Simele massacre

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Simele massacre

Area where villages were looted
Heavily targeted Assyrian villages
Location North of the Kingdom of Iraq, notably at Simele
Date August 7, 1933 August 11, 1933
Attack type
Summary executions, mass murder, looting
Deaths 6003,000
Victim Assyrians
Perpetrators Iraqi Army, Arab and Kurdish tribes
This article is part of the series on the
History of the
Assyrian people

Early history
Old Assyrian period (20th15th c. BC)
Aramaeans (14th9th c. BC)
Neo-Assyrian Empire (911612 BC)
Achaemenid Assyria (539330 BC)
Classical Antiquity
Seleucid Empire (31263 BC)
Osroene (132 BC 244 AD)
Syrian Wars (66 BC 217 AD)
Roman Syria (64 BC 637 AD)
Adiabene (15116 AD)
Roman Assyria (116118)
Christianization (1st to 3rd c.)
Nestorian Schism (5th c.)
Asuristan (226651)
ByzantineSasanian wars (502628)
Middle Ages
Muslim conquest of Syria (630s)
Abbasid rule (7501258)
Emirs of Mosul (9051383)
Buyid amirate of Iraq (9451055)
Principality of Antioch (10981268)
Ilkhanate Empire (12581335)
Jalayirid Sultanate (13351432)
Kara Koyunlu (13751468)
Aq Qoyunlu (14531501)
Modern History
Safavid Empire (1508-1555)
Ottoman Empire (15551917)
Schism of 1552 (16th c.)
Massacres of Badr Khan (1840s)
Massacres of Diyarbakir (1895)
Rise of nationalism (19th c.)
Adana Massacre (1909)
Assyrian genocide (19141920)
Independence movement (since 1919)
Simele massacre (1933)
Post-Saddam Iraq (since 2003)
See also
Assyrian continuity
Assyrian diaspora

The Simele massacre (Syriac: pramta d-Simele, Arabic: mabaat
Summayl) was a massacre committed by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Iraq during a
campaign systematically targeting the Assyrians of northern Iraq in August 1933. The term is used to
describe not only the massacre in Simele, but also the killing spree that took place among 63
Assyrian villages in the Dohuk and Mosul districts that led to the deaths of between 600
[1]
and
3,000
[2][3]
Assyrians.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
o 1.1 The Assyrians of the mountains
o 1.2 Iraqi independence and crisis
2 Massacres
o 2.1 Clashes at Dirabun
o 2.2 Beginning of the massacres
o 2.3 Looting of villages
o 2.4 The massacre of Simele
3 Targeted villages
4 Aftermath
o 4.1 Responsibility for the massacres
o 4.2 British role
5 Cultural impact and legacy
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
Background[edit]
The Assyrians of the mountains[edit]
The majority of the Assyrian affected by the massacres were adherents of the Assyrian Church of
the East (often dubbed Nestorian), who have originally inhabited the
mountainous Hakkari and Barwari regions covering parts of the modern provinces of
the Hakkri, rnak and Van in Turkey and Dohuk in Iraq, with a population ranging between 75,000
and 150,000.
[4][5]
Most of these Assyrians were massacred during theGenocide of 1915. The rest
endured two winter marches to Urmia in 1915 and to Hamadan in 1918. Many of them were
relocated to refugee camps by the British in Baquba and later to Habbaniyah, and in 1921 some
were enlisted in the pro-British Assyrian Levies which helped quell Kurdish revolts in the British
Mandate of Mesopotamia.
[6]
Most Hakkari Assyrians were resettled after 1925 in a cluster of villages
in northern Iraq.
[7]
Some of the villages where the Assyrians settled were leased directly by the
government, while others belonged to Kurdish landlords who had the right to evict them at any
time.
[8]

The Assyrians did not share an amicable relation with their neighbour. Their historical feud with the
Kurds, which culminated in 1915, was centuries old. Bitterness between the Assyrians and the Arabs
was reported by British historians as far back as 1920.
[9]
This was made worse by the British officers
of the Levies who encouraged the Assyrians to think that they were first-class troops, which had the
effect of increasing the natural pride of the Assyrians.
[9]
This, coupled with the fact that the British
and Assyrian Levies succeeded in suppressing Kurdish revolts when the Iraqi Army failed created an
inferiority complex among some Iraqi corps towards the British and the Assyrians.
[10]

The conclusion of the British mandate of Iraq caused considerable unease among the Assyrians
who felt betrayed by the British. For them, any treaty with the Iraqis had to take into consideration
their desire for an autonomous position similar to the Ottoman Millet system.
[11][12]
The Iraqis, on the
other hand felt that the Assyrian demands were, alongside the Kurdish disturbances in the north, a
conspiracy by the British to divide Iraq by agitating its minorities.
[13]

Iraqi independence and crisis[edit]
With Iraqi independence, the new Assyrian spiritual-temporal leader, Mar Eshai Shimun
XXIII the Catholicos Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East, demanded the Assyrians be
given autonomy within Iraq, seeking support from the United Kingdom and pressing his case before
theLeague of Nations in 1932. His followers planned to resign from the Assyrian Levies (a military
force under the command of the British that served British interests) and to re-group as a militia and
concentrate in the north, creating a de facto Assyrian enclave.
[14]

In spring 1933, Malik Yaqu, a former Levies' officer, was engaged in a propaganda campaign on
behalf of Mar Shimun trying to persuade the Assyrians not to apply for an Iraqi nationality or accept
the settlement offered to them by the central government. Yaqo was accompanied by 200 armed
men which was seen as an act of defiance by the Iraqi authorities.
[15]
His activities caused distress
among the Kurds and the Iraqi government started sending its army to the Dohuk region in order to
intimidate Yaqu and dissuade the Assyrians from joining his cause.
[16]

In June 1933, the Mar Shimun was invited to Baghdad for negotiations with Hikmat Sulayman's
government and was detained there after refusing to relinquish temporal authority.
[17]
He would
eventually be exiled to Cyprus.
[18]

Massacres[edit]
Clashes at Dirabun[edit]
On 21 July 1933, more than 600 Assyrians, led by Malik Yaqu, crossed the border into Syria in hope
of receiving asylum from the French Mandate of Syria. They were however disarmed and refused
asylum, and were subsequently given light arms and sent back to Iraq on 4 August. They then
decided to surrender themselves to the Iraqi Army.
[19]
While crossing the Tigris in the Assyrian
village of Dirabun, a clash erupted between the Assyrians and an Iraqi army brigade. Despite the
advantage of heavy artillery, the Iraqis were driven back to their military base in Dirabun. The
Assyrians, convinced that the army had targeted them deliberately, attacked the army's barracks
with little success.
[20]
They were driven back to Syria upon the arrival of Iraqi aeroplanes. The Iraqi
army lost 33 soldiers during the fighting while the Assyrian irregulars took fewer
casualties.
[21]
Historians do not agree on who started the clashes at the border. The British
Administrative Inspector for Mosul Lieutenant Colonel R. R. Stafford wrote that the Assyrians had no
intention of clashing with the Iraqis, while the Iraqi historian and son of the prominent Arab
nationalist Sati' al-Husri, Khaldun Husry claims that it was Yaqu's men who provoked the army at
Dirabun.
[1][22]
Husry supports rumours which circulated among nationalist newspapers of the
Assyrians mutilating the bodies of killed Iraqi soldiers,
[23]
which further enraged the Iraqi public
opinion against the Assyrians.
[20]

Beginning of the massacres[edit]


Bakr Sidqi led the Iraqi Army during the Massacre of Simele.
Even though all military activities ceased by 6 August, stories of atrocities committed by the
Assyrians at Dirabun and rumours that Christians were planning to blow bridges up and poison
drinking water in major Iraqi cities spread.
[24]
According to some historians, the agitation against
Assyrians was also encouraged by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's Arab nationalist government, which saw it
as a distraction to the continuous Shiite revolt in the southern part of the country.
[25][26][27]

The Iraqi army led by the experienced brigadier general Bakr Sidqi moved north in order to crush the
Assyrians once and for all. They started executing every Assyrian male found in the
mountainous Bekher region between Zakho and Duhok starting from 8 August. Assyrian civilians
were transported in military trucks from Zakho and Dohuk to uninhabited places in batches of eight
or ten where they were shot with machine guns and run over by heavy armoured cars to make sure
no one survived.
[28]

Looting of villages[edit]
While these killings were taking place, nearby Kurdish, Arab and Yazidi tribes were encouraged to
loot Assyrian villages. Kurdish tribes of Gulli, Sindi and Selivani were encouraged by the mayor of
Zakho to loot villages to the northeast of Simele,
[29]
while Yazidis and Kurds also raided Assyrian
villages in Shekhan and Amadiya.
[30]
Most women and children from those villages took refuge in
Simele and Dohuk.
[31]

On 9 August, the Arab tribes of Shammar and Jubur started crossing the east bank of the Tigris and
raiding Assyrian villages on the plains to the south of Dohuk.
[31]
They were mostly driven by the loss
of a large amount of their own livestock to drought in the previous years.
[32]

More than 60 Assyrian villages were looted. Even though women and children were mostly left to
take refuge in neighbouring villages, men were sometimes rounded up and handed over to the army,
by whom they were duly shot.
[30]
Some villages were completely burned down and most of them
were later inhabited by Kurds.
[33]

The massacre of Simele[edit]


The Lethbridge Herald,
August 18, 1933
The town of Simele became the last refuge for Assyrians fleeing from the looted villages. The mayor
of Zakho arrived with a military force on 8 and 9 August to disarm the city. During that time
thousands of refugees flocked around the police post in the town, where they were told by officials
that they would be safe under the Iraqi flag.
[31]
The 10th of August saw the arrival of Kurdish and
Arab looters who, undeterred by the local police, took away the freshly cut wheat and barley. During
the night of 1011 August, the Arab inhabitants of Simele joined the looting. The Assyrian villagers
could only watch as their Arab neighbours drove their flocks before them.
[34]

On 11 August the villagers were ordered to leave the police post and return to their homes, which
they began to do with some reluctance. As they were heading back Iraqi soldiers in armoured cars
arrived, and the Iraqi flag flying over the police post was pulled down.
[34]
Without warning or obvious
provocation, the troops began to fire indiscriminately against the defenseless Assyrians. Ismael
Abbawi Tohalla, the commanding officer, then ordered his troops not to target women. Stafford,
describes the ensuing massacre as follows:
[35]

A cold blooded and methodical massacre of all the men in the village then followed, a massacre which for
the black treachery in which it was conceived and the callousness with which it was carried out, was as
foul a crime as any in the blood stained annals of the Middle East. The Assyrians had no fight left in them,
partly because of the state of mind to which the events of the past week had reduced them, largely
because they were disarmed. Had they been armed it seems certain that Ismail Abawi Tohalla and his
bravos would have hesitated to take them on in fair fight. Having disarmed them, they proceeded with the
massacre according to plan. This took some time. Not that there was any hurry, for the troops had the
whole day ahead of them. Their opponents were helpless and there was no chance of any interference
from any quarter whatsoever. Machine gunners set up their guns outside the windows of the houses in
which the Assyrians had taken refuge, and having trained them on the terror stricken wretches in the
crowded rooms, fired among them until not a man was left standing in the shambles. In some other
instance the blood lust of the troops took a slightly more active form, and men were dragged out and shot
or bludgeoned to death and their bodies thrown on a pile of dead.
In his depiction of the massacre, Mar Shimun, mentions that:
[36]

Girls were raped and made to march naked before Iraqi commanders. Children were run over by military
cars. Pregnant women were bayonetted. Children were flung in the air and pierced on to the points of
bayonets. Holy books were used for the burning of the massacred.
The official Iraqi account that the Assyrian casualties were sustained during a short battle with
Kurdish and Arab tribes has been discredited by all historians.
[37]
Khaldun Husry claims that the
mass killing was not premeditated, and that the responsibility lies on the shoulder of, Ismael Abbawi,
a junior officer in the army.
[38]

On 13 August, Bakr Sidqi moved his troops to Alqosh, where he planned to inflict a further massacre
on the Assyrians who found refuge there. He was prevented in this by the intervention of
the Chaldean Patriarch Yousef VI Emmanuel II Thomas.
[34][39]

Targeted villages[edit]


The targeted villages in the Simele and Zakho districts
List of targeted villages
[40]

Ala Keena Bameri Betershy Dairke Gond Naze Kaserezden Korekavana Majel Makhte Sirchuri

Aloka Barcawra Betafrey Dair Kishnik Harkonda Kerry Kowashey Rabibyia Shekhidra

Badalliya Baroshkey Bidari Derjendy Idleb Kitba Lazga Rekawa Spendarook

Baderden Basorik Biswaya Fishkhabour Kaberto Khalata Mansouriya Sar Shorey Tal Zet

Bagerey Bastikey Carbeli Garvaly Karpel Kharab Koli Mawani Sezary Tel Khish

Bakhitmey Benaringee Chem Jehaney Gereban Karshen Kharsheniya Qasr Yazdin Sidzari Zeniyat

Today, most of these villages are inhabited by Kurds. The main campaign lasted until 16 August, but
violent raids on Assyrians were being reported up to the end of the month.
[41]
The campaign resulted
in one third of the Assyrian population of Iraq fleeing to Syria.
[42]

Aftermath[edit]


The Assyrian town of Alqosh where a massacre was planned on its population.
On 18 August, Iraqi troops entered Mosul where they were given an enthusiastic reception by its
Muslim inhabitants. Triumphant arches were erected and decorated with melons pierced with
daggers, symbolising the heads of murdered Assyrians.
[43]
The crown prince Ghazi himself came to
the city to award 'victorious' colours to those military and tribal leaders who participated in the
massacres and the looting.
[44]
Anti-Christian feeling was at its height in Mosul, and the Christians of
the city were largely confined to their homes during the whole month in fear of further action by the
frenzied mob.
[44]

The Iraqi army later paraded in the streets of Baghdad in celebration of its victories.
[45]
Bakr Sidqi
was promoted; he later led Iraq's first military coup and became prime minister.
[46]
Popular support
for a compulsory conscription bill rose after the massacres.
Immediately after the massacre and the repression of the alleged Assyrian uprising, the Iraqi
government demanded a conscription bill. Non-Assyrian Iraqi tribesmen offered to serve in the Iraqi
army in order to counter the Assyrians. In late August, the government of Mosul demanded that the
central government 'ruthlessly' stamp out the rebellion, eliminate all foreign influence in Iraqi affairs,
and take immediate steps to enact a law for compulsory military service. The next week, 49 Kurdish
tribal chieftains joined in a pro-conscription telegram to the government, expressing thanks for
punishing the 'Assyrian insurgents',
[47]
stating that a "nation can be proud of itself only through its
power, and since evidence of this power is the army," they requested compulsory military
service.
[47]
Rashid Ali al-Gaylani presented the bill to the parliament, his government fell, however,
before it was legislated and Jamil al-Midfai's government enacted conscription in Februari 1934.
[48][49]

From the nationalists' point of view, the Assyrian Levies were British proxies to be used by their
'masters' to destroy the new Iraqi state whose independence the British had consistently opposed.
The British allowed their Assyrian auxiliary troops to retain their arms and granted them special duty
and privileges: guarding military air installations and receiving higher pay than the Iraqi Arab
recruits.
[50]
Under British protection, the Assyrian Levies did not become Iraqi citizens after until
1924.
[51]
The nationalists believed the British were hoping for the Assyrians to destroy Iraq's internal
cohesion by becoming independent and by inciting others such as the Kurds to follow their
example.
[52]

The massacres and looting had a deep psychological impact on the Assyrians. Stafford reported
their low morale upon arrival in Alqosh:
[53]

When I visited Alqosh myself on August 21st I found the Assyrians, like the Assyrians elsewhere, utterly
panic-stricken. Not only were they disturbed, but their spirit was completely broken. It was difficult to
recognize in their cowed demeanour the proud mountaineers whom everyone had known so well and
admired so much for the past dozen years.


Assyrian refugees on a wagon moving to a newly constructed village on the Khaburriver in Syria.
Because of the massacre, around 6,200 Assyrians left Nineveh plains immediately for the
neighbouring French Mandate of Syria, and were later joined by 15,000 refugees the following years.
They concentrated in the Jazira region and built a number of villages on the banks of the Khabur
River.
[54]

King Faysal, who recently returned to Iraq from a medical vacation, was very stressed during the
crisis. His health deteriorated even more during the hot summer days in Baghdad. The British
Charg d'Affaires met him in his Pajamas squatting in his bed on 15 Augusts where he denied that a
massacre was committed in Simele. Faysal left Iraq again on 2 September seeking a cooler climate
in London where he died 5 days later.
[55]

Mar Shimun who was detained since June 1933 was forced into exile along with his extended family
despite initial British reluctance. He was flown to by an RAF plane to Cyprus in 18 Augusts, and later
to the United States in 1949, thus later forcing the head of the Assyrian Church of the East to
relocate to Chicago where it remains to this day.
[18]
In 1948, Mar Shimun met with the
representatives of Iraq, Syria and Iran in Washington subsequently calling upon his followers to "live
as loyal citizens wherever they resided in the Middle East" relinquishing his role as a temporal leader
and the nationalistic role of the church. This left a power vacuum in Assyrian politics that was filled
by the Assyrian Universal Alliance in 1968.
[3]

Responsibility for the massacres[edit]
Official British sources estimate the total number of all Assyrians killed during August 1933 at around
600, while Assyrian sources put the figure at 3,000.
[1]
Historians disagree as to who holds
responsibility for ordering the mass killings. Stafford blames Arab nationalists, most prominently
Rashid Ali al-Gaylani and Bakr Sidqi.
[16][56]
According to him, Iraqi Army officers despised the
Assyrians, and Sidqi in particular was vocal of his hate for them. This view was also shared by
British officials who recommended to King Faysal not to send him to the north during the
crisis.
[16]
Husry, on the other hand, blamed the Assyrians for starting the crisis and absolved Sidqi
from ordering the mass killing in Simele. He hinted that King Faysal I was the authority who might
have issued orders to exterminate Assyrian males.
[56]
Kanan Makiya, a leftist Iraqi historian, presents
the actions taken by the military as a manifestation of the nationalist anti-imperialist paranoia which
was to culminate with the Ba'athists ascent to power in the 1960s.
[57]
Fadhil al-Barrak, an Iraqi
Ba'athist historian, puts Sidqi as the author of the whole campaign and the ensuing massacres. For
him the events were part of a history of Iraq prior to the true nationalist revolution.
[57]

British role[edit]
IraqiBritish relations faced a short cooling down period during and after the crisis. The Iraqis were
previously encouraged by the British to detain Mar Shimun in order to defuse tensions.
[58]
The British
were as well wary of Iraqi military leaders and recommended to transfer Bakr Sidqi, a senior ethnic
Kurdish general who was stationed in Mosul, to another region due to his open animosity towards
the Assyrians.
[58]
Later, they had to intervene to dissuade King Faysal from personally leading a
tribal force to punish the Assyrians.
[56]
The general Iraqi public opinion promoted by newspapers, was
that the Assyrians were proxies used by the British to undermine the newly established kingdom,
was also shared by some leading officials including the prime minister himself. The British and
European protests following the massacre only confirmed to them that the "Assyrian rebellion" was
the work of European imperialism.
[59]

Both King George V of England and Cosmo Gordon Lang the Bishop of Canterbury took a personal
interest in the Assyrian affair. British representatives at home demanded from Faysal that Sidqi and
other culprits be tried and punished.
[59]
The massacres were seen in Europe as a Jihad against a
small Christian minority.
[60]

In the long term, however, the British backed Iraq and rejected an international inquiry into the
killings, fearing that this may provoke further massacres against Christians.
[59]
They also didn't insist
on punishing the culprits, who were now seen as heroes by Iraqis.
[59]
The official British stance was
to defend the Iraqi government for its perseverance and patience in dealing with the crisis and to
attribute the massacres to rogue army units. A report on the battle of Dirabun blames the Assyrians,
defends the actions of the Iraqi Army, and commends Bakr Sidqi as a good officer.
[59]

The change in British attitude towards the Assyrians gave rise to the notion of the British
betrayal among some Assyrian circles.
[61]
An idea which first gained popularity after 1918 when the
Assyrians who were concentrated in Urmia did not receive the British relief which led to their
massacre by the Turks and Kurds and their deportation to Hamadan.
[62]

Cultural impact and legacy[edit]


Church Of Martyrs - named after the massacre, it stands today in the town of Simele.


August in Syriac with the number 7 is often a symbol chosen by Assyrian organizations to commemorate the events.
7 August officially became known as Martyrs Day or National Day of Mourning by the Assyrian
community in memory for the Simele massacre, as it was declared so by the Assyrian Universal
Alliance in 1970.
[63]

In 2004, the Syrian government banned an Assyrian political organization from commemorating the
event and threatened arrests if any were to break the ban.
[64]

Assyrian music artist Shlimon Bet Shmuel has written a song about the event.
[65]
A number of poems
and stories have been written about the incident, including one by the American William Saroyan,
titled "Seventy Thousand Assyrians", written in 1934;
...We're washed up as a race, we're through, it's all over, why should I learn to read the (Assyrian)
language? We have no writers, we have no news well, there is a little news: once in a while the
English encourage the Arabs to massacre us, that is all. It's an old story, we know all about it.

[66][67]

The Simele massacre inspired Raphael Lemkin to create the concept of "Genocide".
[68]
In 1933,
Lemkin made a presentation to the Legal Council of the League of Nations conference on
international criminal law in Madrid, for which he prepared an essay on the Crime of Barbarity as a
crime against international law. The concept of the crime, which later evolved into the idea of
genocide, was based on the Simele massacre, the Armenian Genocide and the Jewish Holocaust.
[69]

The massacres also had a deep impact on the newly established Kingdom of Iraq. Kanan Makiya
argues that the killing of Assyrians transcended tribal, religious and ethnic barriers as Arabs, Kurds
and Yazidis were united in their anti-Assyrian and anti-western sentiments. According to him, the
pogrom was "the first genuine expression of national independence in a former Arab province of
the Ottoman Empire" and that the killing of Assyrian Christians was seen as a national duty.
[10]

The British were standing firmly behind the leaders of their former colony during the crisis, despite
the popular animosity towards them. General Headlam of the British military mission in Baghdad was
quoted saying: "the government and people have good reasons to be thankful to Colonel Bakr
Sidqi".
[70]

See also[edit]

Assyrians portal

I raq portal
List of massacres in Iraq
Assyrian struggle for independence
Iraqi Shia revolts 19351936
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Notes[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Zubaida 2000, p. 370
2. Jump up^ "Displaced persons in Iraqi Kurdistan and Iraqi refugees
in Iran". fidh.org. International Federation for Human Rights.
January 2003. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
3. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
DeKelaita, Robert (22 November 2009). "The
Origins and Developments of Assyrian Nationalism". Committee on
International Relations Of the University of Chicago. Assyrian
International News Agency. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
4. Jump up^ Joseph 2000, p. 60
5. Jump up^ Gaunt & Be-awoce 2006, pp. 125126
6. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, pp. 6263
7. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, pp. 4243
8. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, pp. 5354
9. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Husry 1974, p. 165
10. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Makiya 1998, p. 170
11. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 162
12. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 168
13. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 164
14. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 110
15. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 170
16. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Stafford 2006, pp. 128129
17. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 133
18. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
"Biography of His Holiness, The Assyrian Martyr ,
The Late Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII". Committee of the 50th
Anniversary of the Patriarchate of Mar Eshai Shimun XXIII.
peshitta.org. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
19. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 136
20. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Stafford 2006, p. 145
21. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 146
22. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 174
23. Jump up^ Husry 1974, pp. 175176
24. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 183
25. Jump up^ Makiya 1998, p. 169
26. Jump up^ Joseph 2000, p. 198
27. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 149
28. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, pp. 154155
29. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 167
30. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Stafford 2006, p. 168
31. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Stafford 2006, p. 158
32. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 169
33. Jump up^ Makiya 1998, p. 168
34. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Stafford 2006, p. 159
35. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, pp. 160161
36. Jump up^ Shimun 2010, p. a62
37. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 345
38. Jump up^ Husry 1974, p. 347
39. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 162
40. Jump up^ Eshoo, Majed. "The Fate Of Assyrian Villages Annexed
To Today's Dohuk Governorate In Iraq And The Conditions In
These Villages Following The Establishment Of The Iraqi State In
1921". Assyrian International News Agency. Retrieved 23
September 2011.
41. Jump up^ Stafford, R. S. (1934). "Iraq and the Problem of the
Assyrians". International Affairs (Royal Institute of International
Affairs 1931-1939) 13 (2): 159
185.doi:10.2307/2603135. JSTOR 2603135.
42. Jump up^ Official journal , Volume 18. League of Nations. 1937.
p. 927.
43. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 184
44. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Stafford 2006, p. 188
45. Jump up^ Anderson & Stansfield 2004, pp. 2324
46. Jump up^ Anderson & Stansfield 2004, p. 25
47. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Simon 2004, p. 113
48. Jump up^ Eisenstadt, M; Mathewson, E (2003). U.S. policy in
post-Saddam Iraq: lessons from the British experience.
Washington Institute for Near East Policy. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-
944029-84-8.
49. Jump up^ Nisan 2002, p. 106
50. Jump up^ Kelidar 1979, p. 106
51. Jump up^ Omissi 1990, p. 65
52. Jump up^ Sluglett 2007, pp. 154156
53. Jump up^ Stafford 2006, p. 171
54. Jump up^ League of Nations (1935). Official journal: Special
supplement, Issues 138-144. the University of Michigan. p. 70.
55. Jump up^ Husry 1974, pp. 351
56. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c
Zubaida 2000, pp. 375376
57. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Zubaida 2000, pp. 377378
58. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Husry 1974, pp. 173
59. ^ Jump up to:
a

b

c

d

e
Zubaida 2000, p. 371
60. Jump up^ Husry 1974, pp. 353
61. Jump up^ Malek, Y. "The British Betrayal of the Assyrians".
AINA.org. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
62. Jump up^ Ishaya, A. "Assyrians in the History of Urmia, Iran".
Nineveh. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
63. Jump up^ Shapira, Aprim. "Why is the 7th of August an Assyrian
Martyrs' Day?". Beth Suryoyo Assyrian. Retrieved 23 September
2011.
64. Jump up^ Abraham, Salim (8 August 2004). "Syrian Authorities
Ban Assyrian Party from Commemorating Martyrs
Day". Associated Press. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
65. Jump up^ "Shlimon Bet-Shmuel's Discography".
ShlimonBetShmuel.com. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
66. Jump up^ William Saroyan, "Seventy Thousand Assyrians," in
William Saroyan, The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze
and Other Stories. New York: New Directions, 1934
67. Jump up^ Seventy Thousand Assyrians, William SAROYAN,
WikiQuotes.
68. Jump up^ Martin, James Joseph (1984). The man who invented
"genocide": the public career and consequences of Raphael
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69. Jump up^ "Raphael Lemkin". EuropeWorld. 22 June 2001.
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70. Jump up^ Makiya 1998, p. 174
References[edit]
Interview with witness on YouTube
Stafford, R (2006) [1935]. The Tragedy of the Assyrians. Gorgias
Press LLC. ISBN 978-1-59333-413-0.
Makiya, K (1998) [1989]. Republic of fear:the politics of modern
Iraq. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21439-2.
Joseph, J (2000). The modern Assyrians of the Middle East:
encounters with Western Christian missions, archaeologists, and
colonial powers. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-11641-2.
Gaunt, D; Be-awoce, J (2006). Massacres, resistance, protectors:
Muslim-Christian relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I.
Gorgias Press LLC. ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0.
Husry, K (April 1974). "The Assyrian Affair of 1933 (I)". International
Journal of Middle East Studies (Cambridge University Press) 5 (3):
161176.doi:10.1017/S002074380002780X. JSTOR 162587.
Husry, K (April 1974). "The Assyrian Affair of 1933 (II)". International
Journal of Middle East Studies (Cambridge University Press) 5 (3):
344360.doi:10.1017/S002074380003498X.
Zubaida, S (July 2000). "Contested nations: Iraq and the
Assyrians". Nations and Nationalism 6 (3): 363
382. doi:10.1111/j.1354-5078.2000.00363.x. Retrieved 23
September 2011.
Simon, Reeva S. (2004) [1986]. Iraq between the two world wars:
the militarist origins of tyranny. Columbia University
Press. ISBN 978-0-231-13215-2.
Anderson, L; Stansfield, G (2004). The future of Iraq: dictatorship,
democracy, or division?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-
6354-3.
Kelidar, A (1979). The Integration of modern Iraq. Jefferson, NC:
Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-85664-510-5.
Omissi, D (1990). Air power and colonial control: the Royal Air
Force, 1919-1939. Manchester University Press ND.
p. 65. ISBN 978-0-7190-2960-8.
Shimun, E (2010) [1934]. The Assyrian Tragedy. Xlibris
Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4535-1143-5.
Sluglett, P (2007). Britain in Iraq: contriving king and country.
I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-769-7.
Nisan, M (2002). Minorities in the Middle East: a history of struggle
and self-expression. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1375-
1.
Further reading[edit]
Kakovitch, I (2002). Mount Semele. Alexandria, VA:
Mandrill. ISBN 978-1-931633-70-3
[show]
V
T
E
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Coordinates: 36.858334N 42.850099E
Categories:
Conflicts in 1933
Racial massacres
20th century in Iraq
History of the Assyrians
Massacres in Iraq
1933 in Iraq
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