily at elevated temperatures would not be air quenched.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS
For the same reasons the quenching medium is controlled the atmosphere in which the increase in
temperature is accomplished may also be controlled. The most common of these environments include
a vacuum (no air) or a variety of inert gasses.
THE USE OF ADVANCE TERMINOLOGY IN THESE LECTURE NOTES:
In later discussions, it will be shown that the material is raised to some point between its upper and
lower critical temperature. The descriptions of the term "prescribed temperatures" used below that
include reference to these critical temperature are there to
1. help the student to recognize the significance of later lecture discussions, and
2. clarify the importance of maintaining the different temperature ranges during the various
process.
These parenthetical comments should become clearer to the student upon reviewing for the next test .
For this series of lectures, it is sufficient to understand that there are specific ranges of temperature that
must be controlled for the desired conditions to be obtained.
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HARDENING BY QUENCHING
As we have already discovered during the review of the Iron-Carbon Diagram, there are three major
structures in steels:
Austenite,
Pearlite, and
Cementite.
There is however the potential for a forth major structure, MARTENSITE
Martensite is a super-saturated solid solution of carbon trapped in body centered tetragonal structure
(see lecture 15 for tetragonal).
MARTENSITE is an extremely hard crystal and is therefore very brittle.
FORMATION OF MARTENSITE
As austenite cools it can suddenly change from a
FCC structure to a tetrogonal BCC structure by
a combination of shearing actions. Carbon is
trapped in the highly distorted cell structure (it is
this carbon that causes the high hardness).
On the cooling curve, the point were martensitic
formation starts is designated Ms and Mf
designates the temperature at which the
martensitic formation is complete.
Results form martensite formation
The density of atoms in the tetrogonal BCC
martensite is less than that of the surrounding
austenite allowing the martensite to expand
(approximately 4%) during cooling. This
expansion results in localized stresses, causing
plastic deformation of the austenite.
Figure 4
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REQUIREMENTS FOR QUENCH HARDENING
1. Adequate carbon content in steel alloy to form martensite.
2. The proper hardening temperature and time to allow the steel to become fully austenitic.
3. Sufficiently rapid cooling to prevent transformation until Ms temperature is reached.
Adequate carbon content in steel alloy to form martensite.
Of all the alloys used in steel,
carbon is the primary controlling
element. Figure 2 displays the
hardening capabilities as it relates
to the percentage of carbon
content. In addition, since
carbon retards the transformation
process, it is easier to undercool
austenite.
Generally speaking, the hardness
of martensite is maximized at
approximately RC66 at a
composition of 0.6% carbon.
The higher the percentage of
carbon in austenite the lower the
temperature of martensite
transformation. Particular attention should be paid to the Mt temperature (the
temperature at which austenite may transform to martensite as the temperature is
increased - note that the graphics used in the discussion of heat-treatment processes
assume that the temperature is decreasing) because steels with a carbon content greater
than 0.06% have an Mt temperature lower than room temperature which means that
some austenite is retained below room temperature.
High carbon content steels are used for tooling. If austenite exists at room temperature
the potential for tool distortion exists. As the tool is used, its temperature and external
stresses increase. The increase in temperature plus the effect of external stresses may
cause the austenite to transform to martensite (and possibly changing the tool's
dimensions).
The proper hardening temperature and time to allow the steel to become fully austenitic.
The steel should be heated to the recommended temperature and soaked (held) at that
temperature long enough for the material to become completely austenized. If the
material is not completely austenized before beginning the cooling process, the results of
the process may not be predicted. The temperature is usually specified as a
Figure 5
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temperature range. Thicker pieces of material are usually taken to the high end of the
range, while thinner material will normally use the lower end of the range.
The rate at which the material is brought up to temperature is also critical, particularly
with material that is thick and/or susceptible to warpage. Preheating cycles may be
specified for particular application to reduce thermal shock effects and begin the
austenizing reaction (This allows the carbides to be in a condition more conducive to
dissolving at the elevated temperature).
In addition to reducing the potential of thermal shock and warpage, a gradual increase in
temperature will also serve to stress relief the material prior to any change in crystalline
structure.
Sufficiently rapid cooling to prevent transformation until Ms temperature is reached.
The purpose of the quench is to rapidly "undercool" the austenite to the martensitic
transformation temperature (Ms), before normal pearlite has a chance to form. The
required rate of cooling is a function of the alloy materials and grain size.
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Figure 5, graphically shows cooling
rates for carbon steels and
magnesium content. Note that for
steels with a carbon content of less
than 0.20% the rate of cooling is
greater than those steels with carbon
contents greater than 0.20%. Lower
content steels require a rate of
cooling in the 1300
o
F per second,
while higher content steels require
cooling of about 250
o
F per second.
High carbon steels are frequently
used for tooling application and as
such are comparatively small in size.
The small size and low cooling rate
allows common quenching medias
such as oil and air.
During the quenching (cooling) process heat is transferred from the material being
hardened to the quench media. Therefore the rate of thermal conductivity of the media
and the media's temperature are critical to the process. The higher the rate of thermal
conductivity the faster the heat may be transferred from the part to the media. The
greater the difference in temperature between the part and the media, the greater the
amount of heat that may be transferred.
Figure 6
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Since heat transfer is accomplished at the
surface of the part, its configuration may
also play a role in the rate of heat
transfer. The heat transfer during the
quench takes place in three stages.
Figure 6, shows these stages for a small
diameter part quenched in water. The
slope of the line in the diagram indicates
the rate of cooling. The greater the slope
the greater the rate of cooling.
Figure 7
Figure 8
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Figure 8 illustrates some of the causes for this action. In stage one there is a greater
temperature differential and therefore the temperature transfers quickly. In the case of a water
quench, the quench media begins to form vapor around the heat treatment part. These vapors
(bubbles) have a greatly reduced rate of thermal conductivity. Since the vapor bubbles
surround the material, the rate of thermal transfer is lessened. Keep in mind that the thermal
transfer takes place at surface contact areas. These areas are the first to increase in
temperature and therefore the first to boil. As the vapor rises in the media it is replace by liquid
and the cooling process continues.
Quench tanks normally have a high volume circulation system that attempts to lessen this
vapor effect. As part of the circulation system a quench cooling system is used to
maintain a constant temperature.
The third stage of cooling is slow simply because the temperature differential is
decreased.
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VARIOUS HEAT TREATING PROCESSES
Although each process identified below has a unique name, each is technically a type of HEAT
TREATMENT process.
ANNEALING
Annealing (softening of the metal) by raising the metal to the desired temperature and
allowing it to cool slowly. Recall that if material is allowed to cool slowly the size of the
materials crystals are greater and that the larger the crystals the softer the material.
HARDENING
Although technically incorrect is commonly referred to as heat-treatment, involves
raising the metal to the desired temperature and cooling the material rapidly. The rapid
cooling forces material to nucleate more rapidly, increasing the number of crystals and
thereby reducing the size of individual crystals. The smaller crystal size results in
increased hardness.
STRESS RELIEF
In its simplest form stress relieving may be considered a type of annealing process that is
designed to relief the internal stresses that have resulted from some type of plastic
deformation.
Stress relieving consists of heating the material to the desired temperature, soaking the
material and allowing it to air cool.
Figure 9
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NORMALIZING
Normalizing is similar to annealing, except the material is cooled at a faster rate in air. The
objective of normalizing is to control more precisely a define grain size (and in the case of steels
to produce a finer pearlite structure).
For those reviewing the temperature it is approximately 100
o
F above the upper critical
temperature.
SPHEROIDIZING
Recalling the discussion in Lecture Notes 18, spheroidizing is a process that creates globular or
spherical shapes of alloy elements (or by products) in order to maintain the desired ductility.
There are three techniques used in spheroidizing dependent upon the materials involved:
1. Prolonged heating at the prescribed temperature (normally 100
o
F below the
lower critical temperature). Followed by relatively slow cooling.
2. Alternate heating of the material to two prescribed temperatures (slightly below
and then slightly above the lower critical temperature).
3. Heating to between 1390
o
F and 1480
o
F, soaking for 1 to 4 hours and cooling
slowly in a furnace. [This process applies to Tool Steels]
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TEMPERING
Tempering, a process that typically follows the quench hardening of steels, involves
heating the material to a prescribed temperature (between room temperature and the
lower critical temperature), soaking for the prescribed length of time, and air or oil
quenching. The rate of cooling usually has no effect. This process reduces brittleness
while maintaining a high degree of hardness and strength (if accomplished properly).
The color of the steel may be used to evaluate the hardness and toughness of the temper
attained. Temper colors appear as the result of slight oxidation on the surface of the
steel.
A good example of this temper color indicator occurs when cutting tools (drills being the
most common) are sharpened without regard to the tools temperature or in the case of
drilling the drill is allowed to heat up during the drilling operation (usually because the
wrong combination of speeds and feeds are used). In these situations the area effected
will be a bluish color. This tempering reduces the hardness of the tool and as a result
decreases the tools useful life.
STRAIN HARDENING
The process of strain hardening is synonymous with cold working, except the amount of
cold working is to a specific and predefined level.
AGE HARDENING
Age hardening is a natural process during which metal increase in hardness over time
without any external influences.
The process of age hardening may be accelerated by maintaining the material at a
temperature slightly higher than room temperature.
The process of age hardening may be retarded by maintaining the material at a
temperature less than room temperature.
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SOME SPECIFIC KEY METALS TEMPERATURES
MATERIAL
RECRYSTALLIZA-
TION
TEMPERATURE,
o
F.
PERCENT
PRIOR
COLD
WORK
INITIAL
GRAIN
SIZE
ALUMINUM,99.999% 175 --- ---
ALUMINUM BRONZE, 5% 660 44 .075 mm
ALUMINUM BRONZE, TYPE B150
*
1350 11 ---
BERYLLIUM COPPER 900 50 ---
BERYLLIUM COPPER 700 90 ---
CARTRIDGE BRASS 660 50 .045 mm
COPPER, ELECTROLYTIC
*
435 69 ---
IRON, ELECTROLYTIC 750 --- ---
LEAD 99.999% BELOW 32 --- ---
MAGNESIUM, 99.85% 350 30 ---
MAGNESIUM ALLOY, AZ8DX 650 10 ---
MONEL 1220 10 ---
NICKEL, 99.99% 600 --- ---
STEEL, LOW CARBON 1000 --- ---
TIN 25 --- ---
ZINC 50 --- ---
* RECRYSTALLIZATION TIME 1/2 HOUR AT TEMPERATURE
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Hardness and Temper Designations (Non-Ferrous Alloys)
Letter Description
F as Fabricated
O Annealed - wrought products only
H Numeric Strain Hardened - wrought products only
1
st
Specifies the basic combination of processes
1 Strain Hardened only
2
nd
Degree of strain hardening
2 Strain Hardened then partially annealed
2
nd
Degree of stain hardening retained after annealing
3 Strain hardened and then stabilized
2
nd
Degree of strain hardening retained after strain hardened to a
specified amount and then stabilized.
General descriptions of second digit
0 annealed
1 1/8 Hard
2 1/4 Hard
3 3/8 Hard
4 1/2 Hard
5 5/8 Hard
6 3/4 Hard
7 7/8 Hard
8 Full Hard Normally considered the maximum hardness. This
strain hardening level usually reduces the products
area by 75%.
9 Extra hard
10+ When a third digit is used it represents a process similar to the first
two digits but with an additional (specifically specified) process
W Solution
Heat-treated
This designation applies only to alloys that spontaneously age at room
temperature after solution heat-treatment. The designator W is
always followed by the period of natural aging. Ex. -W1/2 hour -
indicates fully aged after 1/2 hour at room temperature.
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Letter Description
T Thermal treated to produce stable tempers other than specified above. Always
followed by 1 or more digits.
Numeric
1
st
Specifies the basic combination of processes
2 Annealed (cast products only)
3 Solution heat-treated then cold worked
4 Solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a near stable condition
5 Artificially aged only
Applies to products that are artificially aged after a manufacturing process
that involves elevated temperatures and rapid cooling (such as extrusions)
6 Solution heat-treated and then artificially aged
7 Solution heat-treated and then stabilized
8 Solution heat-treated, cold worked and then artificially aged
9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged and then cold worked
10 Artificially aged and then cold worked
Applies to products that are artificially aged after a manufacturing process
that involves elevated temperatures and rapid cooling and then cold worked
(such as extrusions and castings)
Expanded numerics indicate specific variation to the treatment indicated by
the first digit(s)
Example: -T62 indicates solution heat-treated and artificially aged in such a
manner that mechanical properties other than those normally attained by the
basic -T6 process.
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SURFACE HARDENING
Surface hardening is a process that is used to obtain desired characteristics on the exterior of
the metal only. These techniques are typically used when abrasive wear characteristic are a
concern.
CARBURIZING
Carburizing is probably the oldest of all surface hardening techniques and today is
accomplished through one of three techniques:
PACK CARBURIZING: The material being surface hardened and a carburizing
compound (containing charcoal and energizing
compounds) are place in containment and heated. The
carburizing compound emits a high sulfur carbon which
is absorbed by the metal.
GAS CARBURIZING: The material being surface hardened is placed in
containment with a carburizing gas (typical methane,
propane, or natural gas) and heated.
LIQUID CARBURIZING: The surface material is submersed in a molten bath.
If the process takes place in the 1550-1750
o
F range
the process is called cyanidin.
NITRIDING
Nitriding uses the same technique as gas carbonizing, except nitrogen is used in place of
carbon. Often nitriding is preferred over carburizing because it may be accomplished at
a lower temperature (below the lower critical temperature) thus having a minimal effect
upon the core of the base material.
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OTHER DIFFUSION PROCESSES
Other surface hardening processes that employ diffusion techniques include:
Carbonitriding (adds both carbon and nitrogen);
Chromizing;
Siliconizing; and
Aluminumizing.
FLAME HARDENING
This process follows the basic hardening by heat process previously discussed, expect
there is no soak. Only the surface areas desired are heated and then the metal is
quenched. This process is used were only selective surface hardening of surface areas
is required.
INDUCTION HARDENING
Induction hardening uses a high frequency magnetic field, using a coil to induce the
magnetic fields and the work piece as the secondary conductor. High frequency is used
because high frequency currents tend to travel along the surface of a conductor. This
current generates the surface heat required for surface hardening.
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