How To Decide When To Repair

3.
HOW TO DECIDE WHEN TO REPAIR BASICS OF FRACTURE

MECHANICS AND FITNESS FOR SERVICE ASSESSMENTS
3.1 GENERAL
The catastrophic and unexpected failure of a bridge member can have severe
consequences. This challenge is well understood by industry and to prevent this
occurrence, non-destructive testing (NDT inspections are employed at regular intervals to
monitor plant condition and reduce the incidence of unplanned outages. The ability of NDT
methods to find flaws before catastrophic failure is dependent upon inspection intervals
and the mechanism of flaw creation. !hile NDT is a step in the assessment of the
condition of plant, it is generally viewed as part of a more comprehensive life assessment
program of critical components. The full component assessment would utilise the
information from NDT as well as metallurgical and stress analyses to determine the
remaining life of a crac"ed or uncrac"ed component before it fails catastrophically.
The tool normally used to assess the significance of a crac" or flaw is #racture $echanics,
which relates the si%e of a flaw to the li"elihood of its causing fast fracture in a given
material under a given stress regime. &enerally spea"ing, the larger the flaw, the lower the
stress at which failure will occur. 'onversely, the lower the service stress the larger the
flaw that may exist without endangering the integrity of the structure.
(n circumstances where it is necessary to examine critically the integrity of new or existing
bridges by the use of NDT methods, it is also necessary to establish acceptance levels for
the flaws revealed. The derivation of acceptance levels for flaws is based on the concept
of fitness for purpose. )y this principle, a particular structure is considered to be adequate
for its purpose, provided the conditions to cause catastrophic failure are not reached.
Decisions on whether re*ection and+or repairs are *ustified may be based on fitness for
purpose, either in the light of previously documented experience with similar material,
stress and environmental combinations or on the basis of an ,engineering critical
assessment- (.'/.
(n modern materials science, fracture mechanics is an important tool in improving the
mechanical performance of materials and components. (t applies physics of stress and
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strain in particular the theories of elasticity and plasticity, to the microscopic
crystallographic defects found in real materials in order to predict the macroscopic
mechanical failure of bodies. #ractography is widely used with #racture $echanics to
understand the causes of failures and also verify the theoretical failure predictions with
real life failures.
3.2 LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
The critical discontinuity si%e is determined using fracture mechanics principles that relate
stress, flaw si%e, and fracture toughness to existing conditions. (f the flaw si%e is less than
the critical si%e, fracture will not li"ely occur and the expected remaining life may be
determined by a fatigue analysis. To ensure this, the stress-intensity factor 7( must be less
than the critical stress-intensity factor 7(', 87(', or 7', or crac" tip opening displacement
('T9D must be less than the critical 'T9D value :crit. 87(' is the critical stress-intensity
factor for dynamic loading and plane-strain conditions. 7(' and 7' or 87(' and 87' are
distinguished from each other by material thic"ness and whether conditions are
repsectivelly plane-strain or not. 'ollectively they will be referred to as 7mat.
;inear .lastic #racture $echanics (;.#$ first assumes that the material is isotropic and
linear elastic. )ased on the assumption, the stress field near the crac" tip is calculated
using the theory of elasticity. !hen the stresses near the crac" tip exceed the material
fracture toughness, the crac" will grow.
(n ;.#$, most formulae are derived for either plane stresses or plane strain, associated
with the three basic modes of loadings on a crac"ed body< =$ode (= opening, =$ode ((=
sliding, and =$ode (((= tearing. These are three basic modes of crac" tip deformation
(#igures >-1 to >->.
Figure 31! $ode ( (Tension, 9pening Figure 32! $ode (( ((n-?lane @hear, @liding
Figure 33! $ode ((( (9ut-9f-?lane @hear, Tearing.
/gain, ;.#$ is valid only when the inelastic deformation is small compared to the si%e of
the crac", what we called small-scale yielding. (f large %ones of plastic deformation
develop before the crac" grows, .lastic ?lastic #racture $echanics (.?#$ must be used.
T"e #$%i& LEFM $'$()%i% &$' #e *u+(i'e, $% -*((*.%!
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)ased on linear elasticity theories, the stress field near a crac" tip is a function of the
location, the loading conditions, and the geometry of the specimen or ob*ect. (n practice,
engineers calculate the stress intensity factor 7( based on the stress field at the crac" tip
and compare it against the "nown fracture toughness of the material<
The crac" tip stress field is a function of the location, loading, and geometry where the
loading and geometry terms can be grouped into a single parameter 7(, called the stress
intensity factor. The fracture toughness of a material can be obtained by experiment. (t is
material specific. The stress intensity factor associated with the fracture toughness of the
material is called the critical stress intensity factor 7(' where 7(' is material dependent.
S+re%% I'+e'%i+) F$&+*r i' Pr$&+i&e!
.ngineers are interested in the maximum stress near the crac" tip and whether it exceeds
the fracture toughness. Thus, the stress intensity factor 7( is commonly expressed in terms
of the applied stresses at the crac" tip. Note that for the other basic modes of crac" tip
deformation, modes (( and ((( (#igures >-2 and >->, the stress intensity factor 7 would be
denoted as 7(( and 7((( respectively.
#or example, for a through crac" in an infinite plate under uniform tension, the stress
intensity factor is as follows as shown in #igure >-3 and .quation 1.
Figure 3/! Through thic"ness crac" on an infinite plate under a tensile load.
0311
where a is one half of the width of the through crac".
(n the last few decades, many closed-form solutions of the stress intensity factor 7 for
simple configurations were derived.
C($%%i&I'-i'i+e P($+e .i+" $ H*(e $', S)22e+ri& D*u#(e T"r*ug" Cr$&3% U',er
Te'%i*'
0321
Figure 34
C($%%i&Se2ii'-i'i+e P($+e .i+" $' E,ge T"r*ug" Cr$&3 U',er Te'%i*'
0331
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Figure 35
C($%%i&I'-i'i+e S+ri6 .i+" $ Ce'+re T"r*ug" Cr$&3 U',er Te'%i*'
03/1
or
0341
Figure 37
C($%%i&I'-i'i+e S+ri6 .i+" $' E,ge T"r*ug" Cr$&3% u',er Te'%i*'
0351
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Figure 38
C($%%i&I'-i'i+e S+ri6 .i+" S)22e+ri& D*u#(e T"r*ug" Cr$&3% u',er Te'%i*'
0371
Figure 39
S6e&i2e'Si'g(e E,ge N*+&"e, S6e&i2e' U',er Te'%i*'
Figure 31:
0381
S6e&i2e'Si'g(e E,ge N*+&"e, S6e&i2e' U',er Be',i'g
Figure 311
0391
S6e&i2e'D*u#(e E,ge N*+&"e, S6e&i2e' U',er Te'%i*'
Figure 312
031:1
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S6e&i2e'Ce'+re Cr$&3e, S6e&i2e' U',er Te'%i*'
Figure 313
03111
S+re%% I'+e'%i+) F$&+*r $', Fr$&+ure T*ug"'e%%
)ased on the linear theory the stresses at the crac" tip are infinite but in reality there is
always a plastic %one at the crac" tip that limits the stresses to finite values. (t is very
difficult to model and calculate the actual stresses in the plastic %one and compare them to
the maximum allowable stresses of the material to determine whether a crac" is going to
grow or not.
/n engineering approach is to perform a series of experiments and reach a critical stress
intensity factor 7mat for each material, called the fracture toughness or critical stress
intensity factor of the material. 9ne can then determine the crac" stability by comparing 7
and 7mat directly.
3.2 ELASTIC PLASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
;inear .lastic #racture $echanics (;.#$ applies when the nonlinear deformation of the
material is confined to a small region near the crac" tip. #or brittle materials or materials
that behave in a brittle manner at low temperatures, or if a flaw is severely constrained by
surrounding material resulting in failure by brittle fracture, ;.#$ accurately establishes the
criteria for catastrophic failure. Dowever, severe limitations arise when large regions of the
material are sub*ect to plastic deformation before a crac" propagates. .lastic ?lastic
#racture $echanics (.?#$ is proposed to analy%e the relatively large plastic %ones.
.lastic ?lastic #racture $echanics (.?#$ assumes isotropic and elastic-plastic materials.
)ased on the assumption, the strain energy fields or opening displacement near the crac"
tips are calculated. !hen the energy or opening exceeds the critical value, the crac" will
grow.
?lease note that although the term elastic-plastic is used in this approach, the material is
merely nonlinear-elastic. (n others words, the unloading curve of the so called elastic-
plastic material in .?#$ follows the original loading curve, instead of a parallel line to the
linear loading part which is normally the case for true elastic-plastic materials (@ee #igure
>-13.
Figure 31/! ;.#$ versus .?#$.
Fr$&+ure A'$()%i% U%i'g EPFM
There are two ma*or branches in .?#$< 'rac" Tip 9pening Displacement ('T9D and the
E (ntegral. These two parameters are both valid in characteri%ing crac" tip toughness for
elastic-plastic materials.
The basic .?#$ analysis can be summari%ed as follows<
1. 'alculate the E integral (energy based or crac" tip opening displacement ('T9D
(strain based as a function of the loading and the geometry.
2. The critical E integral Ec or the critical 'T9D c can be determined empirically.
>. The E integral should N9T exceed Ec, or, the 'T9D should not exceed the critical
'T9D c.
3.3 FITNESS FOR SERVICE
(t is now well accepted that all welded structures contain flaws, and that these do not
necessarily affect structural integrity or service performance. This is implicitly recognised
by most welding fabrication codes which specify weld flaw tolerance levels based on
experience and wor"manship practice. Dowever, these flaw acceptance levels cannot
provide quantitative measures of structural integrity, for instance how FcloseF a particular
structure containing weld flaws is to the failure condition. (n addition, flaws can develop
during service due to e.g. corrosion and fatigue and the tolerance of the component
regarding these needs to be "nown.
The fracture mechanics based fitness-for-purpose approach enables the significance of
flaws to be assessed in terms of structural integrity. (t can be used to demonstrate that a
given flaw can be left as it is and so avoid unnecessary repairs. )ecause of its tremendous
economic potential, the fitness-for-purpose concept has undergone rapid developments in
the past 24 years and so an internationally-recognised and widely used procedure has
been developed in the G7, published as the )ritish @tandards (nstitution &uide )@ 5614<
244A. The following is a basic description of the technique used for an assessment for
fitness-for-purpose and it is therefore recommended that a standard such as )@ 5614 be
used in practice.

A66r*$&"
!hen applying the fitness-for-purpose approach, all potential failure modes should be
identified and an assessment conducted to ensure that the conditions for failure are not
reached during the design life of the structure. Typical failure modes to be considered
include<
#racture
#atigue
&ross yielding or plastic collapse
;ea"age
'orrosion and erosion
@tress corrosion and corrosion fatigue
)uc"ling
'reep and creep+fatigue
9ften, a combination of failure modes needs to be considered. #or example, a fabrication
flaw may initially grow by fatigue to a si%e where fracture, gross yielding or lea"age can
occur. (n the following, only the failure modes of fracture, gross yielding and fatigue will be
considered. /n important requirement for any structural assessment is the need to define
the si%e of the flaw present.
Fr$&+ure A%%e%%2e'+
#racture is a failure mechanism that involves the stable or unstable propagation of a crac"
within a structure. (n ferritic steels, the overall fracture behaviour will depend strongly on
temperature. /t low temperatures, brittle fracture prevails for which, once the crac" has
started to extend, crac" propagation may occur extremely rapidly. /t high temperatures
and for materials such as austenitic stainless steels, the fracture behaviour is ductile and
crac" growth ta"es place by a stable tearing mechanism.
!hatever the mechanism, for fracture or crac" growth to occur, a detrimental combination
of applied stress, crac" dimension and the materialFs fracture toughness is required (@ee
#igure >-1A. This condition can be expressed mathematically as<
7( 7mat
Figure 314! #actors controlling fracture.
!hen inspections reveal flaws or crac"s, it is necessary to establish acceptance levels to
determine if repairs are needed to prevent fracture. #racture mechanics may be used to
establish acceptance levels by comparing the flaw si%e with the critical flaw si%e. .very
case is unique depending on the loading, environmental factors (temperature, geometry
and materials properties. The critical flaw si%e is determined using fracture mechanics
which relates stress, flaw si%e, and fracture toughness to existing conditions. (f the flaw
si%e is less than the critical si%e, fracture will not li"ely occur and the remaining life may be
estimated by a fatigue analysis. To ensure this 7( must be less than 7mat, or E integral or
'T9D must be less than Ec or 'T9D c under conditions of elastic-plastic behaviour at
the crac" tip.
#or steel structures that operate at a minimum service temperature that is below the
ductile to brittle transition temperature, ;.#$ analysis is required, bit if above, then .?#$
analysis is required. ;.#$, however, can be used as an initial evaluation tool as it
generally provides a conservative answer. The reliable determination of the three factors in
#igure >-1A is important for evaluation. @tress magnitude should be determined through a
detailed analysis, crac" geometry needs to be accurately measured (si%e, shape and
orientation and the material toughness must be determined.
(f the crac" driving force (expressed as the applied stress intensity factor, 7( is greater
than or equal to the brittle or ductile fracture toughness, 7mat, fracture will occur. The stress
intensity factor characterises the stress field at the crac" tip, and it is the conditions at the
crac" tip which govern the general behaviour of a crac"ed structure.
The applied stress intensity factor, 7(, is calculated using relations involving the geometry
of the component, the magnitude of the applied stresses and the crac" dimensions. #or
elastic-plastic conditions, the strain hardening behaviour of the material in question is also
important. The stress analysis should consider stress concentrations, including those
which may arise from deviations from the intended design, such as misalignmentH and
welded residual stresses (of up to yield strength magnitude must be ta"en into account.
7mat is measured using pre-crac"ed specimens ta"en from the material which represent
the region in which the sub*ect crac" is located. #or example, if the sub*ect crac" is located
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in weld metal, the fracture toughness specimen will be notched and fatigue pre-crac"ed
into a test weld representing the structural weld. The test procedures are described in
national and international standards. #racture toughness values are sensitive to material
microstructure, heat treatment condition, loading rate and test temperature (particularly in
ferritic steels and, in certain circumstances, specimen thic"ness.
(n most structural materials, plasticity effects precede failure, and, in the limit, gross
yielding effects predominate and failure occurs by plastic collapse. To account for the
range of possible behaviours, namely elastic fracture, plasticity effects through to plastic
collapse, a two-parameter approach to failure has been developed. This is expressed in
the form of a failure assessment diagram (#/D shown in #igure >-1B.
Figure 315! #ailure analysis diagram (#/D as used in )@ 5614.
(n this diagram, the proximity to fracture is given on the vertical axis as the ratio of applied
stress intensity, 7(, to fracture toughness, 7mat<
7r I 7(+7mat 03121
(f 7r I 1, failure is predicted to occur by brittle fracture.
The proximity to plastic collapse is given by the ratio of the applied reference stress, ref, to
the yield strength J.
;r I ref+ J 03131
(f ;r I ;r max (see various cut-offs in #igure >-1B failure is predicted to occur by plastic
collapse at the crac" tip.
/ failure locus provides the connection between 7r and ;r and any assessment point falling
on or below the failure locus means that the flaw is stable and does not present a
significant ris" of failure. /ssessment points above the failure locus represent
unacceptable flaws which may cause failure.
#or materials which fracture in an elastic-plastic fashion, alternative fracture toughness
parameters have been proposed, namely E and the crac" tip opening displacement 'T9D.
'T9D testing and assessment procedures are extensively used in the offshore
construction and pipeline industries, whilst E testing procedures are more common in the
power generating industries. #or cases where these parameters describe fracture, 7( and
7mat are replaced by E or 'T9D using suitable relations. Dowever, the principle of the
assessment procedure remains the same.
(n cases where multi-axial loading is applied leading to the constraint in the through
thic"ness direction of the material, plane strain conditions no longer apply and therefore
7(' cannot be used as the limiting factor for fast fracture. Therefore an alternative 7' is
used for conditions other than plane strain and is a function not only of temperature and
rate of loading as with 7(', but also of thic"ness. !hen significant plastic %ones are
developed at the crac" tip, as would be the general case for low to medium strength steels
(most fine grained structural steels, then .?#$ analysis using the E integral or 'T9D is
applicable.
The criteria to determine whether to use 7(' or 7' is shown below.
?lane strain< (' 4.3 therefore use 7(' (7(' is a material property at a give temperature
and loading rate for plane strain conditions
9ther< (' > 4.3 therefore use 7'
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4 . 0
1
,
_
y
IC
IC
K
t
for plane strain conditions to exist. 031/1

!here< t is component thic"ness, (' is (rwinKs plain strain factor, 7(' is the critical plane
strain stress intensity factor, and y is the yield strength of the material of construction.
The fracture analysis method using #racture $echanics may be summarised as follows.
a Determine the actual shape, location, and si%e of the flaw or crac" by non-
destructive examination.
b Determine the effective dimensions of the flaw or crac" to be used for analysis
(refer to )@ 5614 and determine correct geometry and loading factor to apply.
c Lesolve the flaw or crac" into a plane normal to the principal applied stress
(@ee #igure >-15 and refer to )@ 5614.
'hec" interaction with neighbouring flaws to obtain ideali%ed dimensions.
'hec" interaction with surfaces.
Determine final ideali%ed effective dimensions to be used in the fracture
analysis.
Figure 317! Lesolution of a flaw to be normal to the plane of the applied principal stress
()@ 5614.
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/pplied stress
Lesolved /ctual
d Determine the applied stress level by appropriate structural analysis assuming
the structure is crac" free. @tructural loading can be divided as follows<
?rimary stress p due to imposed loading.
@econdary stress s including geometrical stress concentrations, thermal
stress, and residual stress (assume yield in the case of no post weld heat
treatment.
/pplied stress app I p M s. (f app < yield stress and (' 4.3, then ;.#$
(7(' should be used.
(f app < yield stress and (' > 4.3, then 7' should be used if available.
(f app N yield stress then .?#$ based on 'T9D or E integral should be
used.
e Determine material properties including yield strength, modulus of
elasticity, and 7(', 7', or 'T9D. 7(' data may be estimated from 'harpy-O-
Notch data.
f ?erform the fracture assessment to determine the critical crac" or flaw
si%e.
g (f the flaw or crac" si%e is below the critical si%e, then determine the
remaining life using a fatigue analysis supported by #racture $echanics.
The fracture analysis approach is summarised in #igure >-1C.
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F($. ; Cr$&3
I%*($+e, -($. ; &r$&3 Neig"#*uri'g -($. ; &r$&3
C"e&3 i'+er$&+i*'
E--e&+i<e ,i2e'%i*'
Si26(i-ie, -($. ; &r$&3 %"$6e
T"r*ug"+"i&3'e%%
&r$&3
Sur-$&e &r$&3 E2#e,,e, &r$&3
C"e&3 i'+er$&+i*' .i+" %ur-$&e
Di2e'%i*' *- &r$&3
Fr$&+ure $%%e%%2e'+
app < )ie(, %+re%% app > )ie(, %+re%%
IC :./ IC > :./
< C
N*
Figure 318! @ummary of the fracture assessment procedure where t is the component
thic"ness, is the crac" tip opening displacement and ' is the critical crac" tip opening
displacement.
3./ FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH TO FATIGUE ASSESSMENT
#atigue is a failure mechanism that involves the stable propagation of a crac" under
repeated or cyclic loading. .ach load cycle causes a very small, but finite amount of crac"
extension. The crac" therefore extends steadily until a final failure mode such as fracture
or gross yield intervenes.
The basis for all fatigue assessment is the assumption that the increment of sub-critical
crac" growth at the crac" tip, da, per cycle, dN, is a function of the applied stress intensity
factor range, 87(, "nown as the ?aris ;aw<
da+dN I / 87(
m
03141
87( is calculated in the same manner as the applied stress intensity factor, 7( for fracture
assessments with the exception that the applied stress ranges rather than the applied
stresses are used.
/lthough the constants in - / and m - are material dependent, extensive experimental wor"
has shown that for steels and aluminium alloys, they have similar values for a wide range
of steel yield strengths and microstructures for a given environment. Thus, for steel,
fatigue behaviour can be assumed to be independent of microstructure. .xperiments have
=I < =IC =I < =C
U'$&&e6+$#(e re6$ir
Cr$&3 ; -($. %i>e $((*.$#(e
F$+igue $%%e%%2e'+ $i,e, #) Fr$&+ure Me&"$'i&%
?e%
N* N*
?e%
?e%
also shown that below a threshold stress intensity factor, no fatigue crac" growth occurs in
steels (see )@ 5614.
The above equation can be invo"ed to calculate the number of cycles N corresponding to
the growth from an initial to a final si%e, to estimate fatigue life. The ?aris ;aw is
numerically integrated between the limits of flaw si%e and some critical crac" si%e to
calculate the fatigue strength of the flaw or crac". )@ 5614 gives guidance on the selection
of the / and m constants, as well as procedures for defining the threshold stress intensity
factor range. ?lease note that the / constant symbol may be alternated with the ' symbol
depending on what literature is referenced. The integration equation to calculate remaining
life of a crac"ed component can be used to calculate cycles remaining to failure if the
crac" geometry factor, applied stress range, constants / and m, and stress intensity factor
is "nown.
f
a
a
m
I
K A
da
N
0
) (
03151
!here< ao is the initial crac" or flaw si%e, and af would be the final crac" or flaw si%e
required for the onset of fast fracture.
The initial flaw si%e often represents the height of a flaw found by non-destructive testing,
and the final flaw si%e is set by the limiting failure condition, such as through wall crac"ing,
lea"age or the maximum tolerable si%e calculated using the fracture assessment
procedure described in the previous section. #or an assessment based on the failure
analysis diagram (#igure >-1B, the final crac" or flaw si%e would correspond to a point on
the failure locus.
The ?aris ;aw can be expressed in terms of a s"etch as shown in #igure >-16. Three
regions are generally recogni%ed on this diagram for a wide collection of experimental
results. The first region corresponds to stress-intensity factor ranges near a lower
threshold value, 87th, below which no crac" growth ta"es place. This region of the diagram
is usually referred to as Region I, or the near-threshold region. The second linear portion
of the diagram defines a power law relationship between the crac" growth rate and the
stress-intensity factor range and is usually referred to as Region II. #inally, when 87max
tends towards the critical stress-intensity factor, 87mat, rapid crac" propagation ta"es place
and crac" growth instability occurs (Region III. (n Legion (( the ?aris ;aw equation
provides an approximation to the ma*ority of experimental data.
Figure 319! @chematic of a typical fatigue crac" growth curve based on the ?aris ;aw.
)y using #racture $echanics data, it becomes possible to plan inspection intervals and
I II III
@=cr @=th @=I (log)
@=max @=mat
,$;,N
0(*g1
Cr$&3 gr*.+"
r$+e 6er &)&(e
S+re%% i'+e'%i+) -$&+*r r$'ge
repair interventions until catastrophic failure (af is reached from an initial flaw si%e (ao for
a certain applied stress range. This is done by the integration of equation >-1B over the
length of the crac" from ao to af <
f
o
a
a
m
I
K A
da
N
) (
03151
The maintenance schedule can then be expressed as a crac" length versus cycles to
failure curve (#igure >-24.
Figure 32:! Development of a maintenance schedule curve based on #racture
mechanics data.
The most conservative fatigue assessment procedure using #racture $echanics for
Legion (( crac"s or flaws of "nown si%e may be summarised as follows.
a Gsing inspection data, determine ao present in the member being analysed
Nu2#er *- &)&(e%A N
Cr$&3 %i>eA $ 0221
C$+$%+r*6"i& -$i(ure
Re6$ir I'+er<e'+i*'
I'%6e&+i*'
I'i+i$( &r$&3 -*u',
ao
af
and the associated stress intensity factor 7(.
b 7nowing 7mat, and the nominal maximum design stress, calculate the critical
crac" si%e af that would cause catastrophic failure.
2
1
,
_
Y
K
FS
a
mat
f
03171
!here #@ is a factor of safety (typically 2 for a crac" and J is a
dimensionless correction factor for geometry and loading type.
c Determine the fatigue crack growth rate for the type of steel using:
f
a
a
m
I
K A
da
N
0
) (
03151
!here / and m is as follows<
#or ferritic-pearlitic steels where a is in mm and 87( is in $?am<
/ I B.6 P 14
-6
m I >
or for steels with a yield or 4.2 Q proof strength 544 N+mm
2
operating in
air or other non-aggressive environments ay temperatures up to 144 ' and
a is in mm and 87( is in N+mm
>+2
/ I A.21 P 14
-1>

m I >
(!rought steels have values where / I 3 P14
-1>
and m I >
d Determine 87( using the appropriate expression for 7(, the estimated initial
discontinuity si%e ao, and the range of live load stress 8 (i.e., cyclic stress
range. #or cases of variable amplitude loading, an equivalent constant
amplitude stress range, 8. should be computed using equation >-1C. /
live load stress range 8 which is due to cyclic compression stresses, may
be detrimental in regions where tensile residual stress exists. (n these
regions, crac"s may propagate, since the addition of tensile residual
stresses will result in an applied stress range of tension and compression.
The stress range, 8, used to determine fatigue life should be calculated
from the algebraic difference of the maximum and minimum stresses even
when the minimum stress is compression and has a negative value, since
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any tensile residual stresses will be superimposed on the applied cyclic
stress (/merican /ssociation of @tate Dighway and Transportation 9fficials
166BH /merican (nstitute of @teel 'onstruction 1663H .$ 1114-2-214A.

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_

03181
!here<
ni I number of cycles occurring at stress range magnitude, 8i of a stress
spectrum.
m I exponent of the ?aris ;aw.
8. I .quivalent constant amplitude stress range
e (ntegrate the crac" growth rate expression (.quation >-1B between the
limits of ao (at the initial 7( and af (at 7mat to obtain the life of the
structure prior to failure. To identify inspection intervals, integration may
be applied with the upper limit being tolerable discontinuity si%e at. /n
arbitrary safety factor based on analysis uncertainties may be applied to
af to obtain at (a factor of safety of 2.4 is recommended. /nother
consideration for specifying a tolerable discontinuity si%e is crac" growth
rate. The at should be chosen so that da+dN is relatively small and a
reasonable length of time remains before the critical si%e is reached.
#ully documented and accepted procedures for assessing weld flaws using fitness-for-
purpose principles are now available. /pplication of these procedures offer extensive
scope for significant cost saving in design and fabrication, during inspection and operation,
and at the end of the design life of welded structures with quantifiably ensured structural
integrity.
T"e U%e *- C"$r6)VN*+&" +* De+er2i'e Fr$&+ure T*ug"'e%%
@everal models have been developed for the use of 'harpy-O-Notch ('ON results to
predict fracture toughness required for analysis. Dowever, for the purposes of this
document the approaches described by )@ 5614 will be discussed.
The fracture toughness 7mat (7(' or 7' of steel increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing load rate. $ild structural steels typically exhibit a relatively large increase in
toughness over a certain temperature range as shown in #igure >-21. The fracture
toughness versus temperature relationship can be divided into three regions< the lower
shelf region, which is characteri%ed by relatively low toughness and small variation in
toughness with temperatureH the transition region, which is characteri%ed by rapid increase
of toughness with increasing temperatureH and the upper shelf region, where the variation
in toughness with temperature is again relatively low.
Figure 321< Temperature effects on fracture toughness.
Direct measurement of fracture toughness is preferable, but where this is not possible, an
estimate of Kmat may be made from correlations with 'ON impact test data ta"en from
material of the type in which the flaw is situated. The orientation of the 'ON specimens
should be such as to reproduce the fracture path that would result from the flaw under
consideration.
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - 2A -
Fr$&+ure
T*ug"'e%%A
=mat
Te26er$+ure
L*.er S"e(-
Tr$'%i+i*'
U66er S"e(-
Three correlations are described<
a ;ower bound relations for lower shelf+transitional behaviourH
b ;ower bound relations for upper shelf behaviourH
c $aster curve approach for lower shelf and transitional behaviour.
The first two correlations (given in a and b apply to situations where the 'ON energy as
been established at the same temperature as that at which the fracture toughness is
required. The third correlation (c accounts for temperature and thic"ness effects and
selection of appropriate probability levels.
#igure >-22 shows a flowchart for the selection of appropriate correlation based on
available data, toughness regime and nature of the estimate required. /ll correlations
described are between 'ON energy (measured on standard 14 mm P 14 mm O-notched
specimens and fracture toughness values in terms of 7mat. (f the 'ON energy is "nown at
a temperature other than the service temperature, but is not "nown for the latter, limited
extrapolation is admissible.
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - 2B -
Figure 322! #low chart for the selection of appropriate correlation. ()@ 5614< 1666 /nnex
E
L*.er #*u', re($+i*'%! L*.er %"e(- $', +r$'%i+i*'$( #e"$<i*ur
/ lower bound correlation applicable to a wide range of steels on the lower shelf and in the
transition region is given by the following equation<
630
1420 20
4
1
+
B
Cv
K
mat
03191
!here<
7mat is a lower bound estimate of the fracture toughness (in N+mm
>+2
H
) is the thic"ness of the material for which an estimate of 7mat is required (in mmH
'v is the 'ON impact energy at the service temperature (in *oules.
.quation >-16 is plotted in #igure >-2> for thic"nesses of 14, 2A, A4, 5A and 144 mm.
Figure 323! 7mat plotted against 'ON impact energy for lower shelf and transitional
behaviour ()@ 5614< 1666 /nnex E.
L*.er #*u', re($+i*'%! U66er %"e(-A -u(() ,u&+i(e #e"$<i*ur
(f 'harpy test results exhibit a fracture appearance of 144 Q shear, upper shelf 'harpy
behaviour is present and the lower bound estimate of upper shelf fracture toughness (valid
for 'v R B4 E is given by the following equation<
1!40 1! + Cv K
mat
032:1
!here<
7mat is the estimated 7-based fracture toughness (in N+mm
>+2
H
'v is the 'ON impact energy (in *oules.
.quation >-24 is plotted in #igure >-23.
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - 2C -
Figure 323! 7mat plotted against 'ON impact energy for upper shelf behaviour ()@ 5614<
1666 /nnex E.
T"e 2$%+er &ur<e $66r*$&"
The master curve approach is based on a validated correlation,for ferritic steels, between
the 25 E 'ON transition temperature and the >1B4 N+mm
>+2
(144 $?am fracture
toughness transition temperature<
) 21 ( 1
2!
100
C C T T
J
m MPa
t
03211
This relationship is modified to account for the following factors<
thic"ness effectH
scatterH
shape of fracture toughness transition curve for ferritic steels and weldsH
required probability of achieving a particular value of 7mat.
The fracture toughness transition curve for brittle fracture is approximated by the master
curve as follows<
4
1
4
1
2!
) 1 (
1
ln
2"
)#$ 3 ( 01% . 0 e&p' 243" 3"0 ( 630
1
1
]
1
'
,
_
+ +
f
J mat
P B
T T K 03221
!here< 7mat is in N+mm
>+2
H
T is the temperature at which 7mat is to be determined (in 'H
T25E is the 25 E 'ON transition temperature (in 'H
) is the thic"ness of the material for which an estimate of 7mat is required (in mmH
?f is the probability of failure (The use of ?f I 4.4A (A Q is recommended for the purpose
of this annex unless experimental evidence supports the use of other values for a given
material.
.quation >-22 is shown for different thic"nesses in #igure >-23 for ?f I 4.4A. The master
curve is not applicable to fully ductile behaviour for which equation >-24 should be used.
Tre$+2e'+ *- %u#%i>e C"$r6) ,$+$
The following applies for 'harpy data measured using sub-si%e specimens for which all
other dimensions except thic"ness are assumed to be as for full-si%e specimens. !hen
plate thic"ness is less than 14 mm, sub-si%e 'harpy specimens are employed. (n order to
use the correlations described previously, the shift in transition temperature associated
with the reduced thic"ness of the 'harpy specimen must be allowed for. #or a standard 14
mm square 'harpy specimen, 25 E corresponds to a normali%ed 'harpy energy of >3
E+cm
2
. The shift in this transition temperature associated with sub-si%e specimen, 8Tss, is
given by the following equation<
'

,
_
1
10
2 ln 4 . "1
4
1
B
T
SS 03231
!here<
) is the thic"ness (in mm.
.quation >-2> is plotted in #igure >-23.
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - >4 -
Figure 32/! Decrease in the 25 E transition temperature which would have been
measured in a full si%e 'ON specimen compared to a sub si%e specimen. ()@ 5614< 1666
/nnex E.
E%+i2$+i*' *- T27J -r*2 C"$r6) e'ergie% 2e$%ure, $+ *+"er +e26er$+ure%
!hen the temperature corresponding to the 25 E 'harpy transition temperature is not
"nown, it can be estimated by extrapolation from 'harpy impact energy values at other
temperatures. Dowever, because of the range of shapes of 'harpy transition curves, only
extrapolation over a limited 'harpy energy range is permitted. The recommended values
for extrapolation are given in Table >-1 for given 'harpy values. The downward limit to
extrapolation from T25E is ->4 ', the upward limit 24 '. These limits should be strictly
adhered to as modern low-', low-@ steels can have steeper transition curves than that
suggested in Table >-1. #or 'harpy energy values exceeding B1 E, a maximum difference
of 24 ' should be assumed.
Di--ere'&e #e+.ee' C"$r6) +e%+ C"$r6) i26$&+
+e26er$+ure $', 27 B C"$r6)
+r$'%i+i*' +e26er$+ure
0C1
E'erg) 0B1
->4 A
-24 14
-14 1C
4 25
14 31
24 B1
T$#(e 31! .stimation of T25E from 'harpy energies measured at other temperatures ()@
5614< 1666 /nnex E. N*+e 1! (nterpolation between temperatures is permissible. N*+e 2!
.xtrapolations outside the values shown is not permitted. N*+e 3! .xample 31 E measured
at Ttest I -24 ', hence Ttest - T25E I 14 ', and T25E I -(14 - Ttest I->4 '.
Figure 324! 7mat plotted as a function of the difference between the operating temperature
and the temperature for a 'ON impact energy of 25E. ()@ 5614< 1666 /nnex E.
Basis of roc!"#r! for $ss!ssi%g Fla&s #si%g '#alit( Cat!gori!s
)@ 5614 describes an alternative method of assessing flaws in terms of fatigue life. (n this
procedure, flaws are assessed on the basis of a comparison of the @-N curves that
represent the actual and required fatigue strengths of the flawed weld. / grid of @-N curves
is used, each curve representing a particular quality category. The flaw is acceptable if its
actual quality category is the same as or higher than the required quality category. The
approach is similar to that described earlier for the classification of weld category detail
based on expected fatigue live at 2 P 14
B
cycles except that the categori%ation is of "nown
flaws in the weld.
The required quality category is determined for the service conditions to be experienced
by the flawed weld. This can be fixed on the basis of the stress ranges and the total
number of cycles of fatigue loading anticipated in the life of the component.
The quality categories refer to particular fatigue design requirements or the actual fatigue
strengths of flaws and are defined in terms of the ten S-N curves shown in #igure >-2B
labelled S1 to S14.
Figure 325! Suality category S-N curves ()@ 5614< 1666 /nnex E.
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - >> -
#urther information on the correct use of this procedure can be obtained from @ection C.A
of )@ 5614< 1666.
Si26(e EC$26(e *- $ Re2$i'i'g Li-e C$(&u($+i*'
During an inspection of a tension bridge member, a crac" was found at the toe of a butt
weld (#igure >-25. The butt weld caps were dressed flush with the base metal. The
member was sub*ected to a comprehensive NDT testing survey to accurately determine
the crac" dimensions. /s a result of the survey it was found to be a near perfect elliptical
crac" with the following dimensions<
ao< 2 mm
2c< 14 mm

The member was measured to be 144 mm thic" (t. / structural and cyclic stress analysis
revealed that the maximum equivalent stress range applied to the member was 15A $?a.
The material of construction was a conventional structural steel with a nominal yield
strength of >A4 $?a. The lowest service temperature is ->4 ' with a rated minimum 'ON
impact strength of A E.
Figure 327! $ember under a cyclic tensile stress.
The method to be followed would include the assessment for catastrophic failure, and if
catastrophic failure is not imminent, to carry out a further fatigue life assessment.
S+e6 1! 'ollate all available data and carry out further investigation where
information is lac"ing.
ao 2 mm
2c 14 mm
t 144 mm
8 15A $?a
ys >A4 $?a
T$#(e 32! 'ollated information.
S+e6 2! (f necessary use )@ 5614< 1666 to determine equivalent flaw shapes. (n
this case, the crac" is symmetrical, hence there is no need to estimate the equivalent flaw
shape.
S+e6 3! Determine the applicable geometric correction factor to apply from
literature.
(n this case we will use the following equations and the diagram shown in #igure >-2C<
K I
M
Q
a
K 12 . 1 032/1
/nd
,
_
+ " . 0 2 . 1 0 . 1
t
a
M
K
1
K
M if " . 0 ) < t a 03241
Gsing #igure >-2C and equations >-23 and >-2A<
a+2c 4.2
8+ys 4.A
S< 1.2A
$"< 4.32
87( < 1CB N+mm
>+2
S+e6 /! Determine 7mat from available 'ON data using equation >-16 and decide
catastrophic fracture is imminent.
87mat< 5B1 N+mm
>+2
87( T 87mat therefore no fast fracture
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - >A -
Figure 328! .mbedded elliptical or circular crac" ()arsom and Lolfe 16C5, p 35.
S+e6 4! The remaining fatigue life of the member has to be estimated in order to decide
upon suitable inspection intervals, repair interventions, and+or replacement.
The final crac" si%e requires calculation using equation >-15 and 87mat of 5B1 N+mm
>+2
/
safety factor of 2 can be used. Therefore<
af< A2 mm
Gsing equation >-1B, and constants for / and m obtained from literature ()@ 5614< 1666,
the number of cycles can be estimated from the initial crac" si%e of 2 mm up to the final
crac" si%e of A2 mm using numerical integration. (n this case an interval of 2 mm of crac"
growth was used. /ssume $" is 1
/< A.21 P 14
-1>
m >
and
K I
M
Q
a
K 12 . 1
+var+www+apps+conversion+tmp+scratch01+234354236.doc - >B -
f
a
a
m
I
K A
da
N
0
) (
therefore<

,
_
f
o
a
a
m
a
da
Q
A A
N
2
3
1
12 . 1
1

/s a result, a plot can be generated of cycles, N against crac" si%e, a in mm as shown in
#igure >-26.
Figure 329! 'alculated cycles to failure from 2 mm to A2 mm.
Thus using the above plot and relating cycles to time, suitable inspection and repair
intervals may be established.

How To Decide When To Repair

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3.

HOW TO DECIDE WHEN TO REPAIR BASICS OF FRACTURE

for plane strain conditions to exist. 031/1

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