Course Material

ARCE 302-Structural Analysis
Lecture Notes, Fall 2009

Ansgar Neuenhofer

Associate Professor, Department of Architectural Engineering
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo

Copyright 2009 Ansgar Neuenhofer (photo by author)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Review of Statics 1
1.1 Goal of structural analysis 1
1.2 Structural idealizations 1
1.3 Summary of properties of moment and shear force diagrams 2
1.4 Example 1.1 3
1.5 Frames 6
1.6 Example 1.2 9
1.7 Statical determinacy-Instability-Degree of indetermincay 10
Problems 14

2 Principal of Virtual Forces 18
2.1 Introductory remarks 18
2.2 Virtual work-Principle of virtual forces 18
2.3 Procedure for analysis 19
2.4 Principle of virtual forces for trusses 19
2.5 Principle of virtual forces for beams 19
2.6 Principle of virtual forces for frames 19
2.7 Example 2.1 20
2.8 Example 2.2 22
2.9 Integration tables 23
2.10 Summary 25
2.11 Example 2.3 27
2.12 Example 2.4 28
2.13 Example 2.5 20
2.14 Example 2.6 32
2.15 Shear deformation 35
Problems 38

3 The Force Method 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Discussion 49
3.3 Example 3.1 50
3.4 Example 3.2 53
3.5 Example 3.2 (Alternative) 55
3.6 Example 3.3 57
3.7 Example 3.4 60
3.8 Force method for arbitrary degree of statical indeterminacy 64
3.9 Maxwell's law 64
3.10 Summary of force method 65
3.11 Example 3.5 65
3.12 Example 3.6 70
3.13 Example 3.7 73
3.14 The force method for space frames 75
Problems 78

4 The Slope-Deflection Method 88
4.1 General remarks 88
4.2 End moments for prismatic members 89
4.3 Example 4.1 93
4.4 Example 4.2 95
4.5 Example 4.3 97
4.6 Example 4.4 99
4.7 Summary of procedure 102
4.8 Comparison between slope-deflection and force methods 103
4.9 Fixed-end moments 104
Problems 106

5 The Moment-Distribution Method 113
5.1 Introduction 113
5.2 General description 113
5.3 Example 5.1 114
5.4 Example 5.2 116
5.5 Summary of steps 118
5.6 More discussion and illustration 119
5.7 Example 5.3 120
5.8 Summary 122
Problems 123

6 Approximate analysis of building frames under lateral load 126
6.2 Discussion 126
6.3 The Portal Method 128
6.4 The Cantilever Method 133
Problems 143

7 Influence Lines 145
7.2 Mller-Breslau principle 148
7.3 Use of influence lines 149
7.4 Example 150
7.5 Properties of influence lines of statically determinate structures 151
7.6 Influence lines of statically indeterminate structures 152
Problems 156

1
1 Review of Statics
1.1 Goal of structural analysis
The objective of a structural analysis is to determine the force (stress) and displacement (strain) demand of structures
using a mechanical model. The analysis must be both as economical as possible and as accurate as necessary. Since
the exact mechanical relations are extremely complicated, we rely on many approximations that are more or less accu-
rate. With these approximations and simplifications we map the real structure onto our mechanical model. It is impor-
tant that we are aware of these simplifications in order to judge whether or not certain models are appropriate. After se-
lecting an appropriate structural model, we analyze the model under the most unfavorable combination of loads. The
results of structural analysis are the internal forces and deformations that form the basis for, say, reinforced concrete,
steel or timber design.

We have to always remember that the results of any structural analysis can never be better than the underlying model.
A crude model remains a crude model and yields crude results, no matter how many digits we include in our analysis,
in short garbage in-garbage out. In this class we talk little about modeling but assume that we already have an
appropriate mechanical representation of the real structure. Thus we are omitting a very important step of en-
gineering work, if not the most important, a fact we should always be aware of.
1.2 Structural idealizations
All structures are three-dimensional. In structural analysis we usually work with one- or two-dimensional idealizations
of the real structure.
(a) 3-dimensional structural elements (rarely used in structural engineering)

(b) 2-dimensional structural elements (plate, shells)

(c) 1-dimensional structural elements
Structural elements whose two dimensions (width and height) are small compared to their length are commonly called
truss (axial force response) or beam (bending moment response) elements. In this class, we often use the term frame
member or frame element to denote a combination of truss and beam elements. We represent a frame element by its
axis, which is the connection of the centroids of the cross-sections.

In this class, we will be dealing with one-dimensional structural elements (truss, beam and frame members)
only. We use those to model plane (two-dimensional) structures and, to a smaller extent, space (three-dimensio-
nal) structures.

x
y
H L
H L
requirement
y
L
x
L
H
2
1.3 Summary of Properties of Moment and Shear Force Diagrams

In the following, we summarize key properties of shear force and bending moment diagrams.

In beam segments without distributed loading, the shear force is constant and the bending moment is linearly
varying.
In regions with a uniformly distributed load the shear force varies linearly and the bending moment is a qua-
dratic parabola. In general, if the distributed load is of order n , the functions for the shear force and bending
moment are of order 1 n+ and 2 n+ , respectively.
At points where a concentrated force (a reaction force or an externally applied force) is applied the shear force
is discontinuous. It jumps upward or downward according to the direction of the force. The moment func-
tion has a change in slope at that point but is continuous.
An external moment causes a jump in the bending moment. It does not change the slope of the moment func-
tion, nor does it affect the shear force at that location.
The shear force is the derivative of the bending moment. Hence the moment function is one degree higher
than the shear force function. When the shear force is zero, the bending moment takes on its maximum.

Fig. 1.1 Properties of shear force and bending moment diagrams.

y
A
y
B
+
wL
P
V
w
P
L
M
A B
L
M
+
linear
quadratic
linear
linear
linear
change in slope
no change in slope
no change in slope
L
M
max
M
0 V =
3
1.4 Example 1.1: Beam with internal hinges

Fig. 1.2 Beam with internal hinges.
Problem: Draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the beam in Fig. 1.2.

Shown in Figure 1.2 is a beam with two internal hinges. The first important observation is that this structure is not a
single rigid body. If we remove the beam from its supports, it ceases to be rigid. We can easily see, that we can rotate
against because of the hinge. The consequence for calculating the support reactions is that we have to break the struc-
ture apart and look at free-body diagram of individual parts. Differently put, we cannot calculate the support forces by
looking at the structure as a whole because there are more unknown forces than there are equilibrium equations. We
have four unknown support reaction but only two equilibrium equations.

Fig. 1.3 Free-body diagram of whole structure.

Fig. 1.4 Free-body diagram of individual parts.

We cut the beam at the internal hinges resulting in the three free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.4. In applying the equilibrium
equations to the free-body diagrams it is important to find the right starting point. The center portionCD of the beam
contains only two unknown forces while the exterior portions contain three unknowns. Hence
1
0 10 6 3 30
6
0 30 50 60 80
C D
y
C
M F
F F
= = =
= = =
(1.1)

We have applied the 50-kN concentrated force to the center free-body diagram. Applying the force to the left-hand
portion of the beam is an alternative that would affect the results for
C
F but not the final results. We now apply
forces
C
F and
D
F to the exterior portions of the beam and solve for the support reactions ,
B A
F F and ,
E F
F F ,
5.00 2.00 6.00 2.00 5.00
50kN
10kN/m
[m]
A
F
B
F
E
F
F
F
50
10
A B
C D
E F
A
F
B
F
E
F
F
F
D
F
D
F
C
F
C
F
50
10
4
respectively. Caution: Since the numerical results for
C
F and
D
F are negative, we change the direction of the arrows
representing these forces (see Fig. 1.5).

Fig. 1.5 Free-body diagrams of exterior parts after calculating
C
F and
D
F .

Applying the equilibrium equations to the free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.5 yields

0 112 0 32
0 42 0 12
y
B A A
y
F E F
M F F F
M F F F
= = = =
= = = =

(1.2)
We have now calculated all support reactions. Before drawing the shear force and bending moment diagrams, it is good
practice to redraw the free-body diagrams and label all forces by their magnitude.

Fig. 1.6 Free-body diagrams with all forces known.

Fig. 1.7 Shear force and bending moment diagrams.
Unlike the previous examples, in which we wrote explicit equations for the shear force and bending moment variation,
we now use our experience gained in previous examples and try to draw the internal force moment diagrams directly
from the free-body diagrams in Fig.1.6.
80
A
F
B
F
E
F
F
F
30
32 112 80 80
50
30 30 42 12
10
V
[N]
32
80
30
30
12
M
[Nm]
160
60
45
+
A
B
C
D E F
5
Shear force
(1) At support Athe 32 force acts down. Hence the shear force jumps down by 32.
(2) Nothing happens to the beam between supports AandB . Hence the shear force is constant.
(3) At support B a 112 force acts up. Hence the shear force jumps from 32 to 32+112=80.
(4) Nothing happens to the beam between support B and hingeC . Hence the shear force is constant.
(5) At hingeC the applied force 50 acts down. Hence the shear force jumps from 80 to 80-50=30. Note that the two 80
forces cancel when moving across hingeC (see Fig. 1.6).
(6) A lot happens between hingesC andD . A total force10 6 60 = acts down. However, this force is uniformly dis-
tributed. This cause the shear force to go down gradually from 30 to 30-60=-30. Note that the two 30 forces cancel
when moving across hinge D .
(7) Nothing happens to the beam between hinge D and support E . Hence the shear force is constant.
(8) At support E the 42 force acts up. Hence the shear force jumps from 30 to 30+42=12.
(9) Nothing happens to the beam between supports E andF . Hence the shear force is constant.
(10) Finally, we check whether the shear force calculated between supports E andF is consistent with the support force
at F . This is obviously the case.

Bending moment
(1) At support Athe 32 force acts down. This force causes a linearly varying bending moment increasing from 0 at
support Ato 32 5 160 = at support B . Since the support force at Aacts downward (preventing uplift) it causes tension
at the top and compression at the bottom of the beam. The bending moment is thus negative. The bending moment
must not jump at support B . On the other hand it must be zero sat the internal hingeC . Consequently, the moment has
to linearly decrease from 160 at support B to zero at hingeC .

(2) The beam segmentCD is a simply supported beam under a uniformly distributed 10-kN/m load spanning from
hingeC to hinge D . The moment variation is a quadratic parabola whose maximum value is

2 2
6
10 45kNm
8 8
L
M w = = = (1.3)
This moment is positive since it produces tension at the bottom of the beam.

(3) We now turn to the left-hand segment of the beam. At hinge D the 30 force acts down. This force causes a linearly
varying bending moment increasing from 0 at hingeD to 30 2 60 = at support E . Since the force at D acts downward,
it causes tension at the top and compression at the bottom of the beam. The bending moment is thus negative. The ben-
ding moment must not jump at support E . On the other hand it must be zero at support F . Consequently, the moment
has to linearly decrease from 60 at support E to zero at support F . As a quick check we argue along the same line
starting from support F . At support F a 12-kN force acts down. This force causes a linearly varying bending moment
increasing from 0 at support F to12 5 60 = at support E . Since the support force at Aacts downward (preventing
uplift) it causes tension at the top of the beam and the moment is negative.

Whenever experience and problem complexity permit, we should try to distance ourselves from blind mathema-
tics and adopt the approach followed in this example.

Remarks:
The bending moment diagram changes its slope atC but does not change the slope at D . Can you explain?
The shear force jumps atC but is continuous at D . Can you explain?

Fig. 1.8 Sketch of deflected shape.
6
1.5 Frames
We now apply the concepts learned before to find the internal force diagrams of frame structures.

Fig. 1.9 Three-hinge frame. (a) system and loading; (b) free-body diagram of whole structure.

Problem: Draw the shear force, axial force and bending moment diagrams for the frame in Fig. 1.9(a).

Solution: (1) As always, we first calculate the support reactions. Since there are four unknown reactions but only three
equilibrium equations for the structure as a whole, we have to dismember the structure to find the reactions. We find
the vertical reactions by looking at the structure as a whole (Fig. 1.9b). Equilibrium for the whole structure also
requires that the horizontal support forces
x
A and
x
B are equal and opposite.

0 0 0
2 2
y y y x x x
B
L L
M A w F B w F A B = = = = = =

(1.4)

Fig. 1.10 Three-hinge frame. Cut at hinge to find horizontal reaction forces.

(2) Next, we cut the structure at hingeC and formulate equilibrium for one of the two resulting free bodies (Fig 1.10).
Since we know the vertical reaction force from Eq. (1.4), the two free-body diagrams in Fig. 1.10 involve three un-
known forces each.
2 2
due to load due to
0
2 2 2 4 8 8
y
x x x
C
A
L L L L L L
M w w B H B w A w
H H
= = = =

(1.5)
Important: Since a hinge cannot transfer a moment, there is no internal moment in Fig. 1.10 at pointC . Also note that
by selectingC as the moment reference point, we avoid referencing the forces
x
C and
y
C transferred though the hinge.
L/2 L/2

H
A
B
x
C
x
C
y
C
y
C
x
A
x
B
2
L
w
2
L
w
w
w
L

H
A
B
C
x
A
x
B
y
B
y
A
w
L

H
A B
C
w
(a) (b)
7

Fig. 1.11 Three cuts for internal forces.

(3) With reaction forces known, we are now in the position to find the internal force variation by making cuts at arbi-
trary locations along the girder and the two columns. Figure 1.11 shows the resulting free-body diagrams. Equilibrium
for the three sections requires

2 2
2
2 2
due to due to due to
2 2
Section I
0 0 0
8 2 8
Section II
0 0
8 2
0
8 2 2
Section III
0 0 0
8 2 8
y x
x y
x y
w A A
x y
L L L
F V w F P w M M w x
H H
L L
F P w F V w wx
H
L L x
M M w x
L L L
F V w F P w M M w x
H H
= = = = = =
= = = =

= = +

= = = = = =

(1.6)

Note that because of the 90 degree angle at the column-girder junction, the axial force in the column turns into a shear
force in the girder, and the shear force in the column turns into an axial force in the girder.

(4) Before drawing the internal force diagrams, it is important to emphasize that we should consider the internal force
diagrams as a proper connection of values calculated at specific locations rather than plots of mathematical relations.

Columns: The axial force in the columns is constant and equal to the vertical reaction forces. Clearly, the columns are
in compression. The shear force in the columns is also constant and equal to the horizontal reaction forces. According
to our sign convention, the shear force is negative for the left column and positive for the right column. The bending
moment in the columns varies linearly from zero at the pin supports to a certain value at the column-girder junction.
We calculate this value by substitutingx H = into the moment expression for sections I or III, or 0 x= into the moment
expression or Section II. Hence

x
P
V
M
2
L
w
2
8
L
w
H
x

H

x
P
V
M
V
P
M
2
8
L
w
H
2
L
w
2
L
w
2
8
L
w
H
I II
III
8
2 2
8 8
L L
M w H w
H
= = (1.7)

Girder: The axial force in the girder is constant and equal to the horizontal reaction forces. By inspection, we conclude
that the girder is in compression. The shear force in the girder at the column junction is equal to the axial force in the
columns. Because of the uniformly distributed load acting on the girder, the shear force varies linearly and the bending
moment varies quadratically and is zero at hingeC .

The properties just discussed lead directly to the internal force diagrams below. We include a sketch of the deflected
shape of the frame for illustration. We observe that both columns and girder bend (the deflected shape is curved). Also
note that the two portions of the girder rotate against each other at the hinge. We will discuss a method to calculate
deflections in Chapter 2.

Fig. 1.12 Internal force diagrams , , V M P and deflected shape for three-hinge frame.

2
L
w
2
L
w
2
L
w
2
L
w
2
8
L
w
2
8
L
w
2
8
L
w
H
2
8
L
w
H
2
8
L
w
H
M
V
P
+
+
9
1.6 Example 1.2

Fig. 1.13 Sample frame structure.
Problem: Find the three internal force diagrams for the frame structure shown.

Solution: We obtain the support reactions from the 3 global equilibrium conditions plus the condition that the bending
moment is zero at hinge C (for parts AC or BC). It is important to realize that we dont have to set up equations
describing the variations of the internal forces as a function of a local coordinate x. This is what we did in introductory
statics classes. All we need to do is determine the bending moment at selected locations (e.g. at the column-girder
connections and the points of application of external forces) and then properly connect those points. Always remember:
We want to do structural engineering with as little math as possible and as much experience and intuition as
possible.

Fig. 1.14 Internal force diagrams and sketch of deflected shape.
1 m 1 m 2 m

2

m

1

m

1

m
60kN
60kN
A
B
C
M
V
N
70
40
10
+
+
+
+
40
70
10
40
20
[kN]
[kN]
[kNm]
sketch of deflected shape
80
80
20
20
60
10
10
1.7 Statical Determinacy-Instability-Degree of Indetermincay
Trusses
We need to be able to identify whether a structure is statically determinate, statically indeterminate, or unstable.
Figures 1.15-1.17 depict examples for each of those properties.

The truss in Fig. 1.15 is constructed by adding eight triangular panels. All members are necessary for stability of the
truss, i.e. if we remove one member from the structure it becomes unstable and collapses under applied loads. The truss
is statically determinate. We will learn how to analyze this type of trusses in subsequent sections of this chapter.

The trusses in Fig. 1.16 are statically indeterminate. The structure in Fig. 1.16(a) has one more support than necessary
for stability. Since the indeterminacy is with respect to the reactions, the truss is termed statically indeterminate exter-
nally. The structure in Fig. 1.16(b) has more members than necessary for stability. We can remove one of the top three
members without sacrificing the stability of the structure. Since in this case the indeterminacy is with regard to the
numbers of members, the truss is called statically indeterminate internally. Analysis of indeterminate structures is
beyond the scope of this class.

The trusses in Fig. 1.17 are unstable. The structure in Fig. 1.17(a) is externally unstable because it has no support that
resists horizontal movement (we would have to turn one roller support into a pin support to make the truss statically de-
terminate). The structure in Fig. 1.17(b) is internally unstable because it has too few members. More precisely, the
square panel is unstable since it has no diagonal (we would have to add one diagonal to make the truss statically deter-
minate). Both structures undergo excessive displacements without forces being applied to it. Figure 1.17 illustrates
those displacement modes.

Although we will discuss formulas to calculate the degree of indeterminacy and instability in subsequent classes, the
best method by far to assess those properties is to use intuition, inspection, insight and experience.

Fig. 1.15 Statically determinate truss.

Fig. 1.16 Statically indeterminate trusses.

Fig. 1.17 Unstable trusses with collapse modes.

(a)
(b)
(b)
(a)
11
There are formulas for determining the degree of statical indeterminacy. Unfortunately, the following equations are not
foolproof since they constitute only a necessary but not a sufficient criterion for stability of the structure.
Degree of statical indeterminacy for truss structures

plane trusses 2 : Number of support reactions
space trusses 3 : Number of truss members
: Number of nodes
: Degree of statical indeterminacy
n s m nn s
n s m nn m
nn
n
= +
= +
(1.8)
Note: Usually, the best way of determining whether a structure is statically determinate, indeterminate or unstable is by
inspection.

Fig. 1.18 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable truss structures.

3 11 2 8 2
(unstable)
n = + =
3 16 2 9 1
(statically indeterminate)
n = + =
3 17 2 10 0
(statically determinate)
n = + =
12
Beams and frames
Degree of statical indeterminacy for plane frame structures

A formula similar to Eq. (1.8) exists to calculate the degree of statical indeterminacy for beam and frame structures.

3 3 : Number of support reactions
: Number of internal forces at hinges
: Number of closed loops without hinge
: Number of parts
n s i m p s
i
m
p
n
= + +
(1.9)

Fig. 1.19 Statically determinate, indeterminate and unstable frame structures.

5 0 0 3 1 2 (stat. indet. to 2nd degree) n = + + =
5 4 0 3 3 0 (!! unstable!! CAUTION) n = + + =
1 2
2
3 2 3 3 3 1 11 (stat. indet. to 11th degree) n = + + =
1
2
2
2
2 6
2
4
3 18 0 3 7 0 (stat. det) n = + + =
2 2
2 2
4 4 3 1 3 3 2 (!! unstable!!, CAUTION) n = + + =
13
Degree of statical indeterminacy for space frame structures

For three-dimensional structures the formula is

6 6 : Number of support reactions
: Number of internal forces at hinges
: Number of closed loops without hinge
: Number of members
n s i m p s
i
m
p
n
= + +
(1.10)
Example:

Fig. 1.20 Statically indeterminate three-dimensional frame.

For the 3-D frame above we obtain

24 0 6 1 6 1 24 (stat. indeterminate to the 24th degree) n = + + = (1.11)

14
Problems

1.1

Solution:

1.2

(a) Show that the two structures above are statically determinate.

(b) Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams of the two structures for the loading shown. Draw
the bending moment diagram on the tension side of the member.

5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
A
C
D
E
F
G
10kN/m
B
30.6
40.8
35.2
91.3
30.6
11.7
40.0
28.0
41.7
40.8
153
188
35
80
+
+
+
+
M
[kNm]
N
[kN]
V
[kN]
20
11.25
8 m 4 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D E
F
10kN/m
50kN
15
1.3

Draw the bending moment diagrams of the above structures for the given loading. All applied forces, moments and
distributed loads have unit magnitude and intensity, respectively.
5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
20 ft

1
2

f
t
20 ft

1
2

f
t
20 ft

1
2

f
t
20 ft

1
2

f
t
(f)
(g)
(h)
(e)
16
1.4

Find the shear force and bending moment diagrams of the beams for the given loading. Sketch the deflected shape.
1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m
1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m
1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m
1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m
1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 1.00 m 3.00 m 1.00 m
10kN/m
20kN 20kN
20kN
10kN/m 10kN/m
20kN 20kN
25kNm 25kNm
10kN/m
25kNm 25kNm 25kNm
4.00 m 2.00 m 2.00 m 4.00 m
10kNm
1kN/m 1kN/m
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
17
Solution:

15
20
15
5
20
10
10
20
5
+
+
25
20 20
25
+
1.667
20
20
1.667
10
8.33
21.67
30
20
5
25
20
25
5
+
20
20
20
20
+
V
20 20
20
+
M
V
M
V
M
V
M
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
25
6.25
12.5
12.5
6.25
25
6.25 6.25
+
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
2
2
5
5
+
3.125
3.125
+
V
M
V
M
(e)
(f)
18
2 Principal of Virtual Forces
If Newtons laws are the salt of the earth,
energy principles are manna from heaven.
2.1 Introductory remarks
If we apply external loads to a structure, these loads cause external displacements at their point of application. The pro-
duct of external loads and corresponding displacements is the external energy or external work
e
W imposed on the
structure.
The applied loads also cause internal forces and corresponding deformations (strains). The product of internal forces and
corresponding deformations, integrated over the entire structure is the strain energy stored in the structure, also called
the internal energy or internal work
i
W . The energy principle or law of conservation of energy states that the external
energy is equal to the internal energy stored in the structure. We assume that forces are applied slowly such that neither
heat or kinetic energy is generated.

2.2 Virtual work-Principle of virtual forces
Virtual work is done by virtual (imagined) forces on actual (real) displacements or the work done by actual forces along
virtual displacements. Accordingly, we distinguish between the principle of virtual forces and the principle of virtual
displacements. In this class, we use the principle of virtual forces to calculate a specific displacement(more precisely
a single component of the displacement) or a rotation at any point on the structure.

When applying the principle of virtual force, we apply a virtual or dummy loadP at the point and in the direction of the
desired displacementor a dummy moment in the direction of a desired rotation . With the virtual force acting, we
apply the real loading to the structure. As the structure displaces under the real loading, the virtual force does external
virtual
e
W P = (2.1)
work as it moves through the real displacementof the structure. The dummy load also does internal virtual work
( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d
i
W M x x x N x x x V x x x = + +

(2.2)
which is the work done by the internal virtual forces (virtual axial forceN , virtual shear forceV and virtual bending
momentM along the strains (axial strain , shear strain and curvature ) caused by the real loading. Note that we
denote virtual (dummy) quantities by the prime-symbol.

In order for a system to be in equilibrium, the internal virtual work
i
W must be equal to the external virtual work
e
W
.
Hence
( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d P M x x x N x x x V x x x = + +

(2.3)
It is important, that the domain of integration is the entire structure andx is a coordinate along a structural member.
For convenience, if we let 1 P
= , we obtain
( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d M x x x N x x x V x x x = + +

(2.4)
where , and M N V

are the internal virtual forces caused by a unit virtual force 1 P
= . Now we can use HOOKEs

law to express the real strains in terms of the corresponding real internal forces
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
N x M x V x
x x x
EA EI GA
= = = (2.5)
and obtain

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) d ( ) d ( ) d
M x N x V x
M x x N x x k V x x
EI EA GA

= + +

(2.6)
The factork is a shape factor that accounts for the nonlinear distribution of shear stresses and shear strains (see ARCE
222, / VQ It = ) across the section. We will take a closer look at the shape factor in Section 2.15.

19
Analogously, we can use a unit virtual moment to calculate an unknown rotation at any point on the structure. The vir-
tual work equation becomes (analogous to Eq. 2.3)
( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d
L
M M x x x N x x x V x x x = + +

(2.7)
where , and M N V

are the internal virtual forces caused by a virtual moment
L
M . We use the indexL to distinguish
between the concentrated virtual moment that acts as a load on the left-hand side of the preceding equation and the inter-
nal virtual moment on the right-hand side. Again, we let 1
L
M = and obtain
( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d ( ) ( ) d M x x x N x x x V x x x = + +

(2.8)
where , and M N V

are the internal virtual forces caused by a unit virtual moment 1
L
M = .

We summarize:
We use a virtual force to determine unknown displacements and a virtual moment to determine unknown
rotations.

2.3 Procedure for analysis
(1) Determine the internal force diagrams of the structure for the actual loading
(2) Place a unit load on the structure at the point and in the direction of the desired displacement (if we want to deter-
mine a rotation, we place a unit moment at that point, in direction of the desired rotation). Determine the internal
force diagrams of the structure for the unit loading.
(3) Evaluate the strain energy integrals (internal virtual work), which according to Eqs. (2.6) and (2.8) gives us the
desired displacement or the desired rotation directly.

2.4 Principle of virtual forces for trusses
Truss members carry axial force only such that Eq. (2.6) reduces to
( )
( ) d
N x
N x x
EA
=
(2.9)
Furthermore since the axial force is constant in each member (except for the effect of self weight of the member which
is typically small), we can drop the dependence onx and the above integral reduces to a summation
1
n
i
i i
i
i i
N
N L
E A
=
=

(2.10)
wheren is the number of members in the truss.

2.5 Principle of virtual forces for beams
Beams carry shear forces and bending moments such that Eq. (2.6) reduces to
( ) ( )
( ) d ( ) d
M x V x
M x x k V x x
EI GA
= +

(2.11)
We will show in Section 2.15 of this chapter that the shear deformations are small for typical beams and frames whose
section depth is small compared to the length. Consequently, in this class, we will always neglect shear deformation in
beams and frames unless otherwise noted. With this approximation the virtual force expression for beams is simply
( )
( ) d
M x
M x x
EI
=
(2.12)
2.6 Principle of virtual forces for frames
Ignoring shear deformations, the principle of virtual forces for frames (structure that carry both bending moments and
axial forces) gives us
( ) ( )
( ) d ( ) d
M x N x
M x x N x x
EI EA
= +

(2.13)
20
2.7 Example 2.1

Fig. 2.1 Example 2.1.
Problem: Find the vertical displacement atB and the horizontal displacement atE of the truss above for the given
loading. The axial stiffness is 10, 000 kN EA= .

Solution:

1. Member forces for real loading.
We first find the member forces resulting for the given loading.

Fig. 2.2 Member forces for real loading.

2. Member forces for virtual loading.
Vertical displacement at B
To find the vertical displacement atB , we apply in the vertical direction a unit virtual force atB and calculate the
resulting member forces resulting from this load.
Fig. 2.3 Member forces for virtual loading (vertical displacement atB ).

3

m
4 m 4 m
10 kN 10 kN
10 kN
D
A
B
C
E
N
[kN]
C
T T
C C
T T
10.0 10.0
13.3
18.0
6.01 6.01
18.0

3

m
4 m 4 m
0.333 0.333
0.667
0.601 0.601
0.601 0.601
C
T T
C C
T T
N
1 P =
D
A
B
C
E
21

Horizontal displacement at E
To find the horizontal displacement atE , we apply in the horizontal direction a unit virtual force atE and calculate the
resulting member forces resulting from this load.

Fig. 2.4 Member forces for virtual loading (horizontal displacement atE ).

3. Summation
Since the truss structure has seven members, we have to include seven terms in the virtual work summation (see Eqs. 2.9
and 2.10)
7
1
1
1
d
i i i
i
i i
N
P N x N N L
EA E A
=
= =
(2.14)
The calculations are best arranged in tabular form:

# Member [kN] N N
(
B
) N
(
E
) [m] L N N L
(
B
) N N L
(
E
)
1 AB 10.0 0.333 0.750 4.000 13.33 30.0
2 BC 10.0 0.333 0.250 4.000 13.33 10.0
3 DE -13.3 -0.667 0.500 4.000 35.47 -26.6
4 AD -18.0 -0.601 0.451 3.606 39.01 -29.3
5 DB 6.01 0.601 -0.451 3.606 13.02 -9.77
6 BE 6.01 0.601 0.451 3.606 13.02 9.77
7 EC -18.0 -0.601 -0.451 3.606 39.01 29.3

166.2 13.4

The vertical displacement atB and the horizontal displacement atE are thus
166.2 kNm
1
0.017 m=17 mm
10, 000 kN
13.4 kNm
1
0.0013 m=1.3 mm
10, 000 kN
B
E
N N L
EA
N N L
EA
= = =
= = =
(2.15)
Note:
Since the cross-sectional areaAand the modulus of elasticityE are constant throughout the structure, we can
move the product of the two quantities (the axial stiffnessEA) out of the integral. If eitherE orAvaries, we
must include them in the summation.
We can select the direction of the virtual force arbitrarily. The sign of the result automatically gives the correct
direction of the displacement. Positive results obtained in this example for both displacements indicate that the
displacements are in direction of the applied virtual force.
When the real and virtual member forces have different signs, i.e. real member force is compression and virtual
member force is tension or vice versa, the corresponding term in the summation is negative.

3

m
4 m 4 m
1 P =
N
D
A
B
C
E
T
T
T
T
C C
T
0.750
0.250
0.500
0.451 0.451 0.451
0.451
22

Fig. 2.5 Deflected shape of truss.
Figure 2.5 shows the deflected shape of the truss structure. Note that the horizontal displacement of jointE is much
smaller than the vertical displacement at jointB which is consistent with the analysis above.

2.8 Example 2.2

Problem: Find the midspan displacement for a simply supported beam of spanL and flexural stiffnessEI under a
uniformly distributed loadw .

Solution: To find a specific displacement of a beam we use Eq. (2.12).
1. Bending moment diagram for real loading.
We find the real moment diagram by simple statics.

Fig. 2.7 Moment diagram for real loading.

2. Bending moment diagram for virtual loading.
Since we want to find the vertical displacement at midspan, we apply at midspan a unit load in the vertical direction. We
find the virtual moment diagram by simple statics.

Fig. 2.8 Moment diagram for virtual loading.

M
2
8
L
w
w
1 P
=
1
4
L
EI
w
/2 L /2 L
? =
D
A
B
C
E
23
3. Integration.
Measuring a coordinatex from the left support, we can write for the two bending moment diagrams
2
/4 1
( ) 0 ( ) 0
2 2 /2 2 2
wL wx L L
M x x x L M x x x x
L
= = = (2.16)
Integrating the product of the two moment functions in the preceding equation according to Eq. (2.12) gives (because of
symmetry, we only need to consider half the beam)
/2
2
0 0
/2
2 3 4 4 4
0
1 2 1
( ) ( ) d d
2 2 2
2 2 5
d
4 4 96 256 384
L L
L
wL wx
M x M x x x x x
EI EI
w x x w L L wL
L x
EI EI EI

= =

= = =

(2.17)
This is the same result derived in ARCE 223 either by double integration or the moment area method. We observe, that
in order to find displacements or rotations at specific points using the principle of virtual forces we need to evaluate the
integral of products of simple functions (shapes), e.g. rectangles, triangles, trapezoids and parabolas. In the following
section, we will learn how to evaluate these integrals without formally integrating.

2.9 Integration Tables

2.9.1 Discussion
We can write the integral that we need to evaluate when applying the principle of virtual work as
( )
* *
1
1
d (summation over segments of the beam)
n
i i i i
i
i
M
M x M M L n
EI EI

=
= =
(2.18)
where
*
*
: typical value of virtual moment
: typical value of virtual moment
: tabulated integration factor depending on the shape of and
: Length of beam segment
: Flexural stiffness of beam segment
M M
M M
M M
L
EI

Hence we can always evaluate the virtual work integrals by simple table look-up.

2.9.2 Example
As an example, we derive the -factor for two linear functions (triangles) where the triangles have opposite orientation.
Recall that in the context of the principal of virtual forces one factor in the integral of Eq. (2.19) is the real internal force,
the other represents the virtual internal force. Clearly, from a mathematical viewpoint the above concept can be used
whenever we have to integrate the product of two functions
1
( ) f x and
2
( ) f x over a given interval (Fig. 2.9).
Problem: Find the factor such that
1 2 1 2
0
( ) ( ) d
L
f x f x x F F L =
(2.19)
24

Fig. 2.9 Integrating the product of two linear functions.

Writing the two triangular variations as functions of x gives
( )
1
1
( )
F
f x L x
L
= (2.20)
and
2
2
( )
F
f x x
L
= (2.21)
Integrating the product of the two functions yields
( ) ( )
2 3
2 2 1 2 1 1 2
1 2
0 0 0 0
1 2
( ) ( ) d d d
2 3
L L L L
F F F F F F
x x
f x f x x x L x x Lx x x L
L L L L L L
F F L

= = =

=

1
6
(2.22)
Hence, the -factor for two triangles with different orientation is 1/6. Factors for the most common internal force distri-
butions are listed on the next page.

It is often necessary to split up the area under a moment diagram into several parts before applying the integration tables,
e.g, subdividing a trapezoidal moment shape into two triangles. Note that it is unnecessary to find the two distances
1
L and
2
L when subdividing an internal force diagram that varies from a positive to a negative value (see Fig.2 .10).

Fig. 2.10 Subdividing trapezoid into two triangles.
L
x
2
F
1
( ) f x
2
( ) f x
1
F
L
L
1
L
2
L L
a
b
a
b

+ +
= +
L L L
= +
a
b
b
a
x x x
25

Fig. 2.11 Integrating the product of trapezoidal functions.

The integral of the product of the two moment functions is
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( )d 2 2
6 3 6 3 6
M x M x x a b L a a L b a L b b L a a b b b a L

= + + + = + + +

(2.23)
If
1
M and
2
M are identical trapezoids
1 2 1 2
( , ) a a b b = = , a case often encountered when analyzing a structure by the force
method (Chapter 3), the above formula reduces to
( )
2 2
1 2 1 1 1 1
1
( ) ( ) d
3
M x M x x a b a b L = + +
(2.24)
Throughout this class, we will be using Eqs. (2.23) and (2.24) over and over again.

2.10 Summary
Before discussing more examples, we summarize the principal of virtual forces to calculate displacements at specific
locations in a structure.

Fig. 2.12 Principle of virtual force (basic cases).
1 P =
1 M =
1 M =
1 P = 1 P =
Absolute rotation
Relative rotation
(hinge rotation)
Absolute displacement
Relative displacement
1
a
1
b
2
b
2
a
1
M
2
M
L
26
Table 2.1: -Tables ( -values)
i k
M M

0
( ) ( ) d
: Curved functions are quadratic parabolas with horizontal slope @
L
i i k k
M x M x x M M L
S
=
Note

i
M
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
6
1
4
1
2
1
4
1
3
2
3
1
3
5
12
2
3
5
12
17
48
2
3
1
4
17
48
i
M
i
M
k
M
k
M
k
M
k
M
k
M
k
M
1
S
S
S
k
M
27
2.11 Example 2.3

Problem: Find the rotationEI at the two supports for the simply-supported beam under a concentrated force at mid-
span.

Solution:

Fig. 2.14 Bending moment diagram for real loading.

Since we want to find the rotation at supportA, we apply a virtual moment 1 M
= at that location. The direction of the

unit virtual moment is arbitrary. The sign of the answer will indicate the correct sense of the rotation. A positive results
means the rotation is in the direction of the applied dummy moment, a negative result indicates the sense of rotation is
opposite to the applied moment. Since we expect the rotation to be counterclockwise, lets apply the moment in the
counterclockwise direction. The results should then be positive. Simple statics gives

Fig. 2.15 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading.

3. Integration.
To find the rotation , we have to integrate the product of the two moment functions in Fig. 2.13 and 2.14 (same proce-
dure as in Example 2.2). Using Table 2.1, we find that the -factor to integrate the product of two triangles shaped like
those above is . Hence
2
1
( ) ( ) d 1
4 4 16
PL PL
EI M x M x x L = = =
(2.25)
The end rotation of a simply supported beam under a concentrated force at mid-span is thus
2
16
PL
EI
= (2.26)
P
/2 L /2 L
EI
M
4
PL
P
/2 L /2 L
EI
+
1 M
=
/2 L /2 L
M
1
0.5 +
28

2.12 Example 2.4

Problem: Use the principle of virtual forces to find the vertical displacementand the rotation atC .

Solution:


In order to find the vertical displacement atC , we apply a virtual force atC in the vertical direction (direction is arbitra-
ry). We obtain the corresponding moment diagram by simple statics.

Fig. 2.18 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading 1 P = .

In order to find the rotation atC , we apply a virtual moment atC (direction is arbitrary). We obtain the corresponding
moment diagram by simple statics.

Fig. 2.19 Bending moment diagram for virtual loading 1 M = .

3. Integration
Displacement
We compare the real moment diagram in Fig. 2.16 to the virtual moment diagram in Fig. 2.17. Since we do not have a
single integration factor for the entire beam, we have to integrate segmentsAB andBC separately. We consider the
real moment diagram along segmentAB as a superposition of a negative triangle of magnitude 8 and a positive parabola
of magnitude 12.5. We consider the real moment diagram along segmentBC as a superposition of a negative triangle of
magnitude 8 and a positive parabola of magnitude 2. All integration factors are 1/ 3 = (see Table 2.1).
10 m 4 m
1kN/m w =
EI
A
B
C
M
2
4
1 2
8
=
8
+
2
10
1 12.5
8
=
[kNm]
10 m 4 m
1 P =

4
M
10 m 4 m
1 M =
M
1 1
+
29
triangle x triangle triangle x parabola triangle x triangle triangle x parabola
due to 1
1
( ) ( ) d 4 8 10 4 12.5 10 4 8 4 4 2 4
3
1
320 500 12
3
P
EI M x M x x
=

= = +

= +
( )
3
8 32 28 kNm =
(2.27)
The negative answer indicates that the vertical displacement of pointC is opposite to the direction of the applied virtual
force. PointC thus moves up.

Rotation
We compare the real moment diagram in Fig. 2.16 to the virtual moment diagram in Fig. 2.18. Again, we consider the
real moment diagram along segmentAB a superposition of a negative triangle of magnitude 8 and a positive parabola of
magnitude 12.5. We consider the real moment diagram along segmentBC a superposition of a negative triangle of mag-
nitude 8 and a positive parabola of magnitude 2.

( )
due to 1
2
triangle x tringle
rectangle x tringle rectangle x parabola
( ) ( ) d
1 1 2
1 8 10 1 12.5 10 1 8 4 1 2 4 4.33 kNm
3 2 3
M
EI M x M x x
=
=
= + + =

(2.28)

Fig. 2.20 Deflected shape with calculated displacementand rotation .
.

30
2.13 Example 2.5

Fig. 2.21 Example 2.5: Sample structure and deflected shape (displacements vastly exaggerated).

Problem: Find the vertical displacementand the hinge rotation (angle change) atA. Neglect axial deformation in all
members.

Solution:
The structure is a frame structure. i.e. the member are subject to bending moment and axial force. To find a specific dis-
placement of a frame by the principle of virtual forces we use Eq. (2.13). Since we ignore axial deformation, we do not
have to include the virtual work done by the axial forces such that the integral is that of Eq. (2.12).

After finding the reaction forces, drawing the real moment diagram is straightforward. Note that in order to find the
horizontal reaction forces, we have to dismember the structure and take moments about hingeA.

Fig. 2.22 Reaction forces and moment diagram for real loading.

2. Bending moment diagram(s) for virtual loading.
To find the vertical displacement atA, we apply a unit vertical force atA(see Fig. 2.22). To find the rotation hingeA,
we apply a unit pair of moments atA(see Fig. 2.23). Note that the direction of both the applied force and moment is
arbitrary.
5 m 5 m

4

m

2

m
10kN F =
2
5000kNm EI =
A
1 2
= +
A
10
5 5
4.167 4.167
M
16.667 16.667
31

Fig. 2.23 Reaction forces and moment diagram for virtual loading 1 P
= .

Fig. 2.24 Reaction forces and moment diagram for virtual loading 1 M
= .

3. Integration.
Using the integration factors for triangles with equal and opposite orientation, we get
( )
2 2
2 2
1 1
d 2 16.667 1.667 4 16.667 1.667 2 5 173.80
3 3
173.8
0.035m
5000
1 1
d 2 16.667 0.667 4 16.667 2 0.667 1.0 2 5 99.44
3 6
99.44
0.020rad= 1.14
5000
EI M M x
EI M M x

= = + + =

= =

= = + + + =

= =
(2.29)
Remarks
Watch for the proper sign in the integral expression. When the real and virtual moment diagrams have opposite
signs, the corresponding contribution in the integral (summation) is negative.
Since we neglect axial and shear force deformation, it is not necessary to determine the real and virtual axial
force and shear force diagrams.
In order to avoid mistakes, we should select a certain order in the summation and stick with it in all our work,
e.g. -factor x real moment x virtual moment x member length .
The positive answer forindicates that the displacement is in direction of the applied virtual force (down).
The negative answer for indicates that the change in angle is in the direction opposite to the applied virtual
moment (compare the deflected shape in Fig. 2.20 to the applied virtual moment in Fig. 2.23).
M
0.667 0.667
1.000
1 M =
0 0
0.1667 0.1667
1 P =
0.5 0.5
0.417 0.417
1.667 1.667
M

32

2.14 Example 2.6


Problem:
Determine the vertical displacement at locations , , , A B C D of the frame structure for the given loading. Neglect axial
force deformation except in member CF .

Solution:
1. Bending moment diagram for actual loading.
The structure is statically determinate such that we obtain the bending moments by statics. Since we consider axial de-
formation only in memberCF , we do not have to draw a complete axial force diagram but use the bending moment dia-
gram to show the axial forceN in memberCF .


We use the principal of virtual forces to calculate the deflection at locations , , , A B C D . Hence we need to analyze four
virtual load cases (unit force at , , , A B C D ) resulting in the four virtual moment diagrams shown in the figure below.
Like the real moment diagram, they are obtained by elementary statics. Again, we do not need the complete axial force
diagrams (only the virtual axial force in memberCF ), since we ignore axial deformation except in memberCF .

2 m 6 m 2 m

4

m
2I
I I
50kN/m
100kN
A
B
C
E
F
D
2
10, 000kNm
50, 000kN
EI
EA
=
=
283.3 kN
CF
N =
200.0
225.0
233.3
+
[kNm]
M
33

Fig. 2.27 Virtual bending moment diagrams.

3. Perform integration
For each of the four virtual bending moment diagrams we have to calculate the strain energy integral
1
( )
1
( ) ( ( ) d ) d M x M x x N
E
x N x x
EA I
= +

(2.30)
The results are
2 m 6 m 2 m

4

m
2 m 6 m 2 m

4

m
2 m 6 m 2 m

4

m
2 m 6 m 2 m

4

m
1 P
=
1 P
=
1 P
=
1 P
+
0 N =
1 N =
0.333 N =
1.333 N =
2.667
2.000
2.000
2.000
0.667
M
M
M
M
for
A
for
B
for
C
for
D
34
( )
( )
1 1 1 1
200 2 225 2 6.00 233.33 2.667 4.472
10000 6 2 3
11.2 mm
1 1 1
233.33 2 4.472 34.8 mm
10000 2 3
22.7 mm
1 1 1 1 1
200 225 2 6.00 200 2 2.
1
0.333 283.33 4
50000
1
1 283.33 4
50000
00
10000 3 3 2
A
B
C
D

= +

=
= =
= =
= +

233.33 0.667 4.472

3
35.
1
1.333 283.33 4
5000
3 mm
0

+ =
(2.31)

4. Summary

Fig. 2.28 Sketch of deflected shape.
35
2.15 Shear deformation

2.15.1 Shape factork
If we include flexural, axial and shear virtual work, the expression for a specific displacement in a frame structure is
d d d
M N V
P M x N x k V x
EI EA GA

= + +

(2.32)
where , , M N V are the internal bending moment, axial force and shear force, respectively, and the prime-symbol
denotes the corresponding virtual forces. Selecting 1 P
= gives
shear flexural axial
d d d
M N V
M x N x k V x
EI EA GA

= + + = + +

(2.33)
The shape factork accounts for the nonlinear shear stress and shear strain distriubution across the section. In what
follows, we derive the shape factor for a rectangular section.

Derivation of k for rectangular cross-section
The internal virtual work done by virtual shear stresses
along real shear strains is

( )
d d
i
W A x =

(2.34)
Since we dont want to evaluate the volume integral in the previous equation in our displacement calculations, we
calculate the shape factor based on the requirement
d d d
V
A x k V x
G GA

(2.35)
or
d
V
A kV
G GA
=

(2.36)
Calculatingk based on the preceding equation allows us to perform the integration along the member, as if the shear
stresses were uniformly distributed across the section. From the shear formula (see ARCE 222, 223)
V Q
I t
(2.37)
we calculate the maximum shear stress, that occurs at the centroid of the cross section, as
max
1.5
V
A
= (2.38)

Fig. 2.29 Shear stress distribution across rectangular section.

Knowing that the shear stress is parabolically distributed across the section (see figure above), we can write for the shear
stress variation across the section
b

d
2
max
2
max
1.5
( ) 1 4
V
A
y
y
d

=

=
36
2 2
2 2
max
( ) 1 4 1.5 1 4
2 2
y V y d d
y y
A d d

= =

(2.39)
Using HOOKEs law gives
2
2
( )
( ) 1.5 1 4
2 2
y V y d d
y y
G GA d

= =

(2.40)
Replacing V byV in Eq. (2.39) we obtain for the virtual shear stresses
2
2
( ) 1.5 1 4
V y
y
A d

(2.41)
Substituting the expressions for the real shear strains and the virtual shear stress in Eq. (2.40) and (2.41), respectively
into the integral in Eq. (2.36) yields
2 2 4
2 / 2 /2
2 2 4
2 2
/ 2 /2
2
9 9
( ) ( ) d 1 4 d 1 8 16 d
4 4
9 8 6
4 15 5
d d
d d
V V y V V y y
y y A A b y
GA GA d d d
V V V V V V
b d k
GA GA GA

= = +

= = =

(2.42)
The shape factor for a rectangular section is thus 6/5 k = .

2.15.2 Significance of shear deformation
In order to shed some light on the significance of shear deformation we consider the cantilever structure in Fig. 2.29.
The structure has uniform rectangular cross section x d b and is subject to a forceP at the top. Interest is in the relative
contribution of shear and flexural displacements to the total displacement for varying aspect ratio / L d . We obtain the
total displacement at the top by combining flexural and shear deformations
3
total flex shear
d d 1.2
3
M V PL PL
M x k V x
EI GA EI GA
= + = + = +

(2.43)

Fig. 2.30 Cantilever structure subject to shear and bending.

Using the relation between the modulus of elasticity and the shear modulus for concrete
( )

( )
concrete/masonry
2 1 2 1 0.25 2.5
E E E
G
= = =
+ +
(2.44)
we obtain
3 3
total flex shear
2.5 1
1.2 3
3 3
PL PL PL PL
EI EA EI EA
= + = + = + (2.45)
d

L
M
V
P
P PL
37
With
3 2
1 1
12 12
I
I bd A bd d
A
= = = (2.46)
the ratio of flexural deformation to shear deformation becomes
2 3 2
flex
2
shear
12
1.333
3 3 9
L A L L
I L d d

= = =

(2.47)
The relative contribution of shear and flexural deformation to the total deformation is then
2 2
flex shear
2 2 2 2
total total
1.333 4
1 3
1 1.333 3 4 1 1.333 3 4
L L
d d
L L L L
d d d d

= = = =

+ + + +

(2.48)

Fig. 2.31 Relative contribution of shear and flexural deformations to total deformation.

The figure above plots the relative contribution of shear and flexural displacement to the total displacement. For an
aspect ratio of / 1 L d = for example, the shear and flexural displacements are about 43% and 57%, respectively.

Fig. 2.32 Increasing shear deformation with decreasing aspect ratio / L d .

4
L
d
= 2
L
d
= 1
L
d
= 0.5
L
d
=
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
flex shear
total total
,

flex
total
shear
total
L
d
d

L
d

L
d

L
38
Problems

2.1

Use the principle of virtual forces to calculate the midspan deflectionEI and the two end rotations
A
EI and
B
EI of
the simple beams above for the given loading.

Solution:
a b c d e f g h
3
[k-ft ] EI 360 270 613.3 135 45 45 90 315
2
[k-ft ]
A
EI 90 72 160 40.5 10 30 12 72
2
[k-ft ]
B
EI 90 72 160 31.5 20 0 12 102

Note:
Positive values for: displacement is down
Positive values for
A
: rotation is clockwise
Positive values for
B
: rotation is counter-clockwise

6 ft 6 ft 12 ft
4 ft 4 ft 4 ft 6 ft 6 ft
12 ft 12 ft
12 ft 12 ft
10k
1k/ft
5k ft 10k ft
1k/ft
10k 10k
5k ft
5k ft 10k ft 10k ft 10k ft
1k/ft
A B
1k/ft
(a)
(b)
(d) (c)
(e)
(g) (h)
(f)
39
2.2

Find the horizontal displacements atAandB for the frame shown. Neglect axial deformation in all members.

Solution:
0.020 m 0.8 " 0.028 m 1.1"
B A
= = = =

2.3

Find the horizontal displacements atAandB for the frame shown. Neglect axial deformation in the bending members,
but consider axial deformation in the truss members.

Solution:
0.024 m 0.94 " 0.046 m 1.81"
B A
= = = =

6 m

3

m

3

m
10kN
5kN
4 kN/m
2
20, 000 kNm EI =
A
B
(a)
6 m

3

m

3

m
10kN
5kN
2
20, 000 kNm
5, 000kN
EI
EA
=
=
B
A
40
2.4

Calculate the horizontal and vertical displacement atA. The structure has uniform 3 ft x 3 ft square cross section.
Use
2
576, 000 k/ft E= .

Solution:
0.0336 ft=0.4 in 0.0250 ft=0.3 in
v
h
= =
2.5
For the simple truss shown, find the horizontal and vertical displacement of pointA.

Solution:
, ,
0.034 ft 0.41" 0.008 ft 0.097 "
A H AV
= = = =

2.6

Find
c
EI , where
c
is the angle change at hingeC due to the given loading. The beam has constant flexural
stiffnesEI .

Solution:
6 ft

1
5

f
t
10k/ft
100k 100k
A
3.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 3.00
50 kN
A
B
C D
E
F
20kN/m 20kN/m
G
[m]
8 ft

6

f
t
10k
10, 000k EA=
10k
A
4
3
41
2
21.6 kNm
c
EI =

2.7

Find the horizontal displacement and rotation of pointE of the above frame structure (
2
15, 000 kNm EI = ). Neglect
axial deformation.

Solution:
3
0.0107 m 0.889 10 rad(cw)
E E

= =

2.8

The simply supported beam above has a rectangular cross section x d b . For / 10, 5, 2 L d = and1 , find the relative con-
tribution of bending and shear to the total displacement.

Solution:
/ L d 10 5 2 1
[%]
F
98.5 94.2 27.7 39.5
[%]
S
1.5 5.8 72.3 60.5

2.9

Find the horizontal displacement atAfor the semi-circular arch. Consider the three forces separately and ignore axial
deformation.

Solution:
3 3 3
1 1 2 2 3 3
due to : due to : due to :
2 4 2
A A A
r r r
F F F F F F
EI EI EI

= = =
3 m 3 m 3 m 3 m

4

m

4

m
A
B
D E C
F
G
2 kN/m
2
15, 000 kNm EI =
L

d
w
1
0.625
b
G E
=
=
1
F
2
F
3
F
r
A
EI
42
2.10

Calculate the vertical displacement at locations , , A B C andD of the given frame structure. Neglect axial force deforma-
tion in the girderADA
.

Solution:
26.3 mm 6.2 mm 6.4 mm 28.4 mm
B C D A
= = = =

2.11

Calculate the vertical displacement of joint 8 of the truss structure above ( 100MN EA= ). All applied forces have mag-
nitude 10 kN and the resulting member forces are provided by the figure above (forces in kN). The joints of the bottom
chord lie on a quadratic parabola with zero slope at node 12.

Solution:
8
=9.7 mm
2.00 2.00 2.00 5.00 2.00 2.00 2.00

4
.
0
0
20 kN
20 kN
10 kN/m
[m]
2
10, 000 kNm
20, 000 kN
EI
EA
=
=
A
B
C C
B
A
D

0
.
5
0

m

3
.
0
0

m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
10@1.00m
19.0 T 19.0 T 82.7 T 82.7 T 133 T 133 T 162 T 162 T 178 T 178 T
0 50.1 C
50.3 C
112 C
113 C
155 C
157 C
183 C
186 C
2
0
2
C
0

1
0
.
0

C
2
.
5
0

C
1
0
.
0

C
5
.
5
5

C
1
0
.
0

C
7
.
5
0

C
1
0
.
0

C
8
.
5
7

C
1
0
.
0

C
8
7
.
0

T
2
1
.5
C
4
0
.4
C 3
3
.4
C 2
4
.
5

C
1
8
.
4

C
3
4
.9
T
3
5
.0
T
2
5
.0
T
1
8
.
1

T
1
3
.
8

T
43
2.12

The 3-D truss structure above (in ARCE circles known as the 12-node model) has square roof and wall panels of dimen-
sionL , i.e. all angels are either 45 or 90 degrees. Find the horizontal and vertical displacements of pointsAandB (in
terms of , F EAandL ). Hint: First analyze the roof plane as a plane truss with roller supports representing the wall
diagonals and find the reaction forces at the roller supports.

2.13

Using the principle of virtual forces, find the:
(a) vertical displacement atB ; (b) hinge rotation atB ; (c) rotation atC . The flexural stiffness is
2
10, 000 kNm EI =

Solution:
(a) 0.075 m (b) 0.0427 (c) 0.0213 ccw
B B C
= = =

2.14

Using the principle of virtual forces, find the vertical displacement of the tip of the cantilever for the two loading
conditions. The beam has constant flexural stiffnessEI .

Solution:
4 4
11 1
(a) (b)
120 30
wL wL
EI EI
= =
F
F
F
F
F
F
EA
L
L
L
4 m 4 m
10 kN/m
A
B
C
B
w
L L
w
(a) (b)
44
2.15

Using the principle of virtual forces, find the vertical displacement of pointAof the cantilever beam above. The beam
has uniform modulus of elasticityE and widthb . The bottom face of the beam is a quadratic parabola with zero slope
atA. Subdivide the beam into 10 segments and use the SIMPSON integration rule to evaluate the virtual force integral
numerically.

Solution:
0.0102 m
A
=

2.16

Using the principle of virtual forces, find the midspan vertical displacement for spansAB andCD above. The beams
have uniform flexural stiffnessEI .
Solution:
236.2 135.0
CD AB
EI EI
= =

2.17

A tension rod stabilizes a rigid post as shown. (a) For given values , , , E A L , derive a parameterk such that P k = .
(b) Find the angle that maximizesk .

Solution:
2
(a) cos sin (b) 35
EA
k
L
=

8.00 m

0
.
5
0

m

2
.
0
0

m
0.1MN/m
2
30, 000 MN/m
1m
E
b
=
=
A
3.00 m 3.00 m 3.00 m
10 kN/m
A
B
C
D

L
, E A
, P
rigid
45
2.18
Two brackets support shelves of lengthL as shown in the picture.
(1) Where must the brackets be placed such that middle and end deflections are equal?
(2) Where must the brackets be placed such that the stresses in the shelves at the location
of the bracket and in the middle are equal? Consider the loading of the shelves uniform.

2.19

The 12-node truss structure shown above is loaded by a uniformly distributed load acting on the roof. Using the concept
of tributary area we have determined the corresponding 1 k, 2 k or 4 k point loads, acting on the truss joints. Columns
are removed and replaced by trusses as shown on the next two pages. For the ten designs, use the principle of virtual
forces to calculate the vertical displacement of pointAfor the given loading. All members of the truss have axial
stiffnessEA.

Note that for clarity the following structural elements are not included in the diagrams:
(a) diagonals in the wall planes
(b) diagonals in the roof plane (except for designs "Skewed" and "Ooo-La-La") where the roof diagonals also act as the
chords of the trusses
(c) the out-of-plane bracing of the truss joints below the roof plane.

4 k
4 k
2 k
2 k
2 k
2 k
2 k
2 k
1k
1k
1k
1k
46

Longey
T-Bone
Skewed
Ooo-La-La
Same Old Saturday Night
12'
12'
12'
12'
12'
12'
3'
Corner Delight
A A
A
A
A
A
47

Designs by Jake Feldman, Professor Emeritus of Architectural Engineering

Double Trouble
Storefront
Baseball Cap
Drive Thru
A
A
A
A
48
2.20

A combined dead and live load of 36 psf acts on the eight 36 ft x 24 ft x 12 ft structures shown above. The load is
transferred from the joists through the girders into the columns (one-way). Use the principal of virtual forces to find the
vertical displacement of pointAor pointsAandB of the structures. The girders have uniform flexural stiffnessEI .
Neglect axial deformation in the columns. Lateral force resisting structural elements are not shown.
Longey
Storefront
Corner Delight
Double Trouble
T-Bone
Drive Thru
Baseball Cap
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
B B
A
Longey
Storefront
Corner Delight
Double Trouble
T-Bone
Drive Thru
Baseball Cap
Longey Longey
Storefront
Corner Delight
Double Trouble
T-Bone
Drive Thru
Baseball Cap
A
A
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
A
B B
A
49
3 The Force Method of Structural Analysis

3.1 Introduction
The structures analyzed so far have all been statically determinate. For a statically determinate structure, we can deter-
mine the reactions and internal forces of the structure using equilibrium equations alone. Knowing the internal forces,
we can apply the principle of virtual forces (Chapter 2) to find displacements provided the material and section proper-
ties for the members are known. For statically indeterminate structures, the equilibrium conditions do not suffice to cal-
culate the support forces and internal forces. For analysis if indeterminate structures we thus need to develop additional
equations.

Two fundamental procedures are available to analyze statically indeterminate structures: The force or flexibility method
and the displacement or stiffness method. In this chapter, we discuss the force method, the oldest of the two analysis me-
thods. In the force method, we choose redundant forces as unknowns and employ additional conditions of compatibility
to obtain sufficient equations to solve the problem. By compatibility we mean that the structure must fit together and the
deflected shape is consistent with the boundary conditions imposed by the supports. Redundant forces are forces that we
can remove from the structure without sacrificing stability of the structure. They may be external (reaction forces) or in-
ternal forces (member forces). The number of redundant forces is equal to the degree of statical indeterminacy. For each
redundant force, we have to write a compatibility equation, which results in a set of compatibility equations (mathemati-
cally, a set of linear algebraic equations) that we have to solve simultaneously.

In this chapter, we make use of the following assumptions.
(1) Hookes law is valid, i.e. force and displacement (stress and strain) are linearly related.
(2) Displacements are small compared to the dimensions of the structure.
(3) Equilibrium is formulated for the undeformed structure.

Based on the assumptions above, the principle of superposition holds which can be stated as follows: The combined
effect of any number of loads can be obtained by adding the effects of each individual load separately. As we will de-
monstrate in the next section, the principle of superposition forms the basis for the force method.

3.2 Discussion

3.2.1 Redundant

Fig. 3.1 Sample system to illustrate force method.

We discuss the main feature of the force method by the two-span continuous beam in Fig. 3.1. The structure consists of a
single member and has four constraints, two at pinAand one each at rollersB andC . In previous classes, we learned
that three constraints are sufficient for stability of a single member in two dimensions, provided the three constraints do
not constitute a parallel or concurrent force system. Stability, we recall, means preventing rigid-body displacements un-
der any loading condition. Since this structure in Fig. 3.1 has one more constraint than necessary for stability, it is stati-
cally indeterminate to the first degree. Thus there is one redundant reaction force. We designate one of the three reaction
forces, sayC as the redundant force. Note that the reaction atB could as well be considered a redundant, since the pin
atAand the roller atC are sufficient to prevent all motions.

3.2.2 Statically determinate base structure and compatibility
The first step in the force method is to select a statically determinate base structure, also referred to as primary struc-
ture, by removing redundant forces from the original indeterminate structure. The number of constraints to be removed
is equal to the degreen of statical indeterminacy. Since the above structure is statically indeterminate to the first degree
L/2 L/2 L
F
EI
A B C
50
we have to remove one constraint. As mentioned above, we remove the roller support at C, such that the base structure is
a simple statically determinate beam with cantilever.

Both the given loading and the redundant force (magnitude is unknown) are now applied to the base structure. The
original indeterminate structure is thus a superposition of two separate load cases applied to the base structure
(see Fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2 Principle of superposition in force method.

We next analyze the determinate structure separately for the external loads and the redundant forces. We refer to the
base structure with external loads applied as the 0-structure, the base structure with the first redundant force applied as
the 1-structure, the base structure with the second redundant force applied as the 2-structure and so on. For each of
the 1 n + load cases applied to the base structure we calculate the displacements at each location where a redundant force
acts. The sum of these displacements is then equal to the known value of the displacement at the location of the redun-
dant force. If we select a reaction force at a roller as redundant, the sum of the displacements for the base structure will
be zero. This procedure generates a set ofn compatibility equations. For the example above, the compatibility equation
is

0 1
superposition roller at
0
C C C
C
= + = (3.1)

3.3 Example 3.1

Problem: Find the bending moment diagram for the two-span continuous beam above.

Solution: We apply the procedure described in the previous section.
1. Statically determinate base structure
We remove the support reaction atC to create a statically determinate base structure that we can analyze by statics.
L/2 L/2 L
A B C
F
EI
A
B C
F
F
0 C
1 C
C
M
0
M
M
C
EI

+
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
(a)
(b)
(c)
51
We repeat that the selection of a redundant is arbitrary because we can always select the base structure in several diffe-
rent ways. Instead of removing a vertical support we can remove the resistance to bending at the middle support. In that
case, the base structure would consist of two simply supported beams. We will address different options for selecting the
base structure later.

Since the principle of superposition holds, the original statically indeterminate can be viewed as the superposition of two
load cases acting on the statically determinate base structure: (0) the external load and (1) the (yet unknown) support
force acting at C (see Fig. 3.2).

Next, we analyze the base structure for those two load cases:

2. Moment diagrams and displacements for base structure

(a) external loading

Fig. 3.4 Deflected shape and moments of base structure for given external load (0-structure).
Figure 3.4 illustrates the analysis of the base structure for the external loading whose magnitude is known. The applied
foreF causes the displacement
10
atC , which is location where we apply the redundant force one, or short location 1
(since the structure is indeterminate to the first degree, there is only one redundant force). We always denote the
displacements for the base structure by two subscripts. The first subscript (1) indicates the location of the displacement;
the second subscript (0=external loads) indicates the force that causes the displacement. Clearly, the
displacement
10
violates the prescribed boundary condition, which requires that
1
0 = .

(b) redundant loading
Next we look at the displacement caused by the support force C. Since the real support force is unknown, we apply a
force
1
1 x = of unit value at C. Selecting a force of unit magnitude is only for a convenience. The direction of the redun-
dant force is arbitrary (since the applied forceF has the tendency to lift the beam up from supportC , we apply the re-
dundant force downward and expect a positive result). The unit force acting at location 1 causes a displacement
11
.
The displacement
11
is the displacement at the location where we apply the redundant force one (first index=1) caused
by a unit force for redundant one (second index=1). The displacement
11
is termed flexibility coefficient (displacement at
the location and in direction of a unit force). By superposition (the material is linearly elastic), the force of yet unknown
magnitude
1
x causes the displacement
11 1 11
x = .

Fig. 3.5 Deflected shape and moments of base structure for unit value of redundant (1-structure).

3. Compatibility equation
Since the statically indeterminate structure is the sum of the two determinate structures in Fig. 3.2, the sum of the two
displacements must be zero and we can write the compatibility equation
11
1 1 11 10
0 x
= + = (3.2)
11
1
M
1
L
A
B C
EI
"1" -structure
A
B C
F
10
0
M
EI
+
/4 L
" 0" -structure
52
Solving the compatibility equation yields
10
1
11
x
= (3.3)
Using the principle of virtual forces learned in Chapter 2 to calculate the delta-values gives
3
3
11 1 1 1 1
0 0 10 1 1
1 1 1 1 2
d d 2
3 3
1 1 1 1 1
d d
4 4 16
L
M M x M M x L L L
EI EI EI EI
FL L
M M x M M x L L F
EI EI EI EI
= = = =
= = = =

(3.4)
Note that we can view the moment diagram
1
M as both the real and the virtual moment diagram (
1 1
M M = ).
Substituting in Eq. (3.3) we obtain
10
1
11
3
32
x F
= = (3.5)
Note:
The sign convention for the delta values is that displacements are positive if they are in direction of the
applied redundant. Since the redundant is applied downward and the base structure moves up at the location of
the redundant,
10
is negative (see Fig. 3.4).
Since we neglect shear deformation in Eq. (3.4), we do not need the shear force diagrams
0
V and
1
V to calculate
the displacements for the base structure.

4. Final moment diagram by superposition
Applying the concept illustrated in Fig. 3.2, we obtain the final moment diagram by linear superposition
0 1 1
M M x M = + (3.6)
From Figs. 3.4 and 3.5 we obtain the moment at supportB of the continuous two-span beam
( )
0
1
1
3 3
0
32 32
B
M
M
x
M F L FL = + = (3.7)
For the moment in spanAB we obtain

1
0
1
0.5
3 13
4 32 2 64
AB
x
M
M
L L
M F F FL

= + =

(3.8)
Connecting these two points with 0 M = at the external supports gives us the bending moment diagram, shown in Fig.
3.6.

Fig. 3.6 Deflected shape and moments of indeterminate structure.

We can write Eq. (3.6) in a more general form
0 1 1
R R x R = + (3.9)
whereR is any desired response quantity of the original statically indeterminate structure.
0
R is the value of that re-
sponse quantity for the primary structure due to the given load.
1
R is the values of that response quantity for the primary
structure due to unit value of the redundant force
1
x .
A
B C
F
M
EI

+
3
32
FL
13
64
FL
L L
53
3.4 Example 3.2

Fig. 3.7 Example 3.2: Indeterminate truss.
Problem: Find the member forces of the truss above for the given loading. The structure has constant axial stiffnessEA.

Solution:
Since the truss structure in Fig. 3.7 is indeterminate to the first degree, we form a determinate base structure by releasing
one redundant force. We select the horizontal reaction force atC . The base structure is shown in Fig. 3.8.

Fig. 3.8 Statically determinate base structure.

2. Member forces for base structure

Fig. 3.9 Member forces and deflected shape of base structure for external load (0-structure).

3

m

3

m
6 m 6 m
50 kN
100 kN
A
B
C
D

3

m

3

m
6 m 6 m

3

m

3

m
6 m 6 m
50 kN
100 kN 1
1 x =
A
B
C
D
A
B
C
D
10
( 0) < 167.7
141.4 212.1
250.0
T T
T
C C
167.7
0
N
54

Fig. 3.10 Member forces and deflected shape of base structure for unit value of redundant force (1-structure).

The displacements of the base structure are
5
0
0 10 1 1
1
5
1
10 1 1 1
1
1
d
1
d
i i i
i
i i i
i
N
N x N N L
EA EA
N
N x N N L
EA EA
=
=
= =
= =
(3.10)
As in Chapter 2, we organize the calculations in a table:

# Member
0
[kN] N
1
N [m] L
0 1
N N L
1 1
N N L
1 AB 167.7 -2.236 6.708 -2515 33.54
2 BC 167.7 -2.236 6.708 -2515 33.54
3 AD -141.4 1.414 8.485 -1697 16.97
4 DC -212.1 1.414 8.485 -2545 16.97
5 DB 250.0 -2.000 3.000 -1500 12.00

-10774 113.02

The redundant force (the horizontal reaction atC ) is thus

10
1
11
10774
95.32 kN
113.02
x

= = = (3.11)

4. Final member forces by superposition
We obtain the final member forces by superposition

# Member
0
[kN] N
1
N
0 1 1
N N x N = +
1 AB 167.7 -2.236 -45.44
2 BC 167.7 -2.236 -45.44
3 AD -141.4 1.414 -6.61
4 DC -212.1 1.414 -77.32
5 DB 250.0 -2.000 59.35

11
2.236 2.236
1.414 1.414
2.000
C C
T
T
C
1
N
55

Fig. 3.11 Final member forces and deflected shape.

3.5 Example 3.2 (Alternative)

In this section, we present an alternative analysis of the previous example by considering the force in memberBD as the
redundant. The redundant force is now an internal force. When we release the axial force in this member (internal re-
lease), the remaining members and the two pin supports at A and C are sufficient to ensure stability of the structure (we
can view the base structure as two independent two-member trusses). We can view this release as a sleeve-like mecha-
nism. MemberBD retains its position in the structure but is unable to transmit an axial force.


2. Member forces for base structure
As in the previous examples, we have to analyze the determinate base structure for two load cases: Load case 0 is the
two external forces applied to the base structure and load case 1 is a unit value of the redundant
1
x applied to the base
structure. Since the redundant force is the force in memberBD , load case 1 is a unit force in memberBD .
45.44
45.44
6.61
77.32
59.35
T
C
C C
C
N
0 =

3

m

3

m
6 m 6 m
50 kN
100 kN
A
B
C
D
1
1 x =
56

Fig. 3.13 Member forces of base structure for external load (0-structure) and unit redundant force (1-structure).
As before, we calculate the displacements of the base structure in a table:

# Member
0
[kN] N
1
N [m] L
0 1
N N L
1 1
N N L
1 AB -111.8 1.118 6.708 -838.5 8.385
2 BC -111.8 1.118 6.708 -838.5 8.385
3 AD 35.35 -0.707 8.485 -212.1 4.243
4 DC -35.35 -0.707 8.485 212.1 4.243
5 DB 0 1.000 3.000 0 3.000

-1677 28.25

The redundant force (the force in memberBD ) is thus

10
1
11
1677
59.35 kN
28.25
x

= = = (3.12)
As expected, the answer for the redundant force matches the final force in memberBC of the first solution strategy.

Fig. 3.14 Illustration of displacements
11
and
10
.
Figure 3.14 illustrates the two displacements for the base structure. The displacement
11
is the overlap in the axial force
release in memberBD . This overlap is the relative displacement betweenB andD (the amount by which joints B and
D approach each other due to
1
1 x = which is sum of virtual work of members 1 through 4 in column 7) plus the axial
deformation within memberBD (member 5 in column 7). Likewise, the displacement
10
is the relative displacement
between jointsB andD due to external loading. Since the external load causes jointsB andD to move away from each
other (in the direction opposite to that of
1
x ),
10
is negative.
1.118
C
T T
C
1
N
1.118
0.707 0.707
1.000
T
C
C
C T
111.8 111.8
35.35 35.35
0
0
N
0
11
B
D
1
1 x =
D
D
B
B
10
B
D
57
4. Final member forces by superposition
We obtain the final member forces by superposition, the results match those obtained before.

# Member
0
[kN] N
1
N
0 1 1
N N x N = +
1 AB -111.8 1.118 -45.44
2 BC -111.8 1.118 -45.44
3 AD 35.35 -0.707 -6.61
4 DC -35.35 -0.707 -77.32
5 DB 0 1.000 59.35

3.6 Example 3.3

Problem: Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the two-span continuous beam above. Select the
moment at the mid-support as redundant (internal release).

Solution:
The two-span continuous beam is indeterminate to the first degree. Instead of selecting a reaction force as redundant (see
Example 3.1) we now consider the internal moment atB the redundant. Thus we obtain the statically determinate base
structure by removing the resistance to the bending moment at the middle support, i.e. inserting a hinge atB . The resul-
ting base structure consists of two simply supported beamsAB andBC . Figure 3.16 shows the original structure (the
two-span continuous beam) as a superposition of two load cases acting on the base structure.

Fig. 3.16 Statically indeterminate structure as superposition of two load cases for the statically determinate base struc-
ture.
B
M
=
+
L L
A B C
w
w
L L
w
58
As before (Examples 3.1 and 3.2), we need to analyze the base structure for two load cases: (0) the external loadw and
(1) the unit redundant moment
1
1 x = acting at the middle support. When the external load acts on the primary structure, a
slope discontinuity (angle change)
10
occurs at supportB . Again we use the subscript 1 to indicate that the displace-
ment is at the location where redundant 1 acts and the subscript 0 to indicate that the cause of the displacement is the gi-
ven external load. Clearly, the slope discontinuity atB violates the internal compatibility requirement of continuity such
that the redundant moment must restore compatibility atB . To restore compatibility we apply a unit value of the redun-
dant moment to the base structure, which causes slope discontinuity
11
. Since the compatibility requirement is that of a
rotation, the displacements
10
and
11
are rotations. These rotations are the sum of the rotations atB of the two simply
supported beamsBAandBC (see Figs. 3.17 and 3.18).

base structure under external load (0-structure)
Figure 3.17 shows the deflected shape and the moment diagram for the base structure under given external loadw .

Fig. 3.17 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load (0-structure).

base structure under unit value of redundant (1-structure)
Figure 3.18 shows the deflected shape and the moment diagram for the base structure under unit value of the redundant
force
1
1 x = .

Fig. 3.18 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant (1-structure).

3. Displacement values and compatibility equation
For the two-span continuous beam in this example we must have slope continuity atB , i.e. there may not be a change in
slope at the middle support. Clearly, the base structure violates this requirement by producing slope discontinuities at B
(see Figs. 3.17 and 3.18). Using the principle of virtual forces, we obtain the delta-values (as in the previous examples,
the moment diagram
1
M serves as both real moment diagram for unit redundant and virtual moment diagram)
2 3
0 10 1
1
d 1
3 8 24
wL wL
EI M M x L = = =
(3.13)
1
1 X =
M
1
+ 1
11
M
0
+
2
8
wL
10
2
8
wL
w
59
and
2 2
11 1 1 1
1 1
d d 1
3 3
EI M M x M x L L = = = =

(3.14)
Slope continuity requires

11
1 1 11 10
princ. of superposition slope is continuous
0 x
= + = (3.15)
Note that
1
is the slope discontinuity atB which must be zero because of the continuity of the beam atB .

The redundant moment is
3 2
10
1
11
3
24 8
wL wL
x
L
= = = (3.16)
The support moment of a two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load is thus
2
/8
B
M wL = . The ne-
gative sign is indicating that the moment acts in the direction opposite (tension at the top) to that assumed (tension at the
bottom).

With the compatibility equation solved we obtain the bending moments of the indeterminate system by superposition

0 1 1
M M x M = + (3.17)

Fig. 3.19 Bending moment diagram for two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load.

5. Shear force diagram
Since we didnt draw the shear force diagram for the primary structure, we cannot obtain the shear forces for the indeter-
minate system by superposition. The shear forces are most easily determined directly from the moment diagram for the
indeterminate structure using the statics-relation

* *
= =
r r
l l
r
l
M M M M
V V V V
L L

+ (3.18)
where
r
M and
l
M are the bending moments at the right and left member ends, respectively. The term * V is the static
shear force, i.e. the support reaction for a simply supported beam. For a member with zero span loading,
*
0 V = . Thus
2 2
2 2
0 0
8 8
0.375 0.625
2 2
0 0
8 8
0.625 0.375
2 2
AB BA
BC CB
wL wL
w L w L
V wl V wl
L L
wL wL
w L w L
V wl V wl
L L

= + = = + =

= + = = + =
(3.19)
M
+
_
2
8
wL
2
8
wL
2
8
wL
60

Fig. 3.20 Shear force diagram for two-span continuous beam under uniformly distributed load.

3.7 Example 3.4

Fig. 3.21 Three-span continuous beam.

Problem: Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the three-span continuous beam above.

Solution:
The structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree and therefore two compatibility equations are needed for
the solution. As mentioned before we usually have several alternatives of selecting the base structure. The figure below
depicts some possible base structures with the two redundant forces either being support reactions or internal bending
moments. We will observe in homework assignments that Case 2, in which the redundant forces are the two support
moments, yields the least computational effort. This is because the virtual work integrals take on a particularly simple
form.

Fig. 3.22 Various statically determinate base structures.

V
+
_
0.375wL
0.625wL
L L L
A
B C D
w
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
L L L
A
B C D
w
61
We choose the two support moments as redundant forces and introduce the corresponding hinges, resulting in the stati-
cally determinate base structure below. Figure 3.23 shows the original indeterminate structure as a superposition of three
load cases acting on the determinate base structure: (0) external load, (1) redundant (yet to be determined) moment at A
and (2) redundant (yet to be determined) moment at B.

Fig. 3.23 Principle of superposition for three-span beam.

The deflections of the statically determinate base structure along with the moment diagrams for the three loading
conditions are shown below.


Fig. 3.24 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load (0-structure).

L L L
A B C D
=
+
2 C
M x =
+
1 B
M x =
w
w
M
0
+
2
8
wL 2
8
wL
10
20
w
62

Fig. 3.25 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant 1 (1-structure).

Fig. 3.26 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for unit redundant 2 (2-structure).

3. Displacement values and compatibility equations
The slope discontinuity at supports A and B must be zero for the original (statically indeterminate) structure. Since
the statically indeterminate structure is the sum of three loading conditions acting on the statically determinate structure,
this condition can be expressed as follows:

(1) The slope discontinuity at A (location of redundant one) due to the external loading plus the slope discontinuity at
A due to the support moment M
A
plus the slope discontinuity at A due to the support moment M
B
is zero.

(2) The slope discontinuity at B (location of redundant two) due to the external loading plus the slope discontinuity at
B due to the support moment M
A
plus the slope discontinuity at B due to the support moment M
B
is zero.

This is the essence of the force method for higher degree of statical indeterminacy. Recasting (1) and (2) from English
into Math leads to the set of compatibility equations
1 11 10
2 1
2 12
2 22 2 2 1 0
1
0
0
x
x
x
x
= + + =
= + + =
(3.20)
or in matrix form
11 12 1 10
2
21 22 20
x
x

=

(3.21)
The square and symmetrical matrix of flexibility coefficients
ij
is called the flexibility matrix. Note that the first index
of a flexibility coefficient
ij
describes the location of the deformation, the kind of deformation (displacement or rotation)
M
2
+ 1
2
1 X =
22
12
M
1
+ 1
1
1 X =
11
21
63
and the direction of the deformation. The second index indicates the cause of the displacement (see Figs. 3.24, 3.25,
3.26). For example
12
is the angular (since redundant 1 is a moment) displacement at location 1 (the location where the
first redundant acts) in direction of redundant 1due to a unit redundant acting at location 2.

With the bending moment diagrams in Figs. 3.24-3.26 we are able to determine the six delta-values needed in the
compatibility equations (3.20).
11 1 1
22 2 2
12 1 2
21 2 1
2 3
10 0 1
2 3
0 20 2
1 2
d 2
3 3
2
d
3
1
d
6
1
d
6
1
2 d
3 8 12
1
d
3 8 24
EI M M x L L
EI M M x L
EI M M x L
EI M M x L
wL wL
EI L M M x
wL wL
EI M M x L
= = =
= =
= =
= =
= = =
= = =
(3.22)
Canceling out EI , we can write the two compatibility equations as
1
2
2
0.6667 0.1667 0.0833
0.1667 0.6667 0.04217
x
wL
x

=

(3.23)
Solving simultaneously gives
2 2
1 2
7 2
60 60
x wL x wL = = (3.24)
Both unknown moments have negative value indicating that they act opposite (tension at top) to the applied unit moment
(tension at bottom).

With the two support moments calculated, the bending moment diagram for the statically indeterminate structure is
0 1 1 2 2
M M x M x M = + + (3.25)

Fig. 3.27 Moment diagram for indeterminate structure.

M
+
_
2
8
wL
2
7
60
wL
2
1
30
wL
2
8
wL
64
5. Final shear force diagram
As before, considering moment equilibrium for the individual spans gives the shear force diagram

Fig. 3.28 Shear force diagram for indeterminate structure.

3.8 Force Method for arbitrary degree of statical indeterminacy
For more redundant forces, we follow the procedure of the previous example. For a structure that is statically indetermi-
nate to degreen we need to removen redundant forces, i.e. we need to removen constraints in order to form a statically
determinate base structure. For each of then redundant force we write a corresponding compatibility equation leading to
a set of compatibility equations.
1 11 2 12 1 10
1 21 2 22 2 20
0 1 1 2 2
0
0
0
n
n
n
n
n nn
n n n
x x x
x x x
x x x

+ + + + =
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
(3.26)
Solving these equations gives as the magnitude of the redundant forces and we obtain the final solution for any response
quantityR by superimposing the 1 n + load cases analyzed for the base structure (n unit redundant load cases plus the
given load).
0 1 1
n n
R R x R x R = + + + (3.27)
As we see from Eq. (3.26) the computational effort increases rapidly with increasing degree of indeterminacy. For a
structure that is indeterminate to degreen we have to calculate ( 1) n n + delta-values. If we use the symmetry of the
flexibility matrix (
ij ji
= ), we can realize some computational savings. We can show that the number of displacement
values needed is then /2 ( 3) n n + . The symmetry of the flexibility matrix is a result of MAXWELLs law.

3.9 Maxwells law
The displacement of a point A on a structure due to a unit force at point B is equal to the displacement of point B due to a
unit force at point A.

The rotation of a point A on a structure due to a unit moment at point B is equal to the rotation of point B due to a unit
moment at point A.

The rotation of a point A on a structure due to a unit force at point B is equal to the displacement of point B due to a unit
moment at point A.

As a consequence of this theorem, the flexibility coefficients are symmetric, i.e. we obtain the same value when switch-
ing the indizes (
ij ji
= ).

V
+
_
0.383wL
0.617wL
0.583wL
0.417wL
0.033wL
+
65
3.10 Summary of force method
(1) Determine the number of degrees n to which the structure is statically indeterminate and remove n redundant forces
or moments to make the structure statically determinate. Draw the statically determinate base system and show the exter-
nal forces and all redundant forces (redundant forces are reactions and/or member forces).

(2) Draw the internal force diagram(s) of the statically determinate base system for both the external forces and all re-
dundant forces (one at a time). While it was essential to sketch the deflected shape of the base structure to understand the
concept of the force method, it is generally unnecessary to do so when solving problems.

(3) Determine all necessary displacement values
0 i
and
ij
using the tables of -values (Table 2.1), set up the
compatibility equations and solve for the unknown redundant forces. Note that a negative value for a redundant indicates
the redundant acts opposite to the corresponding unit force or moment.

(4) Determine the moment diagram for the indeterminate structure using the principle of superposition.

(5) Determine the shear force and axial force diagrams for the indeterminate structure using statics.

3.11 Example 3.5

Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the frame structure above. Also find the
horizontal displacement at jointC . Neglect axial deformation in the frame members but consider it in the two-force
(truss) memberAD .

Solution:
The structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree such that we need two compatibility equations for the
solution.

4 m 4 m

6

m
20kN
10kN
2
2 m
I
A
=
A
B
C
A
I
D
I
I
66
We select the horizontal reaction atB and the forceAD as redundant forces. Thus one redundant is an external force, the
other an internal force and the statically determinate base structure is a single unit supported by a pin atAand a roller
atB . The base structure with external and unit redundant loading applied is shown below.


4 m 4 m

6

m
20kN
10kN
A
B
C
A
I
D
I
I
1
1 x =
2
1 x =
2
2 m
I
A
=
67

Fig. 3.31 Deflected shape and moment diagram of base structure for external load and unit values of redundant forces
(0, 1, 2-structures).

The two compatibility equations are
1 11 2 12 10 1 21 2 22 20
0 0 x x x x + + = + + = (3.28)
The displacements for the base structure are
2
11
2 2
22
21
10
20
2
1
4.8 (6 8) 127.5
3
1
6 6 2 6 8 432.0
3
1 1
4.8 6 6 4.8 6 8 172.8
3 2
1 1 1
60 4.8 6 60 4.8 8 40 4.8 8 1728
3 3 4
1 1
60 6 6 (60 40) 6 8 31
2 1
2
10
0
3 2
EI
EI
EI
EI
EI
= + + =
= + =
= =
= =
= + + =

(3.29)
4.8
4.8
1
M
60
70 30 40 = +
+
+
0
M
6
6
+
+
+
2
M
1
in : 1 AD N =
68
Note that it is a popular mistake to ignore the axial deformation in memberAD when calculating the displace-
ment
11
(see Section 3.5).

We solve
1 2
1 2
127.5 172.8 1728
172.8 432 3120
x x
x x
=
+ =
(3.30)
and obtain
1 2
8.22kN 3.93kN x x = = (3.31)
0 1 1 2 2
M M x M x M = + +
5. Final shear and axial force diagrams from statics

Fig. 3.32 Final internal force diagrams and deflected shape.

6. Horizontal displacement atC
To find the horizontal displacement atC , we use the principle of virtual forces. Hence
d d
C
I
EI M M x N N x
A
= +

(3.32)
whereM is the final moment diagram shown in Fig. 3.32 andM is a virtual moment diagram obtained from applying a
virtual force in the horizontal direction atC . It can be shown (the proof is beyond the scope of this class) that it is not
necessary to find the virtual moment diagramM for the original indeterminate structure. Instead, we can calculate the
virtual moment diagram for any statically determinate structure that is obtained from the original indeterminate struc-
ture by removing constraints, e.g. removing supports or introducing hinges. We call such a structure a reduced struc-
ture. The big advantage of using a statically determinate structure for the virtual moment diagram is that we dont have
to go through a complete indeterminate analysis again just to find the virtual moment diagram. For example, we can se-
3.04
26.7
23.6
7.43
12.6
3.93
0.5
+
+
10.5
17.5
8.22
+
M [kNm]
[kN] N
V [kN] +
deflected shape
69
lect as the reduced structure the determinate base structure of the previous analysis for which the moment diagram is
particularly simple.

Fig. 3.33 Reduced structure for virtual loading and corresponding moment diagram.
3
1 1 1 1
d 3.04 6 6 ( 3.04 23.58 40.0) 6 8 206 kNm
3 3 6 4
C
EI M M x = = + + =
(3.33)
Note that the preceding equation contains no axial force deformation since all members of the reduced structure are
assumed axially rigid.

An alternative and may be even simpler reduced structure is the determinate truss shown in Fig. 3.34 obtained from the
original structure by releasing the moment connections at jointsC andD . No virtual moments exist. Since we ignore
axial deformation in all members except memberAD , we just have a single term in the virtual work integral in Eq.
(3.34).

Fig. 3.34 Reduced structure for virtual loading and corresponding virtual axial force diagram.

3
d 2 8.22 1.25 10 206 kNm
C
I
EI N N x
A
= = =
(3.34)
Note that the preceding equation contains no flexural deformation since all members of the reduced structure are truss
members.

8 m

6

m
1 P =
+
1.00
1.25
0.75
N
A
B
C
D
0 M =
8 m

6

m
1 P =
6
+
+
M
A
B
C
D
70
3.12 Example 3.6

Fig. 3.35 Example 3.6: Structure and statically determinate base structure.

Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the structure above. Neglect axial force
deformation except in member CG.

Solution:
We first determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. Since the structure has three external constraints, two internal
forces at C and F and four internal forces at D and G and consists of 4 parts
3 2 2 4 4 4 3 15 12 3 n = + + + + = = (3.35)
Hence the structure is statically indeterminate to the third degree. Hence we need three releases with corresponding re-
dundant forces to create the statically determinate base system. Since the structure is externally statically determinate,
i.e. there are three reaction forces and all reactions are given by statics, we may not select any reaction forces as a re-
dundant force. Here we chose as redundant forces the force in member CG and the shear force and axial force in mem-
ber DE. The statically determinate base system is shown in Fig. 3.35. Figure 3.36 plots the bending moments for the
base structure. Recognizing that there are no reaction forces due to the redundant loading, drawing the moment diagrams
should not pose a mayor problem.
1
1 X =
3
1 X =
2
1 X =
4.00 4.00

5
.
0
0

3
.
0
0
A B
C D E
F G
[m]
kN
10
m
2
0.5m
I
A
=
71
2. Moment diagrams for base structure

Fig. 3.36 Moment diagrams for base structure.

From the moment diagrams and the axial force in memberCG we obtain the displacement values
2
11
2 2
22
2 2
3
2
3
12
13 23 31 32
1
2.4 (3.00 4.00) 15.94
3
1
4 4 4.00 4 2 5.00 245.3
3
1
5 2 5.00 5 8.00 283.
0
3
3
1
4 2.4 4
.5 1 5.0
.00 12.80
3
0
0 EI
EI
EI
EI
EI EI EI EI

= + + =
= + =
= + =
= =
= = =
(3.36)
10
20
30
1
2.4 80 4.00 256.0
3
1 1 1
4 80 4.00 4 80 5.00 40 4 4.00 4 4.00 (2 80 40) 2453
3 6 6
1 1
5 80 5.00 5 80 8.00 2600
2 2
EI
EI
EI
= =
= + + =
= + =
(3.37)
The set of compatibility equations is
M
1
M
2
M
3
20.0
M
0
20.0
80.0
80.0
80.0
[kNm]
+
2.40
2.40
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
1
1 N =
72
1
2
3
15.94 12.80 0 256.0
12.80 245.3 0 2453
0 0 283.3 2600
x
x
x

=

(3.38)
has the solution
1 2 3
8.36 9.56 9.18 x x x = = = (3.39)
4. Final moment diagram
After solving for the redundant forces the bending moments are readily available from the principle of superposition
0 1 1 2 2 3 3
M M x M x M x M = + + + (3.40)
We obtain the shear forces from the bending moments using the moment equilibrium for the member, hence
* r
l
M M
V V
L
= (3.41)
The axial forcesN are then obtained from equilibrium at the joints.

Fig. 3.37 Internal force diagrams and deflected shape for Example 3.6.

M
[kNm]
20.0
38.3
7.63
4.13
41.8
20.1
21.7
+
+
V
[kN]
+
+
+
+
9.2
9.2
20.0
20.0
6.7
9.6
5.4
0.4
N
[kN]
+
6.7
20.0
15.0
30.4
9.6
9.2
9.2
8.4
73
3.13 Example 3.7

Fig. 3.38 Example 3.7: Structure and statically determinate base structure.

Problem: Find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the structure above. Neglect axial force
deformation except for memberBF .

We first determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. Since the structure has four external constraints, two internal
forces at B, D and E and four internal forces at F and consists of 4 parts
4 2 2 2 4 4 3 14 12 2 n = + + + + = = (3.42)
Hence the structure is statically indeterminate to the second degree and we need two releases with corresponding redun-
dant forces to create the statically determinate base system. Since the structure is externally statically determinate, i.e.
there are four reaction forces and all reactions are given by statics, we may not select any reaction forces as a redundant
force. As already observed for other structures, there are several possible base structures. We select as redundants the
force in member BE and the moment at B. We determine the internal forces for the base structure by statics and drawing
the diagrams should be relatively effortless.


Fig. 3.39 Bending moments for base structure.
1
1 x =
2
1 x =
8 m 4 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
10 kN/m
E
F
2
2m
I
A
=
M
0
[kNm]
180
45
+
60
M
1
M
2
+
3.33
3.33
1.00 +
+
+
2
1 N =
180
74
From the internal forces we obtain the flexibility coefficients and the right-hand side
2 2
11
2
22
12
2
10
20
1
1 6.00 2 1 8.00 12.00
3
1
3.328 (6.00 2 8.00 4.00) 110.42
3
1 1
1 3.328 6.00 1 3.328 8.00 19.97
3 2
1 1
1 6.00 (45 180) 1 180 8.00 990
2 1 52
.0
3 2
1
3.328 60 (4.00 8.00)
3
EI
EI
EI
EI
EI
= + =
= + + + =
= + =
= =
= +

+ [ ] 180 (6.00 8.00) 45 6.00 3295 + =
(3.43)
set up the compatibility equations
1
2
12.00 19.97 990
19.97 110.42 3295
x
x

=

(3.44)
and solve for
1 2
46.98 kNm 21.34 kN x x = = (3.45)
4. Moments for indeterminate structure

Fig. 3.40 Bending moment diagram for indeterminate structure.

Donts

Fig. 3.41 Incorrect base structures.

Under no circumstances may we select base structures that are unstable. The figure above shows two examples. The
structure on the left-hand side collapses because the moment at E caused by axial force in memberBF cannot be resisted
because of the release at E. In the example on the right-hand side, the vertical reaction force must not be selected as a re-
dundant since it is given by statics. The same holds for the horizontal reaction force, which is zero by statics.
M
[kNm]
62.0
+
45.0
47.0
11.0
x
1
x
2
x
1
x
2
A
B
C
D
E
F
75
3.14 The force method for space frames

3.14.1 Discussion
Members of space frames are subject to six internal forces. These are the axial force, two shear forces in and two ben-
ding moments about the principle axes of the cross-section (subsequently denoted strong and weak axes) and the torsio-
nal moment. As for plane frame structures, we typically neglect shear and axial deformation. Using the principle of vir-
tual forces, the displacements for the statically determinate base structure are then

3.14.2 Example 3.8

Problem: Find the three bending moment diagrams (strong and weak axis bending and torsion) of the space frame above
for the given loading. Neglect axial force deformation. The flexural stiffness about the principal axes and the torsional
stiffness as well as the orientation of the principal axes are given in the table above.AB is a two-force member.

We can determine the support reactions in thex andz -directions by statics. They -component of the support forces at
D andG , however, cannot be found from the equations of equilibrium. The structure is thus statically indeterminate to
the first degree.

Fig. 3.43 Statically determinate base structure for 0 and 1 loading.

1
1 x =
1
y
D =
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
3m
3m
4 m
4 m
3.60m
z
A
x
A
x
D
z
D
z
G
x
G
24 kN
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
3m
3m
4 m
4 m
3.60 m
3m
3m
4 m
4 m
3.60m
24 kN P =
x
y
z
2
S
2
W
2
600, 000kNm
400, 000kNm
500, 000kNm
EI
EI
GJ
=
=
=
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Member strong axis (S)
BC y
CD y
BE x
EF y
FG y
76
For the 0 loading we can find the support forces
3
0 12 10 0 12
3.6
0 0 0 0
0 10
DG z x z AD z
z CD x
x x
M A A A M G
V D M G
H D A
= = = = = =
= = = =
= = =

(3.46)
For the 1 loading, all reaction forces except they -components atD andG are zero. Figure 3.44 plots the correspon-
ding moment diagrams (three for each load case) .

Fig. 3.44 Moments (bending and torsional) for base structure.
S,0
M
,1 S
M
48
36
+
+
,0 T
M
,1 T
M
3.6
+
+
W,1
M
W,0
0 M =
36
36
36
36
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.6
3
3
3
3
3.6
3.6
77
As for plane structures, we obtain the displacement values directly from the moment diagrams using the principle of
virtual work
11 S1 S1 1 W1 1 T1
S W
10 S1 S0 1 W0 1 T0
S W
1 1 1
( ) ( )d ( ) ( )d ( ) ( )d
1 1 1
( ) ( )d ( ) ( )d ( ) ( )d
W T
W T
M x M x x M x M x x M x M x x
EI EI GJ
M x M x x M x M x x M x M x x
EI EI GJ
= + +
= + +

(3.47)
Doing the numbers for our example gives
2 2 3 3 2
S 11
S 10
1
600 600 2 2
3.6 6.00 3.6 8.00 ( 3.6 3.0 3 8.00) 378.6
500 400 3 3
1
3.6 48 8.00 691.2
2
691.2
1.82kN
378.6
EI
EI
x
= + + + + =
= =
= =
(3.48)
4. Moments for indeterminate structure
We obtain the final moment diagrams by superposition
S S1 1 S1 W W1 1 W1 T T1 1 T1
M M x M M M x M M M x M = + = + = + (3.49)

Fig. 3.45 Moment diagrams (bending and torsional) and deflected shape for indeterminate structure.

T
M
W
M
S
M
36
36
6.6
6.6
41.4
6.6
6.6
36
36
36
6.6
6.6
5.5
5.5
5.5 5.5
[kNm]
[kNm]
[kNm]
78
Problems

3.1

Use the force method to find the bending moment and shear force diagrams for the two-span beam above (constantEI ).
(1) The redundant is the support reaction atB . (2) The redundant is the support reaction atD .
(3) The redundant is the bending moment atB . (4) The redundant is the bending moment atC .

Solution:
Strategy
10

11

1
x
1 40267 768.6 52.4
2 28233 2222 12.7
3 1157 11.33 102
4 4033 45.33 89.0
depending on assumed direction of
1
x

3.2

Use the force method to find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the two-hinge frame above
(constant EI ). Neglect axial force deformation.
(1) The redundant is the horizontal support reaction.
(2) The redundant is the bending moment at girder mid-span.
(3) The redundant is the bending moment at the column-girder junction.
20 ft 7 ft 7 ft
A
B C D
2 k/ft
40 k
20 ft

1
0

f
t
2 k/ft
=const. EI
M [k-ft]
+
+
102
89.0
100

14.9
25.1
27.3
12.7
+
+
V [k]
79
Solution:
Strategy
10

11

1
x
1 13333 2667 5
2 1333 26.67 50
3 1333 26.67 50
depending on assumed direction of
1
x

3.3

Use the force method to determine the member forces of the above truss structure ( =const. EA ).

Solution:

Member AB BC DE CE AD BE BD
Force [kN] 24.8 C 54.3 T 54.3 C 67.8 C 59.3 C 40.7 T 98.8 T

3.4

Three truss members support beamAC as shown. Calculate the force in truss memberBD and the moment in the beam
atB . Draw the bending moment diagram. Neglect axial deformation in the beam, but not in the truss members.

Solution:
14.62 k (C) 15.72 k-ft
BD B
F M = =
12 ft 12 ft

9

f
t
A
1k/ft
B
2
4 k
1k-ft
EA
EI
=
=
C
D

3

m
4 m 4 m
A B
C
D E
100 kN
80
3.5

(a) Determine the degree n of statical indeterminacy of the structure above.
(b) Select a statically determinate base structure, apply the redundant forces and draw the bending moment dia-
grams
0
and , 1 .
i
M M i n =

3.6
Use the force method to determine the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams of the structure for the gi-
ven loading. Neglect axial deformation. The structure has constant flexural stiffness.

3.7

Use the force method to determine the bending moment diagram of the structure for the given loading. Neglect axial
deformation except for memberBF . The structure has constant flexural stiffness.

4 m 3 m 4 m

3

m
141.42
45
2.00 3.00

4
.
0
0

2
.
0
0
[m]
A B
C D E
F
G
10 kN/m
20 kN
M
[kNm]
62.0
+
45.0
47.0
11.0
8 m 4 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
10 kN/m
E
F
2
2m
I
A
=
81
3.8

Use the force method to determine the bending moment diagram of the structure for the given loading. The beam has
constant flexural stiffness. Discuss two solution strategies regarding their computational effort: (a) Redundants are the
moments at , , A B C ; (b) redundants are the vertical reaction forces at , , B C D . Then analyze the structure using the more
economical strategy.

Solution:

3.9

Use the force method to determine the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the structure for the given loading.

Solution:

M
39.8
79.6
221
172
90
250
2
6
5 =22.5
8
2
7.5
5 =35.16
8
35.16
+
+
9 ft 6 ft 9 ft
A B C
10 k
I 2I
15.89 37.98
9.57
26.55
+
+
2.83
7.17
M
V 7.17
2.83
20 ft 20 ft 7.5 ft 7.5 ft 6.0 ft

A B
C
D
E
5 k/ft
50k
82
3.10

(1) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (2) Use the force method to calculate the bending moment, shear
force and axial force diagrams. (3) Calculate the horizontal displacement at location B. Neglect axial force deformation
except for member EH.

3.11

(1) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (2) Use the force method to calculate
the bending moment diagram for the given loading. (3) Calculate the rotation at hinge A. Neglect axial force deformation
except for member CF.

Solution:

4.00 4.00 4.00

2
.
0
0

2
.
0
0
[m]
A
B
C D
E
F
G
H
5 kN
15 kN/m
2
2m
I
A
=
3 m 5 m 5 m 3 m

6

m
A
B
C
D
E
2
0.5 m
I
A
=
10kN/ m
F
19.0 19.0
5.67
31.2
31.2
+ +

M
[kNm]
83
3.12

Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above frame structure for the given loading. Neglect axial deformation.

Solution:

3.13

Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above semi-circular arch for the given loading (ordinates every 30
degrees). Neglect axial deformation.

Solution:

5 m 3 m 3 m 4 m

6

m
100kN
A
B C D E
F
G
const. EI =
241
196
400
70
266
330
70

M
[kNm]
12 ft
20k
const. EI =
22.1
43.6
22.1
6.1 6.1
+

M
[k-ft]
84
3.14

Use the force method to determine the member forces of the above truss structure ( =const. EA ).

Solution:

Member AB BC DE CE AD BE BD
Force [kN] 36.0 C 36.0 T 61.3 C 76.7 C 54.0 C 46.0 T 90.0 T

3.15

Use the force method to determine the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams. Neglect axial deformation
in all members.

4

m
4 m 4 m
A
B
C
D E
100 kN
20 ft

1
0

f
t
2I
4 k/ft
40k
I
I
85

3.16

Two lateral forces
1
P and
2
P act on a two-story frame. The moment diagram corresponding to this loading is given.
(a) Find the forces
1
P and
2
P applied to the frame. (b) Use the principal of virtual work to find the horizontal displacement
of A.

Solution:
(a)
1 2
20 kN, 10 kN P P = = (b) 0.147 m
A
=

3.17

Calculate the bending moment diagram of the above semi-circular arch for the given loading (ordinates every 30
degrees). Neglect axial deformation.

Solution:

30.1
12.3
17.7
17.7
12.3
27.3
27.3
14.9
14.9
+
+
+
5 m

3

m

3

m
1
P
2
P
2
=1000kNm EI
[kNm]
M
30.1
A
12 ft
20k
const. EI =
36.35
26.54
8.88
+
M
[k-ft]
26.54
12.47 12.47
8.88
+ +
86
3.18
For each of the frame structures shown, calculate the stiffnessk of the frame in the direction of the force. Assume
uniform flexural stiffness EI and neglect axial deformation.

Solution:
Structure (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
3
1
[ ]
m
k
EI
0.0417 0.121 0.538 0.385 0.826 0.909

Deflected shape (for illustration only):

5 m

3

m
5 m

3

m
5 m

3

m

3

m
2.5 m 2.5 m

3

m
2.5 m 2.5 m

3

m
2.5 m 2.5 m
(a) (b) (c)
(e)
(d) (f)
(a) (b) (c)
(e)
(d) (f)
87
3.19

For (a)
1
P and (b)
2
P , draw the three moment diagrams (strong axis bending, weak axis bending and torsion) of the space
frame. The above table provides the orientation of the frame members with respect to the global coordinate system.

3.20

Draw the three moment diagrams (strong axis bending, weak axis bending and torsion) of the space frame for the given
loading. The above table provides the orientation of the frame members with respect to the global coordinate system.

A
B
C
D
E
F
12 ft
16 ft
16 ft
2 k/ft
2 k/ft
Member strong axis
AD y
BE y
CF x
DE y
EF x
x
y
z
2 2 2
weak strong
200, 000k-ft 600, 000k-ft 120, 000k-ft EI EI GJ = = =
Member strong axis
AB x
BC x
CD x
DE x
FG x
GH x
HI x
IJ x
CH y
2 2 2
weak strong
10, 000kNm 30, 000kNm 2, 500 kNm EI EI GJ = = =
A
B
C
E
F
5 m
3.00 m
x
y
z
2.50 m
B
D
G
H
I
J
2
100kN P =
1
50kN P =
3.00 m
2.50 m
88
4 The Slope-Deflection Method

4.1 General Remarks
Like the force method, the slope-deflection method is a classical procedure to analyze statically indeterminate beams
and frames. The slope-deflection method is less general than the force method, since we have to neglect axial and shear
deformation. Since we ignore axial deformation in the slope-deflection method, we cant apply the method to analyze
trusses. As we will learn in this chapter, the slope-deflection method works in the exact opposite manner as the force
method.

In the slope-deflection method, we use expressions that relate the moment at each end of the member to two types of ro-
tations, the member end rotation and the chord rotation. The chord rotation is the relative displacement of the member
ends divided by the length of the member. We then formulate equations whose unknowns are the joint and chord rota-
tions, then solve for the rotations and derive the bending moments from the rotations.

To become familiar with the main features of the slope-deflection method, we consider the beam below. If we desire to
find the bending moment diagram with the force method we would have to analyze a system that is statically indetermi-
nate to the third degree. In the slope-deflection method, the degree of statical indeterminacy is irrelevant. In fact, the
higher the degree of indeterminacy the more advantageous the slope-deflection method becomes. This is because
the slope-deflection method is displacement driven and focuses on unknown displacements and rotations of the struc-
ture rather than unknown forces. The slope-deflection method is thus called a displacement method. In the structure be-
low, joints AandC are fixed both against translation and rotation and joint B is fixed against translation. Therefore only
one unknown displacement exists, which is the rotation
B
at joint B . In the slope deflection methods unknown rota-
tions are often referred to as degrees of freedom. The beam considered here has one degree of freedom. It is kinemati-
cally indeterminate to the first degree.

Fig. 4.1 Deflected shape and bending moment for (a) original structure, (b) fixed-end condition (kinematically determi-
nate), (c) for joint rotation.

F
+
EI
A B C
L L
+
B
F
0
B
=
B
0
?
AB
M =
0
?
BA
M =
? M =
? M =
? M =
? M =
0
BA
M
=
AB
M
BC BA
M M =
CB
M
(a)
(b)
(c)
89

In Fig. 4.1(b) we form a kinematically determinate base structure by restraining the joint rotation at B (in the force
method we form a statically determinate base structure by releasing redundant forces). The kinematically determinate
structure, however, violates equilibrium, since the two member-end moments at joint B are not the same (the bending
moment in Fig. 4.1(b) may not jump at B (In the force method we violate compatibility for the base structure). We now
release the artificially restrained beam and joint B rotates (see Fig. 4.1c) by an amount
B
until moment equilibrium
0
B BC BA
M M M = + =
(4.1)
at joint B is satisfied (in the force method, we write compatibility equations to calculate the redundant forces).

The preceding equations expresses equilibrium at joint B with respect to the two member end moments
BA
M and
BC
M
acting at B . In the slope-deflection method, we express the member end moments in terms of the unknown rotations and
the applied loads. Hence
( , ), ( , )
B BC B BA
M f P M f P = = (4.2)
In what follows, we derive the slope-deflection equations, more precisely the moment-rotation relation for a flexural
member of uniform cross-section.

Fig. 4.2 Sign convention: slope-deflection method and conventional statics (design).
Important note: In order to formulate moment equilibrium at the joints, we must adopt a different sign convention than
that used so far when drawing bending moment diagrams. In the slope deflection method, a member end moment that
acts counterclockwise is positive. In contrast, when drawing a bending moment diagram a positive moment acts counter
clockwise at the right end of the member or the right cut section, but clockwise at the left end of the member or left cut
section (see Fig. 4.2). We will refer to the two sign conventions as the slope-deflection and statics sign conventions,
respectively.

4.2 End moments for prismatic members ( =const. I )

4.2.1 Fixed-end moments
In the slope-deflection method, we must start the analysis by transforming a member loading into equivalent moments
acting at the joints, assuming that both member ends are fixed against translation and rotation. These member end mo-
ments are termed fixed-end moments. We can calculate fixed-end moments for different loading conditions (uniformly
distributed load, triangular load, concentrated force) and support conditions (fixed-fixed or fixed-pinned) using the force
method. The results are widely tabulated (see Figs. 4.24 and 4.25).

4.2.2 End moments due to end rotation
The objective of this section is to derive the relationship between member end moments
ij
M and
ji
M and member end
rotations
i
and
j
(counterclockwise positive). As illustrated in the introduction to this chapter, we need this relationship
to formulate the joint equilibrium equations.

Fig. 4.3 Objective: Find member end moment caused by member end rotation (only joint rotation
i
shown).

( )
slope deflection
statics design
M +
M +
i
j
i
?
ij
M =
?
ji
M =
L
EI
90
Since we have learned how to calculate rotations from given moment diagrams (principle of virtual forces), we use the
following procedure to calculate moments due to given rotations.
(1) Apply a moment at one end of the member and hold the far end fixed.
(2) Calculate the moment diagram.
(3) Calculate the end rotation using the principle of virtual forces.
(4) Invert the result of (3) to obtain the desired moment-rotation relation.

After releasing the rotation and one end of the member and applying a moment, the structure in Fig. 4.3 is statically in-
determinate to the first degree. We thus have to use the force method to find the moment diagram. We select as the base
structure a simply supported beam. Figure 4.4 shows the moments for the base structure.

Fig. 4.4 Moments for base structure.

The displacements for the base structure are
11 10 1
1 1 1
3 6 2
ij ij
EI L EI M L x M = = = (4.3)
The moment diagram is thus

Fig. 4.5 Moment diagram for applied end moment
ij
M (far end j fixed).

To find the desired end rotation we use the principle of virtual forces and apply a virtual moment 1 M = at joint i . We
use a simply supported structure for the virtual moment diagram (reduced structure).

Fig. 4.6 Real and virtual moment diagram to find
i
due to applied
ij
M .

1 1 1
d 2 1 1
6 2 4
i ij ij
L
M M x M L M
EI EI

= = =
(4.4)
Solving the preceding equation for
ij
M gives the desired moment-rotation relation
4 1 4 2
2
ij i ji i
EI EI EI
M M
L L L
= = = (4.5)
Clearly, for an end rotation
j
the results are
ij
M
0
M
1
1
M
+
ij
M
0.5
ij
M
M
+
1
M
1
ij
M
0.5
ij
M
M
91
2 4
ij j ji j
EI EI
M M
L L
= = (4.6)
Combining the results we find the desired relation between end rotations
i
and
j
and end moments
ij
M and
ji
M
(4 2 ) (2 4 )
ij i j ji i j
EI EI
M M
L L
= + = + (4.7)

Fig. 4.7 Moments due to member end rotation.

So far we have assumed moment transfer at both ends of the member. If one of the member ends is pinned, say joint j ,
we can eliminate
j
using the information 0
ji
M = (zero moment transfer at node j ).
( )
1
2 4 0
2
ji i j j i
EI
M
L
= + = = (4.8)
Note that the preceding equation is the second equation of Eq. (4.7) set to zero. Substituting the result of Eq. (4.8) into
the first equation of Eq. (4.7) gives the modified moment-rotation relation (with
j
eliminated)
1
4 2 3
2
ij i i i
EI EI
M
L L

= + =

(4.9)

Fig. 4.8 Moments due to member end rotation
i
for j -end pinned.
EI
L
i
4
ij i
EI
M
L
=
2
ji i
EI
M
L
=
i j
EI
L
j
2
ij j
EI
M
L
=
4
ji j
EI
M
L
=
i
j
L
i
j
EI
3
ij i
EI
M
L
=
M
92
4.2.3 End Moments due to chord rotation
In general, the member end joints i and j do not only rotate but also displace relative to each other, so that the cord of
the member rotates. The easiest way to derive the effect of a cord rotation
ij ji
= (we measure clockwise positive)
on the member end moments is to recognize that the effects of a chord rotation on moment and curvature are equivalent
to those of two simultaneous nodal rotations (see Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9 Chord rotation viewed as two simultaneous joint rotations (scale exaggerated).

Fig. 4.10 Moments due to chord rotation.
The two end moments
ji
M and
ij
M due to a chord rotation are thus
(4 2) 6
ij ji ij ij
EI EI
M M
L L
= = + = (4.10)
4.2.4 Summary
To obtain the complete relation for the member end moments we add the three effects of fixed-end moment, moment
due to joint rotation and moment due to chord rotation.
( ) ( )
( )
0 0
0
fixed-fixed fixed-pinne
6 3 4 2 3
2 6 4
d
0
ij ij ij ij
i
ij ij
j
i j i
i i j j j i ji
EI EI
M M
L L
EI
M
M
L
M
M M

= + + = + +
= + + + =
+ (4.11)

EI
L
i ij
=
6
ij ij
EI
M
L
=
i j
j ij
=
6
ji ij
EI
M
L
=
ij ji
=
i
j i
ij
L

=
EI
L
i
j
EI
L
i
i j j
cw+
" ="
L
i
j
EI
L
i j
EI
93
4.3 Example 4.1

Fig. 4.11 Example 4.1. Three-span continuous beam.
Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam and
draw the bending moment and shear force diagrams.

Solution: The continuous beam has four unknown joint rotations , ,
B C A
and
D
. However, since we know that the
bending moment is zero at joints AandD , we can eliminate joint rotations
A
and
D
according to Eq. (4.8) by conside-
ring member AB pinned at Aand fixed at B and memberCD fixed atC and pinned at D (see Eq. 4.9). Hence we have to
work with unknown joint rotations
B
and
C
only. We first find the fixed-end moments, then write expressions for the
member end moments in term of the unknown joint rotations, and then require moment equilibrium at B andC to solve
for the two unknowns. Finally, we substitute the numerical values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the end
moments.

1. Fixed-end moments
The fixed-end moments for the above structure and loading are
2 2 2
0 0
8 12 12
BC CB BA
wL wL wL
M M M = = = (4.12)
2. Member end moments in terms of
B
and
C

( )
( )
2
0
2
0
2
0
3
8
4 2 4 2
12
4 2
2 4
1
3
3
2
3
B BA BA
BC BC B C B C
CB CB C B B C
CD C
B
C
EI wL
M M
L
EI EI wL EI
M M
L L L
EI EI wL EI
M M
L L L
EI EI
M
L L
= + = +
= + + = + +
= + + = + +
= =
(4.13)
3. Equilibrium equations
Summing moments at nodes B and C gives
( )
( )
2
2
7 2 0
24
2 7 0
12
B BC B C BA
C CB CD B C
wL EI
M M M
L
wL EI
M M M
L

= + = + + =
= + = + + =
(4.14)
We can write the two equations in matrix form
2
2
7 2
24
2 7
12
B
C
wL
EI
L wL

=

(4.15)
The solution for the joint rotations is
3 3
4
,
360 360
B C
wL wL
EI EI
= = `(4.16)
A
B C
D
L L L
w
94
4. Member end moments
Substituting the values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the member end moments in Eq. (4.13) we obtain
2 3
2
2 3 3
2
2 3 3
2
3
2
7
3
8 360 60
4 7
4 2
12 360 360 60
4 1
2 4
12 360 360 30
4 1
3
360 30
BA
BC
CB
CD
wL EI wL
M wL
L EI
wL EI wL wL
M wL
L EI EI
wL EI wL wL
M wL
L
EI wL
M wL
L
= + =

= + + =

= + + =

= =
(4.17)
Note that we have satisfied moment equilibrium at joints B andC and the bending moments are the same as those calcu-
lated in Chapter 3 using the force method. We observe that the joint rotations depend on the flexural stiffness EI , the
member end moments, however, are independent of EI .

5. Bending moment diagram
All we need to draw the bending moment diagram is to connect the member end moments and add the static moment
2
/8 wL for the loaded spans AB andBC .

Fig. 4.12 Bending moment diagram for three-span continuous beam.

6. Shear force diagram
From the moment diagram we find the shear force diagram by simple statics.

Fig. 4.13 Shear force diagram for three-span continuous beam.

Fig. 4.14 Deflected shape with calculated joint rotations.

M
+
_
2
8
wL
2
8
wL
2
7
60
wL
2
1
30
wL
V
+
_
0.383wL
0.617wL
0.583wL
0.417wL
0.033wL
+
3
360
B
wL
EI
=
3
4
360
C
wL
EI
=
C
95
4.4 Example 4.2

Fig. 4.15 Example 4.2: Non-sway structure with two unknown joint rotations.

Problem: Use the slope-deflection method to find the member end moments of the structure above. Draw the bending
moment, shear force and axial force diagrams.

Solution: The structure is non-sway since the joint displacements are all zero (remember that we neglect axial deforma-
tion in the slop-deflection method). Hence, chord rotations do not exist. The unknowns are the rotations at joints B and
C . Note that we dont have to find the rotations at joint D andE since we can use Eq. (4.8) to eliminate the rotation at
these joints.

1. Fixed-end moments.
The fixed-end moments for the above structure and loading are (see Fig. 4.24)
0 0
7
50 43.75 43.75
8
BC CB
M M = = = (4.18)
B
and
C

Since the internal forces are independent of the true value of the flexural stiffness EI , we can select an arbitrary value
that is convenient in the moment expressions, e.g. 140 EI = .
140
2 70
4
140
4 140
4
280
43.75 (4 2 ) 43.75 160 80
7
280
43.75 (2 4 ) 43.75 80 160
7
140
3 84
5
140
3 84
5
B B AB
B B BA
BC B C B C
CB B C B C
CD C C
CE C C
M
M
M
M
M
M

= =
= =
= + + = + +
= + + = + +
= =
= =
(4.19)
3. Equilibrium equations
Summing moments at nodes B and C gives
3.5 m
4 m 3 m 3 m

4

m
50kN
2I
I
I
I
A
B
C
D
E
96
0 140 43.75 160 80 300 80 43.75
0 43.75 80 160 84 84 80 328 43.75
B B B C B C
C B C C C B C
M
M

= = + + + + =
= = + + + + + =
(4.20)
We can write the two equations in matrix form
300 80 43.75
80 328 43.75
B
C

=

(4.21)
The solution for the nodal rotations is
0.1940 0.1807
B C
= = (4.22)
Since we have selected an arbitrary flexural stiffness of 140 EI = , the joint rotations expressed in terms of EI are
140 27.16 140 25.30
0.1940 0.1807
B C
EI EI EI EI
= = = = (4.23)

Substituting the values for the joint rotations into the expressions for the member end moments in Eq. (4.19) we obtain `
70 70 0.1940 13.58
140 140 0.1940 27.16
43.75 160 80 43.75 160 0.1940 80 0.1807 27.16
43.75 80 160 43.75 80 0.1940 160 0.1807 30.36
84 84 0.1807 15.18
84 84 0
B AB
B BA
BC B C
CB B C
CD C
CE C
M
M
M
M
M
M
= = =
= = =
= + + = + =
= + + = + =
= = =
= = .1807 15.18 =
(4.25)
5. Internal force diagrams and deflected shape.

Fig. 4.16 Internal force diagrams and deflected shape for frame structure.
15.18
30.36
27.16
27.16
13.58
+

3.03 3.03
24.54
10.18
25.46
24.54
10.18
11.47
20.35
M [kNm]
[kN]
V
[kN]
N
25.30/
C
EI = 27.16/
B
EI =
58.74
15.18
97
4.5 Example 4.3
In the previous examples, the joints of the structure have not experienced any translational displacements. The deflected
shape of the structure and the internal forces are a function of the joint rotations only. For the frame below subject to la-
teral loading, this is no longer the case. The girder displaces in the horizontal direction. This lateral displacement causes
chord rotations in the columns AB and CD. As derived in Eq. (4.10), the chord rotation of a member has an effect on the
end moments of the member. We must therefore consider the column chord rotation as an additional unknown in the ex-
pressions for the member end moments and the moment equilibrium equations for the nodes are no longer sufficient to
solve the problem. The additional equation needed to solve for the unknowns is a force equilibrium equation as illus-
trated by the example below. Note that since we ignore axial deformation, points B andC deflect by the same amount
such that the two column chord rotations
AB
and
CD
are equal. Also, assuming the members to be axially rigid leads to
zero chord rotation in the girder BC ( 0
BC
= ).

Fig. 4.17 Example 4.3: Simple sway structure.
Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above and draw the
bending moment diagram.

Solution:
An analysis of the frame with the slope-deflection method involves three degrees of freedom, the joint rotations
B
and
C
and the chord rotation
CD AB
= = .

Since the loads are applied to the joints, no fixed-end moments exist.

B
,
C
and
Using the expressions for the member end moments derived before, selecting a reference flexural stiffness of 20 EI = ,
and knowing that 0
D A
= = , we write
20
(2 6 ) 10 30
4
20 20
(4 6 ) 20 30 (4 2 ) 16 8
4 5
20 20
(4 2 ) 16 8 (4 6 ) 20
30
5 4
20
(2 6 ) 10 30
4
B B AB AB
c
B B BC B C B BA AB
CB C B C B CD C CD C
DC C CD C
M
M M
M M
M

= + = +
= + = + = + = +
= + = + = + = +
= + = +
(4.26)
3. Moment equilibrium equations
Summing up moments at joints B andC gives
5 m

4

m
10 kN
A
B
D
C
AB
CD
const. EI =

98
36 8 0 30
8 36 0 30
B BC B C BA
C CB CD B C
M M M
M M M

= + = + + =
= + = + + =
(4.27)
4. Force equilibrium equation

Fig. 4.18 Force equilibrium.
The two moment equilibrium equations above contain three unknowns. In order to formulate a third equation we con-
sider equilibrium in the horizontal direction.
10 0
x
CD BA
F V V = =
(4.28)
We can now relate the shear forces to the internal moments by
1
(20 30 10 30 ) 7.5 15
4
1
(10 30 20 30 ) 7.5 15
4
BA AB
B B B BA
AB
DC CD
CD C C C
CD
M M
V
L
M M
V
L

+
= = + + + = +
+
= = + + + = +
(4.29)
Note that this is the same relation we frequently use to derive the shear force diagram from the moment diagram (Mo-
ment right minus moment left over L ). The minus changes into a plus because of the sign convention for the ben-
ding moments used in the slope-deflection method.

Hence the force equilibrium equation expressed in terms of the three unknowns is
7.5 7.5 30 10 0
x
B C
F = + =
(4.30)
and the three equations we have to solve simultaneously are
36 8 30 0
8 36 30 0
7.5 7.5 30 10
B
C

=

(4.31)
Substituting the solution
0.3448
0.3448
0.5057
B
C

=

(4.32)
into the expression for the end moments yields (slope-deflection signs)
5 m
10
BA
V
CD
V
99
10 0.3448 30 0.5057 11.72
20 0.3448 30 0.5057 8.27 16 0.3448 8 0.3448 8.27
16 0.3448 8 0.3448 8.27 20 0.3448 30 0.5057 8.27
10 0.3448 30 0.5057 11.72
AB
BC BA
CB CD
DC
M
M M
M M
M
= + =
= + = = =
= = = + =
= + =
(4.33)
6. Bending moment diagram.
To draw the bending moment diagram, we convert the signs to conventional statics.

Fig. 4.19 Bending moment diagram for simple sway frame.

4.6 Example 4.4

Problem: Use the slope deflection method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above and draw the
bending moment diagram. The frame has constant flexural stiffness EI .

Solution:
For an analysis by the slope deflection method the unknowns are the two joint rotations
B
and
C
and one unknown
chord rotation .
M
[kNm]
8.3
8.3
11.7 11.7
+
+
2 m 8 m

2

m

4

m
A B C
D
E
15kN
10kN
10kN/m
100

Fig. 4.21 Chord rotations.
1. Chord rotations
Neglecting axial force deformation and assuming that the chord rotations are small we have (Fig. 4.21)
6 4
BD CE
= = (4.34)
such that
1.5
CE BD
= (4.35)
Selecting
BD
as the unknown chord rotation, we thus have
1.5
BD CE
= = (4.36)
0
2 2
0 0
15 2 30.00
10 8 10 8
53.33 53.33
12 12
BA BA
BC CB
M M
M M
= = =

= = = =
(4.37)
3. End moments in terms of and
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
0
0
30
48
4 2 6 4 6 32 48
6
48
4 2 6 0 53.33 4 2 53.33 24 12
8
48
2 4 53.33 2 4 53.33 12 24
8
48
3 3
BA
BD B D BD B B
BD
BC BC B C B C B C
BC
CB CB B C B C B C
BC
CE C CE
CE
M
EI
M
L
EI
M M
L
EI
M M
L
EI
M
L

=

= + + = + = +

= + + + = + + = + +
= + + = + + = + +
= + =
( )
0
3 3 36 54
4
48
4 2 6 2 6 16 48
6
C C
DB D B BD B B
BD
EI
M
L

+ = +
= + + = + = +

3
2
(4.38)
4. Moment equilibrium equations
0 30 32 48 53.33 24 12 56 12 48 23.33 (1)
0 53.33 12 24 36 54 12 60 54 53.33 (2)
B B B C B C
C B C C B C
M
M

= = + + + + + + + =
= = + + + + + + =
(4.39)

4

m

2

m
BD
CE

101
5. Force equilibrium equation
( )
( )
0 10
32 48 16 48
8 16
6
0 36 54 0
9 13.5
4 4
8 9 29.5 10 (3)
x
BD CE
B B BD DB
BD B
BD
C EC CE CE
CE C
CE
B C
F V V
M M
V
L
M M M
V
L

= =
+ + + +
= = = +
+ + + +
= = = = +
+ + =
(4.40)
We solve
23.333 56 12 48
12 60 54 53.33 0.0632, 1.642, 0.8228
8 9. 29.5 10.00
B
C B C

= = = =

(4.41)
30
32 48 32 ( 0.0632) 48 ( 0.8228) 41.5
53.33 24 12 53.33 24 ( 0.0632) 12 1.642 71.5
53.33 12 ( 0.0632) 24 1.6420 14.7
36 54 36 1.6420 54 ( 0.8228) 14.7
16 48 1
BA
BD B
BC B C
CB
CE C
DB B
M
M
M
M
M
M

= =
= + = + =
= + + = + + =
= + + =
= + = + =
= + = 6 ( 0.0632) 48 ( 0.8228) 40.5 + =
(4.42)
7. Bending moment diagram

Fig. 4.22 Deflected shape and bending moment diagram for simple sway frame.
30
71.5
14.7
40.5
41.5
+
+
M
[kNm]
102
4.7 Summary of procedure
We summarize the slope-deflection method for sway structures by the frame below.

Fig. 4.23 Independent sway states.

(1) Denote all structure nodes by numbers or letters (I).
(2) Replace all moment connections with hinge connections (II).
(3) Determine degreem of sway using the same formula that we use to calculate the degree of statical indetermi-
nacy. If the structure in (II) is statically determinate, the original structure is non-sway and we skip steps 4 to 7.
If the structure in (II) is unstable, the degree of instability is equal to the number of sway degrees of freedom of
the original structure. For the frame above we obtain
4 14 3 7 18 21 3 m = + = = (4.43)
Hence it takes three additional constraints to properly constrain the structure in (II).

A
B
C D E
1
L
2
L
1
H
2
H
F
G H
III
IV
1
V
3
VI
I II
103

(4) Convert sway structure into non-sway structure by addingm roller supports (III).
(5) Select 1st sway state by displacing one roller and denote by
1
the chord rotation in a selected member.
(6) Use kinematics to express all other chord rotations in terms of
1

(7) Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the other sway states (V and VI) and express the chord rotation in each member by a
linear combination of the individual cord rotation. For the above frame, the results are

1
1 3
2
2
1
2
2
3
CG DH
GH CD
ED
BE AC
H
H
L
L

= =
= =
=
= =
(4.44)

(8) Write all member end moments as a function of the nodal rotations and chord rotations . For the chord
rotations, use the results in Eq. (4.44).
(9) Write the moment equilibrium equation for all nodes where at least two members are moment-connected.
(10) Writem force equilibrium equations at selected locations in the structure.
(11) Solve the linear set of equations. The equations consist of k nodal andm force equilibrium equations.
(12) Calculate the member end moments
ij
M .
(13) Change the signs of the member end moments to reflect conventional statics sign convention, add the static
moment (if the member has a span loading) and draw the bending moment diagram.

4.8 Comparison between the slope-deflection and the force methods
We can recognize at this stage that the slope-deflection method works the opposite way of the force method. In the force
method, we calculate unknown forces (moments) based on compatibility requirements, in the slope deflection method,
we calculate displacements (rotations) based on equilibrium requirements.

Force method
(1) Identify the number of unknown (redundant) forces, i.e. the degree of statical indeterminacy.

(2) Create mechanisms to form a statically determinate base structure.

(3) Determine displacements at the releases due to given external loading.

(4) Determine the flexibility coefficients, i.e. the displacements at the releases due to unit value of the redundant forces.

(5) Solve the compatibility equations.

Slope-deflection method
(1) Identify the number of unknown displacements, i.e. the number of degrees of freedom.

(2) Fix all degrees of freedom to create a kinematically determinate structure.

(3) Determine fixed-end forces due to given external loading.

(4) Determine the stiffness coefficients, i.e. the moments at the joints due to a unit rotation (Eq. 4.11).

(5) Solve the equilibrium equations.
104
4.9 Fixed-end moments

4.9.1 Fixed-fixed condition

Fig. 4.24 Fixed-end moments for fixed-fixed condition.
L/2 L/2
L
a b
a b
L
L/2 L/2
P
1
8
PL
1
8
PL
2
1
12
wL
2
1
12
wL
2
2
Pab
L
2
2
Pa b
L
( )
2
1 2
3 2
60
L
w w +
w
1
w
2
w
w
( )
2
1 2
2 3
60
L
w w +
2
5
96
wL
2
5
96
wL
w
( )
2
2
2
2 3 4 3
12
wa
L L a a
L

+

( )
3
2
4 3
12
wa
L a
L

105

4.9.2 Fixed-pinned condition

Fig. 4.25 Fixed-end moments for fixed-pinned condition.

L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
L L
a b a b
a b a b
L L
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2
2
1
8
wL
3
16
PL
2
5
64
wL
( )
2
2
Pab
L a
L
+
3
16
PL
2
1
8
wL
( )
2
2
Pab
L b
L
+
2 2
2
1
4 2
wa a
L

( )
2
2
2
8
wa
L b
L
+
w
1
w 2
w
( )
2
1 2
7 8
120
L
w w +
w
P P
w w
P P
( )
2
1 2
8 7
120
L
w w +
2
5
64
wL
w w
1
w 2
w
a a
P P
1
2
Pa
1
2
Pa
CAUTION:
Tension at bottom
CAUTION:
Tension at bottom
106
Problems

4.1

Derive the moment-joint rotation relation of the slope-deflection method in Eq. (4.7) using the force method. Select a
cantilever as the base structure. The member has uniform flexural stiffnessEI .

4.2

Calculate the fixed-end moments for the given loading conditions. Draw the bending moment diagrams.

Solution:
2 2
2
24 18 1 1
(a): (ccw), (cw) (b) (ccw), (cw)
250 125 12 12
1
(c): (ccw), 0 (d) 0.32 (cw), 0.12 (cw)
8
AB BA AB BA
AB BA AB BA
M PL M PL M wL M wL
M wL M M M M M
= = = =
= = = =

4.3

For the member with non-uniform flexural stiffness above: Find the moment- joint rotation relation
( ) ( )
1 2 3 4 ij i j ji i j
EI EI
M k k M k k
L L
= + = +
using the force method.

Solution:
1 2 3 4
4.3636 2.9091 7.2727 k k k k = = = =
4.4

Using the slope-deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the continuous beam above for
the two load cases. The beam has uniform flexural stiffness EI .
0.6L 0.4L L
L
0.6L 0.4L
0.6L 0.4L
w
P
w
M
(a)
(c) (d)
(b)
A
B
EI
2EI
/2 L /2 L
i
j
EI
L
i
j
4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00
A
B C D E
10kN/m 10kN/m
10kN/m
Load case 1 Load case 2
107
4.5

(a) Using the slope deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams (calculate joint rotations
, ,
B C A
and
D
). The beam has uniform flexural stiffness EI .

(b) Using the slope deflection method, find the bending moment and shear force diagrams (calculate only joint rotations
B
and
C
). Start by calculating the fixed-end moment
0
CD
M caused by the force at E .

Solution:
11.11 22.22 77.78 288.9
, , , ccw+
B C D A
EI EI EI EI
= = = =

4.6

Show that the structure above is non-sway and use the slope-deflection method to find the bending moment, shear force
and axial force diagrams of the above structure for the given loading.

Solution:
16.14 24.59
0, , ccw+
C D E
EI EI
= = =
5 m 5 m 5 m 2 m
A B C D
E
100 kN
4 m 4 m

1
.
5

m

1
.
5

m

3
.
0

m

1
.
5

m

1
.
5

m

1
.
5

m

1
.
5

m

3
.
0

m

1
.
5

m

1
.
5

m
20 kN
20 kN
15 kN/m
A
B
C
D
E
F
108
4.7

(a) Show that the structure above is non-sway. (b) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (c) Using the slope
deflection method, find the joint rotations
B
and
C
( =const. E ). (d) Find the member end moments and draw the
bending moment diagram.

Solution:
(c)
98.47 46.62
,
B C
EI EI
= =

4.8

(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (b) Using the slope deflection method,
find the joint rotations
B
and
C
. (c) Find the member end moments and draw the bending moment diagram. Use
symmetry.

Solution:
(b)
29.05 17.07
, ccw+
B C
EI EI
= =

2 m 8 m 2 m

6

m
A
B
2I
I
I
I
D
E
C
F
100kN 100kN
+
+
+
200 200
65.6
32.8
36.9
97.4
76.7
[kNm]
M
2.00 2.00 2.00 5.00 2.00 2.00 2.00

4
.
0
0
20 kN 20 kN
10 kN/m
A B
C C B A
D D
[m]
=const. EI
109
4.9

(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy of the above frame structure. (b) Using the slope deflection method,
find the rotations at joints , A B andC . (c) Find the member end moments and draw the bending moment diagram. (d)
Comment on the effect of the point load at D on the bending moments. Use symmetry. The structure has uniform
flexural stiffness EI .

4.10

(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy and the degree of sway of the above frame structure. (b) Using the
slope deflection method find the bending moment diagram of the structure. (c) Repeat (b) using the force method. The
structure has uniform flexural stiffness EI .

2 m 6 m 6 m

4

m

4

m
20 kN
20 kN
10 kN/m
50 kN
A B
C
D E
F G H
4 m 4 m

8

m

5

m
20 kN/m
150 kN
10 kN/m
10 kN/m
A
A
B
C C
D
110
4.11

Use the slope-deflection method to find the bending moment, shear force and axial force diagrams for the frame struc-
ture above. Make use of anti-symmetry.

4.12

Find the bending moment and shear force diagrams of the beam above: (a) by the force method, (b) by the slope-deflec-
tion method. (c) Use the principle of virtual forces to verify the joint and chord rotations found in (b). =const. E

Solution:

5 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
F
E
10 kN
20 kN
const. EI =
9 ft 6 ft 9 ft
A B C
10 k
I 2I
15.89 37.98
9.57
26.55
+
+
2.83
7.17
M
V 7.17
2.83
[k-ft]
[k]
111
4.13

Two lateral forces are applied to a two-story frame (axially rigid), which cause the structure to deflect as shown.
(a) Determine the degree of statical indeterminacy. (b) Using the slope deflection method find the joint rotations
B
and
C
. (c) Find the member end moments of the frame and draw the bending moment diagram. (d) Find the forces
1
P and
2
P applied to the frame. Make use of anti-symmetry.

Solution:
(b)
3 3
7.67 10 , 3.13 10
B C

= =
(c)
115, 84.6, 92.0
7.38, 37.6, 37.6 ccw+ [kNm]
AB DE BA ED BE EB
BC EF CB FE CF FC
M M M M M M
M M M M M M
= = = = = =
= = = = = =

(d)
1 2
30 kN, 50 kN P P = =

4.14

Use the slope-deflection method to calculate all joint and chord rotations of the frame structure for loading conditions (a)
and (b) and draw the bending moment diagram.

Solution:
(a)
40.17
0, ccw+ 0
D B C CD BC A AB
EI
= = = = = = =
(b)
11.97 37.68 48.41
0, , ccw+ , 0 cw+
D B C CD BC A AB
EI EI EI
= = = = = = =

5 m

5

m

3

m
0.06084 m
0.08042 m
1
P
2
P
B
C
E
2
10, 000 kNm EI =
A
D
F
deflected shape
not to scale
15 ft

1
2

f
t
A
B C
1k/ft
=const. EI
D
15 ft

1
2

f
t
A
B C 1k/ft
=const. EI
D
(a)
(b)
112
4.15
Repeat Problem 4.14 assuming the columns pinned at the base.

Solution:
(a)
24.46 48.91
, , ccw+ 0
D B C CD BC A AB
EI EI
= = = = = = =
(b)
407.7 66.52 113.5 348.3 270
, , ccw+ , 0 cw+
B C D CD BC A AB
EI EI EI EI EI
= = = = = = =

4.16

Solution:

Calculate the member end moments by the slope-deflection method and draw the bending moment diagram.

4.17

Use the slope-deflection method to calculate the rotations at joints AandB .

Solution:
42.5 22.5
, ccw+
B A
EI EI
= =

4.18

Use the slope-deflection method to calculate the member end moments of the above frame. Draw the bending moment
diagram.

Solution:
67.9, 67.9, 100, 100 [kNm] ccw+
CD DC DE CA
M M M M = = = =
4 m

3

m
A
B
C
I
2I
16kN/m
5 m 2 m
A
B
C
12 kN/m
8 m 2 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
E
50 kN
200 kN
=const. EI
26.3
26.3
13.2
+
M
[kNm]
42.5
EI
22.5
EI
113
5 The Moment-Distribution Method

5.1 Introduction
In the 1930s, Professor Hardy Cross developed the moment-distribution method. As the slope-deflection method, we use
the moment-distribution method to calculate the member end moments of planar structures whose members act prima-
rily in flexure. Thus, we neglect axial and shear deformations in the analysis. With the member end moments known, we
use the equilibrium equations to find the axial and shear forces and the reactions at the supports. While the end result of
the moment distribution method is that of the slope-deflection method (the member end moments) the procedure is en-
tirely different. In the slope-deflection method, we solve the equilibrium equations directly by solving a system of linear
algebraic equations, whose unknowns are the joint and chord rotations. In the moment distribution method, by contrast,
we solve the equilibrium equations iteratively. An iterative solution is a procedure in which each step improves the re-
sults from the previous step. If we perform enough steps, we obtain a solution that is sufficiently accurate for enginee-
ring purposes. Moment distribution methods exist for both non-sway and sway structures. In this class, we only discuss
the moment distribution method applied to non-sway structures.
Since many frame structural analysis programs are available, we probably should avoid using the moment distribution
method (or any other hand calculation procedure) to perform an exact analysis of a large building frame. Nevertheless,
the underlying principles of the moment distribution method can be quite useful in understanding and solving many
problems faced in everyday structural engineering practice.

5.2 General Description
Before presenting examples of the method, we must define some terminology.

(a) Fixed-end moment
0
ij
M : The moment developed at endi of member ij (due to loads, temperature, support settlement
or other causes) when the member ends are fixed against displacement and rotation (same as in the slope-deflection me-
thod). Fixed-end moments are widely tabulated (see Chapter 4).

(b) Member stiffness factor
i
k : The moment required at endi (endi is fixed against translation) to produce unit rotation
at endi when end j is fixed against rotation and translation. Stiffness factors (the same as those used in the slope-deflec-
tion method) are physical constants that depend only on the dimensions of the member, its modulus of elasticity and its
end conditions.

(c) Distribution factor
i
: The fraction of the total moment applied to a joint, which is distributed to a particular member
framing into the joint. Hence

i
i
i
k
k
=
(5.1)
where
i
k is the stiffness of the particular member and
i
k
is the sum of all member stiffnesses framing into the joint.

The sum of the distribution factors for any joint is equal to unity,

(d) Carry-over factor
ij
C : the ratio of the moment produced at the far end j to the moment applied at the near endi of
member ij .

(e) Sign convention. We use the same sign convention used for the slope-deflection method. A moment acting on the
end of a member is positive when counterclockwise and negative when clockwise.

114
5.3 Example 5.1


Problem: Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam and draw the bending
moment diagram ( EI =const).

Fig. 5.2 Superposition of fixed-end condition and moment applied to the joint.
As in the slope-deflection method, the first step is to determine the fixed-end moment. We consider spanBC fixed-
pinned such that the fixed-end moment is
2
0
10 8
80.00
8
BC
M

= = (5.2)
2. Member stiffnesses and distribution factors
Since the fixed-end condition violates equilibrium, we need to unlock joint B and apply the unbalanced moment
0
BC
M to
the joint in order to restore equilibrium. The moment
0
BC
M applied to joint B distributes to the two
members BAandBC . In order to find the portion of the total unbalanced moment that each of the two members
receives, we calculate the distribution factor for each member. Since the far-end of member BAis fixed, the member
stiffness is thus
4 80
8
10
BA
AB
EI
k
L
= = = (5.3)
where we have used an arbitrary flexural stiffness of 20 EI = . Since the far-end of member BC is pinned, the member
stiffness is thus
3 60
7.5
8
BC
BC
EI
k
L
= = = (5.4)
10 ft 8 ft
A
B C
10k/ft
10 ft 8 ft
10 ft 8 ft
=
+
0
BC
M
0
BC
M
10 ft 8 ft
A
B C
10k/ft
115
We now add the stiffnesses of the two members framing into joint B to obtain
8 7.5 15.5
B BC BA
k k k = + = + =
(5.5)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into joinB are then
8 7.5
0.5161 0.4839 1(ok)
15.5 15.5
BC BA
= = = = =
(5.6)
The preceding equation shows that member BAis somewhat stiffer than member BC and hence attracts 51.6% of the
moment applied to joint B while member BC receives the remaining 48.4%. Note that the absolute stiffness of each
member is irrelevant. All that matters is the relative stiffness. Moreover, the sum of the distribution factors at each joint
must equal 1.
1 1 0.75 0.75
0.1 0.09375 0.19735
10 8
0.1 0.09375
0.5161 0.4839 1(ok)
0.19375 0.19375
BC BA
BC AB
BC BA
k k k
L L

= = = = = = =
= = = = =
(5.7)

3. Moment distribution
As mentioned above, we now apply the unbalanced moment (the fixed-end moment) to joint B and distribute the mo-
ment to the two members framing into joint B . The distributed end moments are calculated by multiplying the unba-
lanced moment by the distribution factor of each member. Since member BAis a little stiffer than member BC , AB
gets a little more of the unbalanced moment. Note that the sign of the distributed end moments is opposite to that
of the unbalanced moment. The distributed end moment 80 0.5161 41.29
BA
M = = is causing a moment
0.5
AB BA
M M = at the far-end of the member. We say the moment
BA
M is carried over to the other end of the member
with a carryover factor of 0.5. Note that the carryover moment has the same sign as the distributed end moment.
The final step is to add the distributed moment to the fixed-end moment for member BC . In all moment distribution cal-
culations, the sign convention is the same as that used in the slope-deflection method, that is end moments are positive in
the counterclockwise direction. It is always a good idea to organize the moment distribution calculations in a table.

Table 5-1 Moment-distribution for Example 5.1.
Joint A B
Member AB BA BC
0.5161 0.4839
0
ij
M 80.00
41.29/2 =
20.65
41.29 38.71

Final Moments 20.65 41.29 41.29

116
4. Moment diagram
With known end moments, we are able to draw the bending moment diagram. Turning moment distribution/slope-de-
flection signs back into statics signs we obtain

Fig. 5.3 Bending moment diagram for Example 5.1.

5.4 Example 5.2


Problem: Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam and draw the bending mo-
ment and shear force diagrams ( EI =const).

Solution: The fundamental difference to the previous example is that we now have two joints (joints 2 and 3) at which
we need to perform a moment distribution (an analysis by the slope-deflection method would involve unknown rotations
at joints 2 and 3).

The fixed-end moments are the same as those calculated in the slope-deflection method.

0 0 0
12 21 34
80 5 3 3 80 5
50 75
8 8 16 16
PL PL
M M M

= = = = = = = (5.8)
We write the fixed-end moments at the appropriate location in the table.


Joint 2
The member stiffnesses for joint 2 are

21 23
21 23
5 5
1 1
5 5
EI EI
k k
L L
= = = = = = (5.9)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into to joint 2 are thus

21 23
21 23
21 23 21 23
1 1
0.5 0.5
2 2
k k
k k k k
= = = = = =
+ +
(5.10)
Joint 3
For joint 3, we have the member stiffnesses
41.3
20.6
+

+
M
[k-ft]
2.50 m 2.50 m 5.00 m 2.50 m 2.50 m
[m]
1 2 3 4
80kN
80kN
117

32 34
32 34
5 0.75 0.75 5
1 0.75
5 5
EI EI
k k
L L
= = = = = = (5.11)
The distribution factors for the two members framing into to joint 3 are thus

32
32
32 34
34
34
32 34
1
0.5714
1.75
0.75
0.4286 (0.5714 0.4286 1.000 ok)
1.75
k
k k
k
k k
= = =
+
= = = + =
+
(5.12)
It is common practice to start the distribution process at the joint with the largest unbalanced moment, i.e. joint 3. We re-
lease joint 3 and distribute the unbalanced moment of 75 at joint 3 to the two member ends 34 and 32 according to the
distribution factors calculated earlier ( 0.5714 75 42.86, 0.4286 75 32.14) = = . (Strictly speaking, we have to
apply a moment equal and opposite to the unbalanced moment in order to enforce equilibrium at joint 3). Joint 3 is now
in equilibrium. The distributed moment at end 32 is carried over to member end 23 ( 0.5 42.86 21.43 = ). The mo-
ment distribution at joint 3 is complete and we lock joint 3 again. The unbalanced moment at joint 2 is
50 21.43 71.43 = . Next, we release joint 2 and distribute the unbalanced moment. Since members 21 and 23 have
the same stiffness, the two members equally share the unbalance ( 0.5 71.43 35.71 = ). The distributed moment at end
21 is carried over to member end 12 ( 0.5 35.71 17.86 = ). The moment distribution at joint 2 is complete and we lock
joint 2 again. We continue by releasing joint 3 again, and so on. The unbalanced moments become smaller and smaller
such that the total moments obtained by adding all incremental moments converge to the correct solution. We terminate
the distribution process, when the solution is accurate enough, i.e. when the unbalanced moments are sufficiently small
(when the unbalanced moment is within a few percent of the initial unbalance or within a few percent of the current total
moments).

The sign of the distributed end moments is opposite to that of the unbalanced moment.
The sign of the carryover moment is the same as that of the distributed end moment.
Table 5-2 Moment-distribution for Example 2.
Joint 1 2 3
Member 12 21 23 32 34
k 1 1 1 0.75
0.5000 0.5000 0.5714 0.4286
0
ij
M 50 50 75
21.43 42.86 32.14
17.86 35.71 35.71 17.86
5.10 10.20 7.66
1.28 2.55 2.55 1.27
0.73 0.54

Final Moments 69.13 11.73 11.73 34.66 34.66

4. Moment and shear force diagrams
We obtain the final moments by adding all moments in a column including the fixed-end moments. All that is needed to
draw the bending moment diagram is to account for the static sign convention and properly connect the calculated mem-
ber end moments. If a span has no load (span 2), we connect the member end moments by a straight line. Otherwise we
add the static moment. The span moments in spans 1 and 3 are thus
1
3
1 80 5
(69.1 11.7) 40.4 100 59.6
2 4
1 80 5
34.7 17.3 100 82.7
2 4
M
M
= + + = + =
= + = + =
(5.13)
118

Fig. 5.5 Bending moment diagram for Example 5.2.

As always, we obtain the shear force diagram from the moment diagram by

* * ji ij ji ij
ij ij ji ji
ij ij
M M M M
V V V V
L L

= + = (5.14)
where
*
ij
V is the static shear force. For span without applied loads
*
0
ij
V = .

Fig. 5.6 Shear force diagram for Example 5.2.

5.5 Summary of steps
1. Set up tabular solution and calculate the stiffnessk , the distribution factors and the carry-over factors c .

2. Lock all joints against rotation.

3. Calculate the fixed-end moments
0
ij
M for all members.

4. Select joint to be unlocked first. Calculate the unbalanced moment at the joint and then release the joint and distribute
the moment to the near end of all members framing into the joint according to their distribution factors to bring the
moment on the joints into balance.

5. Calculate carry-over moments at the far ends of the members

6. Relock joint and repeat steps 4 and 5 going from joint to joint until unbalanced moments at all joints are negligible.

7. Sum the moments to get the total moments, which are the final member end-moments.

8. Calculate the shear forces from the end-moment by statics.

9. Change the sign of the member end-moments from moment distribution sign convention to statics sign convention,
add the static moment and draw shear and moment diagrams.

69.1
59.6
11.7
34.6
82.7
M
[kNm]
+
+
V
[kN]
51.5
28.5
4.6
46.9
33.1
+
119
5.6 More discussion and illustration

Moment Diagram Deflected shape
Fig. 5.7 Illustration of moment-distribution method.

Step 1: The moment distribution process starts by fixing joints 2 and 3 resulting in zero slope of the deflected shape at
these locations. The resulting moments
0
M are the fixed-end moments. There are fixed-end moments
0 0
12 21
, M M and
0
34
M . Since the center span 23 has no load on it, no fixed-end moments are generated. Since the moment diagram is dis-
continuous at joints 2 and 3, equilibrium is violated at these locations, an unbalanced moment exists. The deflected
shape shows this unbalance in form of a curvature change. This first step is entirely identical to the first step in the
slope-deflection method.

Step 2: Joint 3 is released, i.e. it is allowed to rotate while joint 2 is fixed. Joint 3 rotates clockwise until the moment un-
balance disappears. The moment diagram is now continuous at joint 3 (
32 34
M M = ) and the curvature at the right and
left-hand sides of joint 3 are equal. The rotation of joint 3 not only causes a moment
32
M but also a moment
23
M , the
so-called carry-over moment. For this example, the carry-over moment increases the unbalance at joint 2.

Step 3: Joint 3 is fixed at its current rotation and joint 2 is released, i.e. it is allowed to rotate. Now joint 2 rotates
counterclockwise until the moment unbalance produced by the fixed-end moment
0
23
M and the carry-over moment of
step 2 disappears. The moment diagram is now continuous at joint 2 (
23 21
M M = ) and the curvatures at the right and
left-hand sides of joint 2 are equal. Analogous to step 2, the rotation of joint 2 affects the moment
32
M through the carry-
over effect such that the moment balance at joint 3 achieved in step 2 is destroyed.

Step 4: The new unbalance at joint 3 is corrected by releasing joint 3 a second time. The events correspond to those of
step 2 and result in a small unbalance at joint 2. We can restore equilibrium at joint 2 by releasing joint 2 again causing
an even smaller unbalance at joint 3. Eventually, this iterative process leads to acceptably small moment unbalances at
the joints and can be terminated.

1 2 3 4
FixedEnd Condition
Moment Distribution at 3, 2 Fixed; Unbalance at 2
FixedEnd Condition
1 2 3 4
120
5.7 Example 5.3

Problem:
Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the frame structure above. Draw the bending
moment diagram.

Solution:
5.7.1 Preferred Approach
Since we know the moment at joint D , we do not have to distribute the moment at D . Thus the only joint at which to
distribute the moment is jointC . We have to use caution, however, when we calculate the fixed-end moments. Since we
do not distribute the moment at D , we have to account for the effects of the cantilever loading by a fixed-end moment
atC produced by the 50 kN force acting at E . We have to consider memberCD fixed-pinned.

0 0
3
200 6
50 2
50.0 225.00
1
0
2 6
CA CD
M M = =
= = (5.15)
0.75
0.09375 0.1250 0.21875
8 6
0.09375 0.1250
0.4286 0.5714
0.21875 0.21875
0.75
CD CA
CD CA
k k k

= = = = =
= = = =
(5.16)

Table 5-3 Moment-distribution for Example 5.3 (preferred approach)
Joint C
Member CA CD
0.5714 0.4286
0
M 225.00 50.00
M 157.13 117.87
M
67.9 67.9

Important: Before we distribute the moment at jointC , we have to calculate the total unbalanced moment at that joint.
The total unbalanced moment of 225+50=275 is the negative sum of the two fixed-end moments acting atC .

8 m 2 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
E
50 kN
200 kN
=const. EI
121
5.7.2 Alternative Approach
We distribute the moment at joints and C D . Thus we have to consider memberCD fixed-fixed. The effect of the canti-
lever is now a moment
0
50 2 100
DE DE
M M = = =

0 0
3
200 6 225.00
1
100.0
6
0
CA DE
M M = = = (5.17)

0.75
0.1250 0.1250 0.2500
8 6
0.1250 0.1250
0.5000 0.5000
0.250
1
0 0.2500
CD CA
CD CA
k k k

= = = = =
= = = =
(5.18)

Table 5-4 Moment-distribution for Example 5.3 (alternative approach)
Joint C D
Member CA CD DC DE
0.5000 0.5000 1 0
0
M 225.00 100
112.50 112.50 56.25
78.125 156.25
39.06 39.06 19.53
9.77 19.53
4.88 4.88 2.44
1.22 2.44
0.61 0.61 0.30
0.15 0.30
0.07 0.07
M
67.9 67.9 100 100

Clearly, we prefer approach 1 since it does not require iteration (repeated locking and unlocking at joints). However, we
should well understand the differences between the two strategies (highlighted in red).

Fig. 5.9 Moment diagram and deflected shape for Example 5.3.

100
67.9
266
+
s
M
[kNm]
122
5.8 Summary
In closing, we reemphasize the key idea behind the moment distribution method:

A moment applied to a joint (joint must be fixed against translation) is distributed to the connecting members
according to the relative stiffness of the members.

Some examples

Fig. 5.10 Key concept of moment distribution method.

M
1
3
M
1
2
M
+
+
/2 L /2 L
M
1
2
M
EI
EI
M
2EI
EI
1
3
M
2
3
M
+
/2 L /2 L
/3 L 2 /3 L
M
3
7
M
+
4
7
M
2
7
M
2
3
M
/2 L /2 L
EI
123
Problems

5.1

Use the moment distribution method to find the member end moments of the beam above. (a) Distribute the moments at
joints , B C andD . (b) Distribute the moment at joints and B C only. Draw the bending moment and shear force
diagrams.

5.2

moment diagram ( =const. E ).

Solution:
Joint A B C
Member AB BA BF BD BC CB CD
M [kNm] 32.84 65.68 200 36.94 97.39 76.8 76.8

5.3

moment, shear force and axial force diagram.

Solution:
46.7 93.4 100 193.4 125 125.0 [kNm] ccw+
DC DE ED EB AD DA
M M M M M M = = = = = =
2 m 8 m 2 m

6

m
A
B
2I
I
I
I
D
E
C
F
100kN 100kN
2.00 2.00 4.00 4.00

3
.
0
0
const EI =
[kN]
[m]
200 200 200 50
A
B
C D
E
20 ft 20 ft 7.5 ft 7.5 ft 6.0 ft
A B
C
D
E
5 k/ft
50k
124
5.4

moment diagram.

Solution:
14.88 kNm 2.38 kNm
1.78 kNm 1.19 23.81kNm
BC BE BG BI BA
BD BF BH CB EB GB IB AB
M M M M M
M M M M M M M M
= = = = =
= = = = = = = =

5.5

moment diagram. Use symmetry.
4 m 4 m

8

m

5

m
20 kN/m
150 kN
10 kN/m
10 kN/m
A
A
B
C C
D
5 m 2.5 m
A
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
1
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
I 1
2
5
I
I
=
B
10kN/m
125
5.6

moment diagram. Note that the structure in non-sway due to symmetry.

5.7

For the member with non-uniform flexural stiffness above: Find the carry-over factors
ij
c and
ji
c .

Solution:
0.667, 0.400
ij ji
c c = =

5 m

3

m

3

m
A
B
C
D
E
F
10 kN/m
50 kN
3I
3I
I
I
I
I
EI
2EI
/2 L /2 L
i
j
126
6 Approximate analysis of building frames under lateral load

6.1 Introduction
Thus far we have used exact procedures to calculate the internal force distribution and displacements of statically inde-
terminate structures. We have observed that an exact analysis can be quite time-consuming, particularly if the structure
is highly indeterminate. In this chapter, we will learn how to estimate the force demand in building frames under lateral
forces, usually due to wind or seismic excitation, approximately by making a few simplifying assumptions. Those sim-
plifications render the structure determinate such that we can analyze it by applying the equilibrium equations only. The
main purpose for learning approximate methods is to verify the results of an exact analysis often performed by com-
puter. Approximate methods are also helpful in the preliminary design phase when the exact structure configuration and
member sizes are still unknown.

6.2 Discussion
We will begin our discussion of approximate methods with a simple single-story single-bay frame with columns fixed at
the base. The frame is indeterminate to the third degree.

Fig. 6.1 Single-story frame.

Figure 6.2 qualitatively shows the deflected shape and the bending moment diagram of the frame for a lateral load. Also
shown by blue dots are the three inflection points of the frame which are located no too far from the midpoiint of the
members. Inflection points are points of zero curvature and hence zero bending moment. Thus we can consider a point
of inflection as if there was a hinge at that location. Each hinge, however, reduces the degree of statical indeterminacy
by one. The central idea behind approximate methods for lateral loads is to approximate the deflected shape by assuming
the inflection points to be located at mid-height of the columns and mid-span of the girders. Since the frame is
indeterminate to degree three, the introduction of three hinges has rendered the frame statically determinate and we can
analyze the frame by statics.

Fig. 6.2 Deflected shape and moment diagram of single-story frame.
L

H
F
F
M
point of inflection =
127

Fig. 6.3 Frame with stiff girder.

Fig. 6.4 Deflected shape and moment diagram for frame with stiff girder.

We now examine how well the results of an approximate analysis match those of an exact analysis of the indeterminate
structure. Since the location of the point of inflection in the column depends on the relative stiffness of girder and co-
lumn, we examine two cases: (1) a frame in which the girder is significantly stiffer than the columns and (2) a frame in
which the columns are significantly stiffer than the girder. In situations where the girder is stiff relative to the column
(Fig. 6.3) the approximation works well. Figure 6.4 shows that exact and approximate locations of inflection points are
close. The inflection points in the columns for an exact analysis are only slightly above mid-height such that the deflec-
ted shapes and the moment diagrams corresponding to the exact and approximate analyses are virtual identical (Fig. 6.4).

If the columns are stiff with respect to the girder (Fig. 6.5), the approximation of assuming hinges at mid-height of the
columns, does not work as well. This is because the points of inflection in an exact analysis are located well above mid-
height (see blue lines in Fig. 6.6). Consequently, the approximate analysis overestimates the moments in the girder and
underestimates those in the columns (Fig. 6.6). We can also notice the poor approximation in this case in the erroneous
slope discontinuity that exists in the deflected shape (red line in Fig. 6.6a).

Fig. 6.5 Frame with stiff columns.

L

H
F
G
I
C
I
C
I
L

H
F
G
I
C
I
C
I
approximate
exact
approximate
exact
large
G
C
I H
I L
large
G
C
I H
I L
128

Fig. 6.6 Deflected shape and moment diagram for frame with stiff columns.

6.3 The Portal Method

6.3.1 Approximations of the portal method

Fig. 6.7 Single-story multi-bay frame. Structure, deflected shape and moment diagram.
Consider the four-bay frame above (Fig. 6.7), which is indeterminate to the 12th degree. As for single bay frames, we
can assume the inflection points to be located at the center of each girder and at the center of each column. Those
assumptions lead to the approximate structure in Fig. 6.8. Since we have introduced only nine releases (hinges), the
frame is still statically indeterminate to the third degree, a result verified by the formula of Chapter 1 to calculaten .
5 3 9 2 10 3 3 n = + = (6.1)
Fig. 6.8 Single-story multi-bay frame with hinges at mid-height and mid-span (indeterminate to the third degree).

Before we can use statics to analyze the multi-bay frame, we thus need another simplifying assumption. A further appro-
ximation that renders the structure statically determinate is that each of the four bents of the frame is composed of a por-
tal (Fig. 6.9) and each portal carries one fourth of the lateral force applied to the frame. The interior columns then repre-
sent the columns of two portals and thus carry twice the shear as the exterior columns.
P
F
approximate
exact
approximate
exact
small
G
C
I H
I L
small
G
C
I H
I L
(a) (b)
F
129

Fig. 6.9 Single-story multi-bay frame considered a series of portals.

In summary, the portal method is based on the following assumptions (see Fig. 6.10):
(1) We place a hinge at the center of each girder and thus have point of zero moment at those locations.
(2) We place a hinge at the center of each column and thus have point of zero moment at those locations.
(3) The interior columns carry twice as much shear as the exterior columns.

Fig. 6.10 Single-story multi-bay frame (portal method approximations).

Fig. 6.11 Multi-story multi-bay frame.

For multi-story frames, we apply the assumptions regarding the distribution of the column shear forces to each story. For
the three-story frame in Fig. 6.11, the shear forces in the two exterior columns (subscripte ) and the interior column
(subscript i ) are
1 2 3 1 2 1
1 2 3
4 4 4
e e e
P P P P P P
V V V
+ + +
= = = (6.2)
and
1 2 3 1 2 1
1 2 3
2 2 2
i i i
P P P P P P
V V V
+ + +
= = = (6.3)
respectively (first subscript denotes story).
/ 4 P / 4 P
/ 4 P / 4 P
V V V V
V V
V V
V 2V 2V 2V
V
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
130
6.3.2 Example 6.1
Fig. 6.12 Example 6.1:Three-story three-bay frame.
Problem: Analyze the frame by the portal method and
(a) find the reactions at supports AandE ,
(b) draw the bending moment diagram for the frame.

Solution:
1. Column shear forces
Assuming that interior column carry twice the shear as the exterior columns, we find for the shear force in the columns
10 20 30
10.00 k 2 10 20.00 k
6
20 30
8.33 k 2 8.33 16.67 k
6
30
5.00 k 2 5.00 10.00 k
6
MN EF IJ AB
BC NO FG JK
CD OP GH KL
V V V V
V V V V
V V V V
+ +
= = = = = =
+
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
(6.4)
2. Bending moments
Once we have calculated the shear force in the columns, we find the approximate magnitude of the column end-
moments by statics (see Fig 6.13)
2
H
M V = (6.5)

Fig. 6.13 Free-body diagram for half column.
14 ft 20 ft 14 ft

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
30 k
20 k
10 k

H
/
2
V
V
M
131
We next find the moments in the girder by considering moment equilibrium of the joints (see Fig 6.13).

Fig. 6.14 Moment equilibrium at joints (for half structure).

Fig. 6.15 Approximate moment diagram (approximate analysis by portal method).
110
60
120
100
60
60
50
50
120
100
110
110
60
30
30
30
30
30
80
80
80
M
[k-ft]
30
30
H
60
D
30
30
F
110 110
120
100
G
100
60
80
80
50
110
60
B
30
80
50
C
132
3. Equilibrium of segments between hinges
With the column shear forces known, we can establish equilibrium for two or three-hinge substructures to find the axial
force in the columns and the shear and axial force in the girders. For example, if we analyze the frame in order
DCBHGF (other sequences work as well), we have no more than three unknown forces for each free-body diagram.
The results are shown below. An alternative would be to first calculate the girder shear from the girder moments. Doing
so, we only need to apply two equations of equilibrium to the segments between hinges.

Fig. 6.16 Equilibrium of segments between hinges (for half structure).
The reactions at AandE are thus
10k , 31.42k , 60 k-ft(ccw) 20k , 9.43k , 120 k-ft(ccw)
x y A x y E
A A M E E M = = = = = = (6.6)
7 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
C
20
4.29
5.00
8.33
16.67
15.71
11.42
7 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
B
10
15.71
8.33
10.00
8.33
31.42
15.71
7 ft

6

f
t
5.00
30
4.29
4.29
25.00 D
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t
25.00
4.29
10.00
1.29
15.00
3.00
H
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
10.00
1.29
16.67
11.42
16.67
10.00
8.00
4.71
G
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
F 8.33
15.71
4.71
16.67
20.00
9.43
5.00
11.00
133
6.4 The Cantilever Method

6.4.1 Approximations of the cantilever method
The portal method usually works well for structures with small to average aspect ratio / H B . For tall and slender struc-
tures (large aspect ratio) it is appropriate to assume that the building frame behaves like a cantilever beam. The cross-
sectional areas of the columns form the cross section of the imaginary beam. For any horizontal section through the buil-
ding, we consider the stresses in the columns, like those in a beam, linearly distributed across the section. The forces in
the columns resulting from these stresses constitute the resisting moment that balances the overturning moment due to
the lateral loads. For lateral loading the cantilever experiences only bending but no resultant axial force such that the
neutral axis, i.e. the axis of zero stress, passes through the centroid of the cross section (see Fig 6.17). As in the portal
method, we assume points of inflection to be located at mid-height of the columns and mid-span of the girders.
In summary, the cantilever method is based on the following assumptions (see Fig. 6.17):
(1) We place a hinge at the center of each girder and thus have point of zero moment at those locations
(2) We place a hinge at the center of each column and thus have point of zero moment at those locations
(3) The axial stress in each column is proportional to its distance from the centroid of the column areas. If the columns
have uniform cross-sectional areas, the force in a column is also proportional to its distance from the centroid of the co-
lumn areas.

Fig. 6.17 Approximations of the cantilever method.

6.4.2 Analysis procedure
(1) Consider free bodies obtained by a cut through the hinges in each story. Calculate the axial force in each column by
equating the external overturning moment produced by the lateral forces above the cut to the internal moment produced
by the column axial forces (Fig. 6.18). Example2 6.2 and 6.3 will present how to proceed using the techniques learned in
ARCE 222.
(2) Considering equilibrium at the joints (Fig. 6.16, same as in portal method) to calculate the shear forces in girders and
columns and the axial forces in the girders. As in the portal method, start at an exterior joint so that the corresponding
free-body diagram does not involve more than three unknown forces.
(3) Calculate the bending moments
g
M in the girders and the bending moments
c
M in the columns by
2
g g
L
M V = (6.7)
and
B

H
134
2
c c
H
M V = (6.8)
respectively.

Fig. 6.18 Free-body diagram to calculate axial forces in columns.
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5
P
6
P
7
P
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
F
5
F
135
6.4.3 Example 6.2
Problem: Reanalyze Example 6.1 (Section 6.3.2) using the cantilever method. Assume uniform cross-sectional area A
for all columns.

Solution:
1. Column axial forces
The moment of inertia of the cross section formed by the columns (see Fig. 6.19) is (parallel axis theorem)
( )
2 2
2 10 24 1353 I A A = + = (6.9)
Since we assume the axial stresses in the columns to be linearly distributed across the section (recall that the section
depth is the width of the building) we can use the flexure formula
i i
M
x
I
= (6.10)
to calculate the stress
i
in columni where
i
x is the distance from the centroid of the column layout to a columni . We
then multiply by the areaAto obtain the axial force in the columns. The column axial forces expressed in terms of the
overturning moment M are thus
24 0.01775 10 0.007396
1353 1353
EFGH ABCD
M M
F A M F A M
A A
= = = = (6.11)
We obtain the column axial forces in each story be calculating the overturning moment M for each story about the hinge
in that story (see Fig. 6.18) and then substitutingM in Eq. (6.11).
1st story:
30 30 20 18 10 6 1320 k-ft
0.01775 1320 23.43 k 0.007396 1320 9.76 k
2nd story:
30 18 20 6 660 k-ft
0.01775 660 11.72 k 0.007396 660 4.88 k
3rd story:
30 6 180 k-ft
MN EF IJ AB
BC NO FG JK
CD
M
F F F F
M
F F F F
M
F
= + + =
= = = = = =
= + =
= = = = = =
= =
0.01775 180 3.20 k 0.007396 180 1.33 k
OP GH KL
F F F = = = = = =
(6.12)
We should note that finding the axial stresses and axial forces in the columns involves exactly the same procedure as fin-
ding the stresses in cross-section of a beam (see Fig. 6.18). In particular, we should recall that the moment of inertia I
and the flexure formula Eq. (6.10) we introduced in ARCE 222 is the result of two assumptions: (1) stress distribution
across the section is linear and (2) moment equilibrium of the section (internal moment equals moment produced by the
stresses).

Fig. 6.19 Cross section of beam formed by column areas.

Section 6.4.4 presents a more detailed example on how to estimate the axial forces in the columns.

14 ft 10 ft 10 ft 14 ft
Columns
, , , A B C D
Columns
, , , E F G H
Columns
, , , I J K L
Columns
, , , M N O P
Area A Area A Area A Area A
136
2. Equilibrium of segments between hinges
Fig. 6.20 Equilibrium of segments between hinges (cantilever method).

The reactions at AandE are thus
7.46 k , 23.4 k , 44.8 k-ft(ccw) 22.5 k , 9.76 k , 135 k-ft(ccw)
x y x y
E A
A A M E E M = = = = = =

7 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
C
20
6.21
17.51
11.72
8.52
7 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
B
10
7.46
8.76
23.43
11.72
7 ft

6

f
t
3.73
30
3.19
3.19
26.27 D
G
3.19
3.73
6.21
11.72
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t
H 26.27
3.19
1.33
15.00
11.27
4.53
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
17.51
8.52 12.07
10.00
4.88
1.33
11.27
18.79
G
7 ft 10 ft

6

f
t

6

f
t
4.88
18.79
8.76
11.72
9.76
22.54
5.00
16.60
F
137
3. Moment diagram

Fig. 6.21 Moment diagram (approximate analysis by cantilever method).

Fig. 6.22 Moment diagrams for approximate and exact methods (exact analysis is for
C G
I I = )
45.3
22.4
59.6
121
82.0
166
59.6
22.4
82.0
44.7
37.3
44.7
37.3
22.4
135
135
113
113
67.6
67.6
M
[k-ft]
exact indeterminate analy
ca
port
ntil
al met
ever m
h
e
si
od
s
thod
138
6.4.4 Example 6.3

Fig. 6.23 Example 6.3: Estimating axial forces for cantilever method.

Problem: Using the cantilever method, estimate the column axial forces of the frame above.

Solution: Since the columns have different spacing and different cross-sectional area, we first need to find the centroid
of the section composed by the four columns (see Fig. 6.24)
0 20 12 10 28 10 48 20
22.67 ft
60
i i
c
i
x A
x
A
+ + +
= = =
(6.13)
The moment of inertia of the cross section formed by the columns is (parallel axis theorem)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
0 22.67 20 12 22.67 10 28 22.67 10 48 22.67 20
22.67 20 10.67 10 5.33 10 25.33 20
24533 ft in
I = + + +
= + + +
=
(6.14)

Fig. 6.24 Cross section (non-symmetrical) of beam formed by column areas.
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
10 k
20 k
30 k
40 k
2
10 in A=
2
20 in A=
2
20 in A=
2
10 in A=
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft
22.67 ft
Col.
, , , , A B C D E
2
=10in A
2
=20in A
2
=20in A
2
=10in A
Col.
, , , , F G H I J
Col.
, , , , K L M N O
Col.
, , , , P Q R S T
139
Since we assume the axial stresses in the columns to be linearly distributed across the section (recall that the section is
the width of the building) we can use the flexure formula
i i
M
x
I
= (6.15)
to calculate the stress
i
in columni where
i
x is the distance from the centroid of the column layout to a columni . The
axial force
i
N in columni is then
i i i i i
M
N A x A
I
= = (6.16)
For a cut through the hinges in the first story, the overturning moment is (see Fig. 6.25)
( ) 40 3.5 30 2.5 20 1.5 10 0.5 12 3000k-ft M = + + + = (6.17)

Fig. 6.25 Free-body diagram for first story column axial forces.

Using Eq. (6.16), the axial forces in the columns of the first story are
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3000 k-ft 3000k-ft
22.67 ft 20in 55.44 k (T) 10.67 ft 10 in 13.04 k (T)
24533ft in 24533ft in
3000k-ft 3000k-ft
5.33ft 10 in 6.52 k (C) 25.33ft 20 in 61.96k (C)
24533ft in 24533ft in
y y
y y
A F
K P
= = = =
= = = =
(6.18)
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft

6

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t
22.67 ft
10.67 ft 5.33 ft
25.33 ft
B
C
D
E
G
H
I
J
L
M
N
O
Q
R
S
T
y
A
y
F
y
K y
P
x
A
x
F
x
K
x
P
10 k
20 k
30 k
40 k
A
140

Fig. 6.26 Free-body diagram for second story column axial forces.

Likewise, we obtain for the overturning moment of the second story (see Fig. 6.26)
( ) 40 2.5 30 1.5 20 0.5 12 1860k-ft M = + + = (6.19)
The column forces are
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
k-ft 1860
22.67 ft 20 in 34.4 k (T)
24533 ft in
1860 k-ft
10.67 ft 10 in 8.09 k (T)
24533 ft in
1860 k-ft
5.33 ft 10 in 4.04 k (C)
24533 ft in
1860 k-ft
25.33 ft 20 in 38.4 k (C)
24533 ft in
y
y
y
y
B
G
L
Q
= =
= =
= =
= =
(6.20)

6

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t
C
D
E
H
I
J
M
N
O
R
S
T
20 k
30 k
40 k
y
B
y
G
y
L y
Q
x
B
x
G
x
L
x
Q
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft 5.33 ft
25.33 ft
141
The overturning moment for the third story is (see Fig. 6.27)
( ) 40 1.5 30 0.5 12 900 k-ft M = + = (6.21)
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
k-ft 900
22.67 ft 20 in 16.6 k (T)
24533 ft in
90 k-ft 0
10.67 ft 10 in 3.92 k (T)
24533 ft in
90 k-ft 0
5.33 ft 10 in 1.96 k (C)
24533 ft in
90 k-ft 0
25.33 ft 20 in 18.6 k (C)
24533 ft in
y
y
y
y
C
H
M
R
= =
= =
= =
= =
(6.22)

Fig. 6.27 Free-body diagram for third story column axial forces.

6

f
t

1
2

f
t
D
E
I
J
N
O
S
T
30 k
40 k
y
C
y
H
y
M y
R
x
C
x
H
x
M
x
R
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft 5.33 ft
25.33 ft
142

Fig. 6.28 Free-body diagram for fourth story column axial forces.

Finally, the overturning moment for the fourth story is (see Fig. 6.28)
40 0.5 12 240 k-ft M = = (6.23)
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
k-ft 240
22.67 ft 20 in 4.43 k (T)
24533 ft in
240 k-ft
10.67 ft 10 in 1.04 k (T)
24533 ft in
240 k-ft
5.33 ft 10 in 0.52 k (C)
24533 ft in
240 k-ft
25.33 ft 20 in 4.96 k (C)
24533 ft in
y
y
y
y
D
I
N
S
= =
= =
= =
= =
(6.24)
Note that the relative magnitude, i.e. the ratio of the column axial forces, does not change over the height of the building.

6

f
t

E J O T
40 k
y
D
y
I
y
N y
S
x
D
x
I
x
N
x
S
12 ft 16 ft 20 ft
22.67 ft
10.67 ft 5.33 ft
25.33 ft
143
Problems

6.1
Use the portal method to approximately analyze the frame structure above. Draw the bending moment, shear force and
axial force diagrams.

6.2
Use the cantilever method to approximately analyze the frame structure above. Draw the bending moment, shear force
and axial force diagrams.

15 ft 20 ft 15 ft

1
5

f
t

1
2

f
t
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
25 k
50 k
20 ft 20 ft

1
6

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t

1
2

f
t
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
20 k
25 k
30 k
30 k
144

6.3
Use the cantilever method to estimate the axial forces in columns , A B andC of the ten-story building (clearly indicate
tension or compression). Also find the bending moment in columnD .

Solution
265(T) 44(T) 309(C) ( )
B C A
F F F ans = = =
34.8( )
D
M ans =

5.00 8.00

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0

4
.
0
0
100
A B
D
C
145
7 Influence Lines

7.1 Introduction

Fig. 7.1 Illustration of influence line and internal force diagram.
max. compression max. tension 0
146
7.1.1 General Remarks
When designing structures, we have to determine the most unfavorable set of internal design forces due to all possible
external design loads or load combinations. In many cases, we have to consider movable loads whose most unfavorable
positions cannot be readily determined. In these cases, influence lines help us to determine the load positions for
maximum effects.

An influence line is defined as a diagram that describes the variation of a load effect as a concentrated force of unit mag-
nitude moves across the structure. We can determine influence lines for all possible load effects like internal forces,
stresses, displacements, strains, etc. In this class, we focus on influence lines for internal forces in beams.

Throughout this chapter, we have to strongly differentiate between influence lines for an internal force and internal
force diagrams. Internal force diagrams, like moment, axial force or shear force diagrams show the value of an internal
force at several, usually all locations in the structure due to a stationary loading. An influence line, on the other hand,
shows the variation of an internal force at one particular location say at location r as a function of the position of a unit
load.

Figure 7.1 helps us distinguish between the concepts of influence lines and internal force diagram. If we fix position of
the truck in Fig. 7.1 and look at all the member forces that this load position causes, we are considering an internal force
diagram. If, in contrast, we look at one specific member of the truss and investigate how its force varies with the position
of the truck, the result of that analysis is the influence line for that member force.

7.1.2 Internal Force Diagram Revisited
Let us first recall the idea of an internal force diagram and look for the bending moment diagram M of the beam with
cantilever shown in Fig. 7.2.

Fig. 7.2 Beam with cantilever (internal force diagrams revisited).
We find the shear force and bending moment by cutting the beam at an arbitrary sectionx and considering equilibrium
of the portion of the beam on one side of the section. As always, we define the bending moment as positive when it
causes tension at the bottom of the beam. Figure 7.3 shows the two free-body diagrams.

Fig. 7.3 Free-body diagrams to calculate internal forcesV andM .
Applying the equations of equilibrium gives
2
1
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
( ) 0 ( ) 0
2
( ) 0 ( ) 0 with
2
x
M x Ax w x L M x Px x a
wL a
V x A x L V x P x a A P
L
= =
= = =
(7.1)
L
a
P
w
A
V V
P
w
A 1
x
2
x
M M
147
By plotting the preceding equations, Fig. 7.4 shows the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Fig. 7.4 Moment and shear force diagrams for beam with cantilever.

7.1.3 Influence Line by statics
For simple structures, we can determine influence lines directly. For the beam with cantilever considered above, let us
determine the influence line for the bending moment
r
M and the shear force
r
V at midspan. Thus we need to deter-
mine
r
M and
r
V as a function of the position x of a unit load 1 F = (see Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5 Find influence lines for overhanging beam.
Obviously, we need to consider two cases, case 1 is for the unit load acting at the left-hand side of locationsr and case 2
for the unit load acting at the right-hand side of locationr . The figure below shows the free-body diagrams correspon-
ding to the two cases.

Fig. 7.6 Free-body diagrams to find influence lines " "
r
M and " "
r
V by statics.
Equilibrium for Case 1 gives
1 ( ) 1 ( ) 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0
2
r
r
L L L x L L x L
M A x x x
L
x L
V A x
L
= = =
= =
(7.2)
Equilibrium for Case 2 gives
1
( )
2 2 2 2
2
r
r
L L x L L
M A L x x L a
L
L x L
V A x L a
L
= = = < +
= = < +
(7.3)
L/2
x
L/2
A A
1 F =
r
M
r
M
r
V r
V
Case 2:
2
L
x > Case 1:
2
L
x
r r
x
/2 L /2 L a
1 F =
r
A
wL A
P
Pa
2
/8 wL
+
+
+

V
M
148
Plotting the above equations gives us the two desired influence lines.

Fig. 7.7 Influence lines " "
r
M and " "
r
V for overhanging beam.
It is important to note that the coordinatex in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6 as well as Eqs. 7.2 and 7.3 denotes the location of the
load and not that of the bending moment or the shear force as in Eq. (7.1). In order to clearly distinguish between force
diagram and influence line it is helpful to use quotes to denote influence lines.

7.2 Influence lines by kinematics-Mller-Breslau principle
The direct method of determining influence lines (see previous section) is limited to simple structures. A general method
to determine influence lines can be derived from the principle of virtual displacements. We illustrate the procedure using
the same sample structure as before (see Fig. 7.5). To find the influence line for the bending moment
r
M , we create a
mechanism at the section r where the influence line is desired, i.e. we remove the resistance of the beam against bend-
ing at that section. We then impose a rotation at that section and set up the virtual work equation, i.e. we equate internal
and external work. We obtain
0
r r m
M F v

+ = (7.4)
where
r
M is the bending moment at locationr due toF at locationm and
m
v
is the deflection at m due to the imposed de-

formation
r
. If we let 1
m
F = , 1
r
= , drop the prime-symbol and consider a variable locationm we can write

( )
r m
M v v x = = (7.5)
Hence the bending moment at r due to a unit load is equal to the displacement at the location of the load due to a unit ro-
tation at r . But the moment at r due to a unit load acting at an arbitrary locationx is by definition the influence line for
the moment at r . Hence
" " ( )
r
M v x = (7.6)
due to 1
r
= . Figure 7.8 illustrates the procedure. The result is the same as that obtained by the direct method (see
Fig. 7.7).
+

4
L
2
a
" "
r
M
+
" "
r
V
1
2
1
2
a
L
/2 L /2 L a
+
149

Fig. 7.8 Influence line " "
r
M = deflected shape due to 1
r
= .
In the same manner we can determine influence lines for a shear force V. We need to remove the resistance to the shear
force and introduce a complementary, that is a vertical deformation of unit magnitude in the direction opposite to the po-
sitive sign of that force (see Fig. 7.9). The desired influence line is then the deflected shape resulting from the imposed
deformation. The result is the same as that of " "
r
V in Fig. 7.7.

Fig. 7.9 Positive internal forces, negative unit deformation.
The idea of finding influence lines as deflected shapes was developed by Mller-Breslau in 1886. In summary, the
Mller-Breslau principle states: The influence line for an internal force at locationr is the deflected shape of the
structure produced by removing at r the capacity with respect to the force and then introducing a (negative) unit
displacement that corresponds to the restraint removed.

7.3 Use of Influence Lines

7.3.1 General Remarks
Once influence lines have been determined it is straightforward to use them in order to determine the corresponding load
effect under any loading condition. We recall that the ordinate of the influence line at a point is the value of the load
effect due to a unit load acting at that point. Thus, all we need to do is sum all the loads times their corresponding ordi-
nate of the influence line. For an arbitrary load effect
r
S we thus have
( ) ( )d
r i i
i
S P w x x x = +

(7.7)
where
i
P and ( ) w x are concentrated forces and distributed loads, respectively. Note that the above equation is based on
the principle of superposition, which states that the forces in an elastic structure are proportional to the magnitude of the
applied loads.

r
M
r
V
1
r
v =
1
r
=
r
r
r
r
1 F =
r
r
M
1 F =
m
m
v
4
L
1
r
=
2
a
+

/2 L
/2 L
a
" "
r
M
150
Example: Find the value of the bending moment at midspan of the beam in Fig. 7.10 (7.2) under the loading shown.

Fig. 7.10 Influence line and loading.

Applying Eq. (7.7) gives

2
1
4 2 2 8 2
r
L a L a
M w L P w P = = (7.8)

7.4 Example 7.1

Fig. 7.11 Example 7.1

Problem:
(a) Draw the influence lines for the shear force and bending moment at locationr of the beam above.

(b) Calculate the maximum and minimum values of the shear force and the bending moment due to the uniformly distri-
buted load (dead load) and the moving loads shown. The relative position of the two concentrated forces is fixed.

Solution:
(a) We obtain the influence line for the shear force at r by first removing the capacity of the section to transmit shear (but
not axial force or bending moment) and then introducing a unit displacement in the direction opposite to the positive di-
rection of the shear force. Note that we obtain all influence ordinates by simple proportions (similar triangles).

We obtain the influence line for the bending moment at r by first removing the capacity of the section to transmit a ben-
ding moment (but not axial force or shear force) and then introducing a unit rotation in the direction opposite to the posi-
tive direction of the bending moment. Again, we obtain all influence ordinates by simple proportions (similar triangles).
L a
P
w
A
2
a
+
4
L
" "
r
M
r
1 m
3 m 3 m 4 m 5 m
100kN 100kN
10 kN/m
r
151

Fig. 7.12 Influence lines for shear force and bending moment.

(b)
Distributed load (dead load)
The value for the shear force and moment at locationr due to the distributed load is the area under the influence line
multiplied by the magnitude of the load, hence
0.5 9 0.6667 10 30 kN 0.5 (1.5 6 2 9) 10 45 kNm
r r
V M = = = = (7.9)
Moving load
To calculate the maximum shear force and bending moment due to the moving load, we position the two forces such that
the combined influence is maximized. To calculate the minimum shear force and bending moment (or maximum nega-
tive values) due to the moving load, we position the two forces such that the combined influence is minimized. Finding
the controlling position for moving loads, sometimes involves some trial and error. For influence lines that are piecewise
linear as is the case for statically determinate structures, one of the concentrated forces is always placed at the maximum
ordinates of the influence line. We obtain
min (0.667 0.533) 100 120kN max (0.5 0.333) 100 83.33kN
min (2 1.6) 100 360kNm max (1.5 1) 100 250kNm
r r
r r
V V
M M
= + = = + =
= + = = + =
(7.10)
Combining dead load and live load gives
min 30 120 150kN max 30 83.33 53.33kN
min 45 360 405kNm max 45 250 205kNm
r r
r r
V V
M M
= = = + =
= = = + =
(7.11)
7.5 Properties of influence lines of statically determinate structures
Influence lines of statically determinate structures are always piecewise linear. This is because the induced deformation
does not cause any internal forces or curvatures in the beam. Consequently, we can obtain the influence lines for stati-
cally determinate structures by simple geometry.

0.6667
0.5
+
1.50
+
2.00
0.5
min
min
max
max
" "
r
M
[m]
" "
r
V
[ ]
(0.500, 0.333)
(0.667, 0.533)
(1.000,1.500)
(2.000,1.600)
152
7.6 Influence Lines of Statically Indeterminate Structures

7.6.1 General remarks
It can be shown that Eq. 7.4 holds irrespective of whether the structure is statically determinate or indeterminate. That is
we find influence lines for statically indeterminate structures by imposing a negative unit complementary deformation at
the location where the influence line is desired. The fundamental difference, however, is that statically indeterminate
structures offer resistance to the imposed deformation. That resistance causes deformations, i.e. curvature and/or axial
strains, such that the segments of the influence lines are generally curved.

The analytical treatment of influence lines for statically indeterminate structures is thus beyond the scope of this class.
Our main objectives regarding influence lines for indeterminate structures are:
(1) become familiar with the shape of influence lines for internal forces of continuous beams,
(2) sketch influence lines for internal forces of continuous beams,
(3) establish live load patterns to produce maximum effects in continuous beams.

As a first example, we consider the two-span continuous beam in Fig. 7.13 and consider the influence line for the ben-
ding moment at midspanAB . According to the Mller-Breslau principle, we first remove the capacity with respect to
bending at that location, i.e. place a hinge at midspanAB , and then introduce a relative rotation of unit magnitude at the
hinge. The resulting deflected shape is equal to the influence line (Fig. 7.13).

Fig. 7.13 Influence Line for span moment of two-span continuous beam.

7.6.2 Live load patterns to maximize forces in multi-span beams (Skip Loading)
Building codes require that we vary the position of the live loads to maximize a certain force at a particular section. In
most cases, we find the largest live loads effects by placing the live load on certain portions of the structure but not on
others. We may use influence lines to identify the portions of a structure that we should load to maximize the design
force at critical section. Shown in Fig. 7.14 are examples of influence lines for a four-span continuous beam. We obtain
the influence line " "
C
M for the support moment atC by first introducing a hinge at that location and then rotating the two
member ends relative to each other. We obtain the influence line for the span moment
2
M correspondingly. We generate
the influence line for the support force at A(equal to the shear force at A) by first removing the vertical support at Aand
then introducing a vertical displacement.

A B
C
1 =
/2 L /2 L L
+
" "
B
M
153

Fig. 7.14 Influence lines for four-span continuous beam.

From Fig. 7.14, we can derive the following rules regarding live load effects

(1) We obtain the maximum moment in spani by loading spans ..., 2, , 2,... i i i +
(2) We obtain the minimum moment in spani by loading spans ..., 1, 1,... i i +
(3) We obtain the minimum support moment (maximum negative value) by loading the two spans adjacent to the sup-
port and every other span next to those. This live load pattern also yields the absolute maximum values of the shear for-
ces at this support and the maximum support force.
(4) We obtain the maximum support moment and the minimum support reaction force by a live load pattern that is oppo-
site to (3).

To further illustrate the above rules, we look at a five-span continuous beam in Fig. 7.15. Shown are all relevant live
load patterns and the corresponding design forces associated with each loading pattern. Qualitative bending moment and
shear force diagrams due to dead load (uniformly distributed across all spans, Case 0) and each live load pattern are plot-
ted in Fig. 7.15. Figure 7.16 shows the shear fore and bending moment envelope diagrams. An envelope is a plot of the
maximum and minimum forces (for beams these are shear force and bending moment) that can occur at any given sec-
tion accounting for different positions of the live load. Clearly, we must include the dead load forces in the envelope dia-
grams.
L L L L
A B C D E
+

+ +

+
+
" "
C
M
" "
A
V
2
" " M
+
+
" "
CB
V
2
1
1
1 =
1 =
154

Fig. 7.15 Live load patterns for five-span continuous beam.
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
A B C D E F
5 1 3
2 4
max , max , max
min , min
max , max , max , max
FE AB
M M M
M M
V V A F
2 4
5 1 3
max , max
min , min , min
min , min , min , min
FE AB
M M
M M M
V V A F
min
min , max , max
B
BC BA
M
V V B
max
max , min , min
B
BC BA
M
V V B
min
min , max , max
C
CB CD
M
V V C
max
max , min , min
C
CB CD
M
V V C
min
min , max , max
D
DC DE
M
V V D
max
max , min , min
D
DC DE
M
V V D
min
min , max , max
E
ED EF
M
V V E
max
max , min , min
E
ED EF
M
V V E
155

Fig. 7.16 Moment and shear force diagrams for dead load (Case 0) and different live load patterns (Cases 1-10).

Fig. 7.17 Moment and shear force envelope diagrams for five-span continuous beam.

V
M
+
+
max
min
M
M
max
min
V
V
A
B C D E
F
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
V M
156
Problems

7.1

(1) Find the influence line for the (a) moment at A, (b) reaction force at A, (c) reaction force at D , (d) shear force at B ,
(e) shear force atC , (f) moment at B , (g) moment atC of the beam above. (2) Using the influence lines of (1), calculate
the maximum and minimum values resulting from two moving live loads, whose relative position is fixed.

Solution:
(2)
max 137.5 k-ft min 150 k-ft max 20 k min 13.75 k
max 33.75 k min 7.5 k max 20 k min 13.75 k
max 5 k min 13.75 k max 68.75 k-ft min 68.75 k-ft
max 20 k-ft min 55 k-ft
A A
B B
C C B B
C C
M M A A
D D V V
V V M M
M M
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
= =

7.2

(1) Find the influence line for (a) the moment at A, (b) the shear force at A, (c) the shear force at B , (d) the reaction
force atC of the beam above. (2) Using the influence lines of (1), calculate the maximum and minimum values resulting
from a uniformly distributed load of magnitude 5 kN/m (dead load across the entire beam) and two moving live loads,
whose relative position is fixed. (3) Repeat (2) considering the distributed load a live load of variable length.

Solution:
(2)
due to 5kN/m
135kNm 37.5kN 7.5kN 22.5kN
B A
w
M A V C
=
= = = =

due to 50 kN
max 225 kNm min 550 kNm max 100 kN min 37.5 kN
max 87.5 kN min 37.5 kN max 137.5 kN min 0
A A A A
B B
P
M M V V
V V C C
=
= = = =
= = = =

6 m 4 m 2 m
1 m
5kN/m
50kN
A B C
50kN
10.00
3.75
min max
A
5 ft 5 ft 4 ft 4 ft 8 ft 8 ft 3 ft
5 ft
A B D C
10k 10k
157
7.3

The influence line " "
B
M for the support moment at B of a two-span continuous beam is given by the function
3
1 1
" " 0 5
4 100
B
M x x x = +
(1) Using the above expression for the influence line, calculate by integration the support moment
B
M for a uniformly
distributed load applied to both spans. Check your result by using the fixed-end moment table.
(2) At what location must a concentrated forceP be placed to produce minimum
B
M ? What is the value for min
B
M ?
(3) Place P at the location found in (2) and verify the value for min
B
M using the force method of structural analysis.

Solution:
(1) 3.125 ( )
B
M w ans =
(2)
0
100
2.8867 m( ) 0.4811 ( )
12
B
x ans M P ans = = =
7.4

A dead load of 1k/ft
D
w = and a live load of 1.5k/ft
L
w = are applied to the six-span continuous beam shown. Use skip-
loading for the live load and find (electronically) the maximum and minimum design forces (dead load plus live load)
for the span moments, support moments, support reactions and the shear forces at the supports. Use symmetry to mini-
mize the number of live load patterns you need to analyze. For simplicity, assume that the maximum span moments
occur at midspan. The beam has constant flexural stiffness.

x x

" "
B
M
5.00 m 5.00 m
P
A
B
C
w
[m]
15 ft 20 ft 25 ft 25 ft 20 ft 15 ft
A B C D E F G
1 2 3 4 5 6
158
7.5

The influence line " "
B
M for the support moment at B of a two-span continuous beam is given by the function
3
1 1
" " 0 5
4 100
B
M x x x = +
(1) Using the above expression for the influence line, calculate by integration the support moment
B
M due to the triangu-
lar load shown.
(2) At what location
0
x must two concentrated forces P be placed to produce minimum
B
M ? What is the value
for min
B
M ?

7.6

A live load of intensity
live
3k/ft w = acts on a three-span continuous beam whose influence line for the bending moment
at mid-span 2 is given (ordinates every 2 ft). Use the influence line and the principle of skip loading to find the
minimum and maximum moments at mid-span of span 2. You may assume a linear variation of the influence line
between given ordinates.

x x

" "
B
M [m]
5.00 m 5.00 m
A
B
C
5 kN/m
x
0
1.00 m
5.00 m 5.00 m
P P
2
" " M [ft]
0
.
1
9
8
0
.
3
8
4
0
.
5
4
6
0
.
6
7
2
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
6
8
0
.
7
1
4
0
.
5
7
6
0
.
3
4
2
0
.
4
6
1
.
0
4
1
.
7
4
2
.
5
6
3
.
5
2
.
5
6
1
.
7
4
1
.
0
4
0
.
4
6
0
.
3
4
2
0
.
5
7
6
0
.
7
1
4
0
.
7
6
8
0
.
7
5
0
.
6
7
2
0
.
5
4
6
0
.
3
8
4
0
.
1
9
8
+

20 ft 20 ft 20 ft
A
B C
D
live
3k/ft w =
1 2 3
159

7.7

A live load of intensity
live
3k/ft w = acts on a three-span continuous beam whose influence line for the bending moment
at support B is given (ordinates every 2 ft). Use the influence line and the principle of skip loading to find the minimum
and maximum moments at support B . You may assume a linear variation of the influence line between given ordinates.

0
.
5
2
8
1
.
0
2
1
.
4
6
1
.
7
9
2
.
0
2
.
0
5
1
.
9
1
.
5
4
0
.
9
1
2
0
.
7
8
1
.
2
8
1
.
5
4
1
.
6
1
.
5
1
.
2
8
0
.
9
8
0
.
6
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
2
8
0
.
3
8
4
0
.
4
7
6
0
.
5
1
2
0
.
5
0
.
4
4
8
0
.
3
6
4
0
.
2
5
6
0
.
1
3
2
" "
B
M [ft]
+

20 ft 20 ft 20 ft
A
B C
D
live
3k/ft w =
1 2 3

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ARCE 302-Structural Analysis

Lecture Notes, Fall 2009

= . Now we can use HOOKEs

= at that location. The direction of the

233.33 0.667 4.472

along real shear strains is

20 ft 20 ft 7.5 ft 7.5 ft 6.0 ft

is the sum of all member stiffnesses framing into the joint.

67.9 67.9 100 100

is the deflection at m due to the imposed de-

= , drop the prime-symbol and consider a variable locationm we can write

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