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Direct Kinematics - By Remotely Triggering Stationary Base Robot
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Introduction Theory Setup Demonstration Quiz Reference Feedback
DIRECT KINEMATICS:
The primary objective of the robotic manipulator is to control both the position and orientation of the tool in three
dimensional space. This requires the formulation of a relationship between the joint variables and the position and
orientation of the tool which is termed as the direct kinematics problem.

COORDINATE FRAMES:
Fundamental Rotation:

Fig: Fundamental rotations in R
3

Let F={f
1
, f
2
, f
3
} represent a fixed coordinate frame and M={m
1
, m
2
, m
3
} represent a mobile coordinate frame in the space
R
3
, with both the frames having the same origin. The mobile coordinate frame is obtained from the fixed coordinate frame
by rotating the former about one of the unit vectors of the latter. The resulting coordinate transformation matrix is called a
fundamental rotation matrix.
Initially, M is coincident with F. For an arbitrary vector P in the space R
3
, we have,


Now,


In matrix form,

.....
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Where,


is the resulting coordinate transformation matrix or fundamental rotation matrix which maps M coordinates into fixed F
coordinate.



Fig: Rotation of M about f
1
by angle

If M is rotated about the f
1
axis of the fixed coordinate frame F by an angle , then, f
1
=m
1
and since, m
1
is orthonormal to
both m
2
and m
3
, we have




Since the dot product is equal to the cosine of the angle between the unit vectors, we have

Similarly, if M rotates about the f
2
axis by an angle , then


and if M rotates about the f
3
axis by an angle , then

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Composite Rotations:

Composite Rotations:
The yaw, pitch and roll are the three fundamental rotations, each of which is represented by a matrix. When a number of
fundamental rotations are applied to a robotic tool, it corresponds to a number of rotation matrices multiplied together
with the product matrix representing a sequence of rotations about the unit vectors. This form of multiple rotations is
termed as composite rotations.
Since the operation of matrix multiplication is not commutative, the order in which the fundamental rotations are
performed makes a difference in the resulting composite rotation. After one rotation has been performed, the axes of the
two coordinate frames are no longer coincident and the subsequent rotations of the tool could be performed about the unit
vectors of either the fixed coordinate frame, F or the rotated coordinate frame, M.
The algorithm for constructing a composite rotation matrix is given below:
1. The rotation matrix is initialized to R=I, which implies that the orthonormal coordinate frames, F and M, are
coincident.
2. If mobile coordinate frame M is to be rotated by an amount about the k
th
unit vector of the fixed coordinate frame
F, R is premultiplied by R
k
( ).
3. If the mobile coordinate frame M is to be rotated by an amount about its own k
th
unit vector, R is postmultiplied
by R
k
( ).
4. If there are more fundamental rotations to be performed, step 2 is repeated otherwise stopped. The resulting composite
rotation matrix R maps mobile M coordinates into fixed F coordinates.
The identity matrix I corresponds to no rotation at all.
Rotation of frame M about the unit vectors of frame F are represented by premultiplication by the appropriate fundamental
rotation matrix.
Rotation of frame M about one of its own unit vectors are represented by post multiplication by the appropriate
fundamental rotation matrix.

Homogeneous Coordinates:
The orientation of a robotic tool is characterized by pure rotations where the origin of the transformed coordinate frame is
same as the origin of the original coordinate frame. However, position of the tool relative to a coordinate frame attached to
the robot base can be characterized by one type of transformation known as translation where the origin of the translated
coordinate frame is not same as the origin of the original coordinate frame.

Let q be a point in space R
3
and F be an orthonormal coordinate frame for R
3
.
is any non-zero scale factor, thus the homogeneous coordinates of q w.r.t. F are denoted as,
i.e., the homogeneous coordinate of q in R
3
are represented by a vector in four dimensional space R
4
. The original
physical three dimensional vector from its four dimensional homogeneous coordinates can be recovered using the relation,
where is a 3x4 homogeneous coordinate conversion matrix defined by,

To change a physical point in three dimensional space expressed in terms of it homogeneous coordinates from one
coordinate frame to another, a 4x4 homogenous transformation matrix, T is used. T can be partition into four separate
submatrices as given below,


Where, R=rotation matrix which represents the orientation of the mobile coordinate frame relative to the fixed reference
frame. It specifies the orientation of the tool.
p=translation vector which represents the position of the origin of the mobile coordinate frame relative to the fixed
reference frame. It specifies the position of the tool tip.
=perspective vector and specifies a point of perspective.
= scaling factor set to unity.


Translations and Rotations:
For two orthonormal coordinate frames, F and M, that are initially coincident, if M is rotated by an amount about the
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For two orthonormal coordinate frames, F and M, that are initially coincident, if M is rotated by an amount about the
k
th
unit vector of F, then in terms of homogeneous coordinates this operation can be represented by a 4x4 matrix Rot(
), where
R
k
( )=k
th
fundamental rotation matrix
Rot( )=fundamental homogeneous rotation matrix
The translation vector p has been set to zero. the homogeneous coordinate can also be used to represent translations. For
two initially coincident orthonormal coordinate frames, F and M, if origin of mobile coordinate frame M is to be translated
by an amount p
k
along the k
th
unit vector of F for , then in terms of homogeneous coordinates this operation can
be represented by a 4x4 matrix Tran(p), where


Tran(p) is the fundamental homogeneous translation matrix with translation vector p and rotation matrix R set to identity
matrix I.
Homogeneous transformation matrices represent both rotation and translation of mobile frames w. r. t. fixed frame.

Composite Homogeneous Transformation:
Since matrix multiplication is not a commutative operation, the order in which rotations and translations are performed is
determined by the following algorithm:
1. The transformation matrix is initialized to T=I which corresponds to the orthonormal coordinate frames F and M
being coincident.
2. Rotation and translations are represented using separate homogeneous transformation matrices.
3. Composite rotations are represented as separate fundamental homogeneous rotation matrices.
4. If M is to be rotated about or translated along a unit vector of F, premultiply the homogeneous transformation
matrix T by the appropriate fundamental homogeneous rotation or translation matrix.
5. If M is to be rotated about or translated along one of its own unit vectors, postmultiply T by the appropriate
fundamental homogeneous rotation or translation matrix.
6. For more fundamental rotations or translation to be performed, step 4 is repeated else stopped.
Resulting composite homogeneous transformation matrix T maps mobile M coordinates into fixed F coordinates.

Screw Transformation:
A linear displacement along an axis combined with an angular displacement about the same axis is referred to as a screw
transformation.
For F and M being initially coincident fixed and mobile orthonormal coordinate frames respectively, if M is translated along
the k
th
unit vector of F by a displacement of and rotated about the k
th
unit vector of F by an angle of , the
resulting composite homogeneous coordinate transformation matrix is called a k
th
fundamental screw transformation
matrix.


Kinematic Parameters:
There are two types of kinematic parameters, viz. joint parameters and link parameters.
Joint Parameters: every adjacent pair of links which connected by either a revolute or prismatic joint. The joint parameters
specify the relative position and orientation of two successive links.
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Fig Joint angle and joint distance d

In the above diagram joint k connects link k-1 to link k and axis z
k-1
is aligned with the axis of joint k. The two joint
parameters associated with joint k are
Joint angle ( ): it is the rotation about z
k-1
needed to make axis x
k-1
parallel with axis x
k
.
Joint distance ( ): it is the translation along z
k-1
needed to make axis x
k-1
intersect with axis x
k
.
For a revolute joint, the joint angle is variable and joint distance is fixed while for a prismatic joint the joint angle is fixed
and the joint distance is variable.

Link Parameters: since there is a link between two successive joints, link parameters specify the relative position and
orientation of the axes of two successive joints.
Fig: Link length and link twist angle

In the above diagram link k connects joint k to joint k+1 and an axis x
k
is the common normal between the axes of joint k
and joint k+1. the two link parameters are
Link length( ): it is the translation along x
k
needed to make axis z
k-1
intersect with the axis z
k
.
Link twist angle( ): it is the rotation about x
k
needed to make axis z
k-1
parallel with axis z
k
.
The two link parameters are always constant for both revolute and prismatic joints.
For an n-axis robot, there are n+1 links interconnected by n joints, with joint k connecting link k-1 to link k.
The joints and links of a robotic manipulator are numbered outwards starting from the fixed base, which is termed as link 0
to the tool which is termed as link n

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Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) Representation:
It is a systematic notation for assigning right handed orthonormal coordinate frames, one to each link in an open kinematic
chain of links. To assign coordinate frames to the links of the robotic manipulator, we assume L
k
to be the frame
associated with link k.

Coordinate frame L
k
will be attached to the distal end of link k for .

Algorithm:
0. Number the joints from 1 to n starting with the base and ending with the tool yaw, pitch, and roll, in that order.
1. Assign a right-handed orthonormal coordinate frame L
0
to the robot base, making sure that z
0
aligns with the
axis of joint 1. Set k=1.
2. Align z
k
with the axis of joint k+1.
3. Locate the origin of L
k
at the intersection of the z
k
and z
k-1
axes. If they do not intersect, use the intersection of
z
k
with a common normal between z
k
and z
k-1
.
4. Select x
k
to be orthogonal to both z
k
and z
k-1
. If z
k
and z
k-1
are parallel, point x
k
away from z
k-1
.
5. Select y
k
to form a right-handed orthonormal coordinate frame L
k
.
6. Set k=k+1. If k < n, go to step 2; else, continue.
7. Set the origin of L
n
at the tool tip. Align z
n
with the approach vector, y
n
with the sliding vector, and x
n
with the
normal vector of the tool. Set k=1.
8. Locate point b
k
at the intersection of the x
k
and z
k-1
axes. If they do not intersect, use the intersection of x
k
with
a common normal between x
k
and z
k-1
.
9. Compute
k
as the angle of rotation from x
k-1
to x
k
measured about z
k-1
.
10. Compute d
k
as the distance from the origin of frame L
k-1
to point b
k
measured along z
k-1
.
11. Compute as the distance from point b
k
to the origin of frame L
k
measured along x
k
.
12. Compute
k
as the angle of rotation from z
k-1
to z
k
measured about x
k
.
13. Set k= k+1. If k n, go to step 8; else, stop.

THE ARM EQUATION:
The solution to the direct kinematics problem requires the representation of position and orientation of the mobile tool
w.r.t. a coordinate frame attach to the fixed base, this involves a sequence of coordinate transformations, involving both
rotations and translations, from tool to wrist, wrist to elbow and so on; with each coordinate transformations represented
by matrix.
After assigning a set of link coordinates to an n-axis robot using D-H algorithm, a homogeneous coordinate transformation
matrix can be used to transform from coordinate frame k to coordinate frame k-1. Several of this coordinate
transformation matrices can be multiplied together to arrive at the composite coordinate transformation matrix, which
maps tool coordinates into base coordinates, known as the arm matrix.
To map frame k coordinates into frame k-1 coordinates four steps are involved in constructing homogeneous
transformation matrix with each of the steps associated with one of the four kinematic parameters. The transformation
matrix can be determined by successively rotating and translating coordinate frame k-1 to render it coincident with
coordinate frame k.
The four steps are:
1. Rotate L
k-1
about z
k-1
by ; this makes axis x
k-1
parallel to axis x
k
.
2. Translate L
k-1
along z
k-1

by d
k
; this makes axis x
k-1
collinear with axis x
k
.
3. Translate L
k-1
along x
k-1

by a
k
; this ensures that the origins of frames L
k-1
and L
k
coincide.
4. Rotate L
k-1
about x
k-1

by a
k
; this aligns axis z
k-1
with axis z
k
.
The composite homogeneous transformation summarized in the above steps can be expressed as a composition of two
screw transformation;

=transformation from coordinate frame k to coordinate frame k-1
At wrist point, the two matrices can be multiplied together and a closed form expression for the entire arm matrix can be
obtained and after getting this we can substitute it into the following matrix equation, called the arm equation:
..... .....
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For each value of the joint vector q, the arm matrix can be evaluated. Left submatrix R(q) specifies the
orientation of the tool and the three columns of R indicate the directions of the three unit vectors of the tool frame w.r.t.
the base frame. Right submatrix p(q) specifies the position of the tool tip and the coordinates of the tool tip w.r.t. the base
frame.


The solution of the direct kinematics problem in the above equation is shown schematically:
Fig: Position and orientation of the tool in base coordinate

Some examples of D-H parameters:

ONE-AXIS ROBOT OR INVERTED PENDULUM:

It consists of a single axis with two links and one joint. The fixed base is link 0 while the tool is link 1. Therefore there will
be two coordinate frames, L
0
and L
1
as shown below:
Fig: A one-axis robot (inverted pendulum)
The kinematic parameters of the one axis robot is given by,


Axis



d


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1 0 0









TWO-AXIS PLANAR ARTICULATED ROBOT:
Two axis planar articulated robot is shown below:
Fig: A two-axis planar articulated robot
The two physical links are thin cylinders or rods. There are two joints, therefore two axes and three links. The fixed base is
link 0 and there will be three coordinate frames for each link.
The kinematic parameters, using D-H algorithm are given by,

Axis d
1 0 0
2 0 0














FOUR-AXIS SCARA ROBOT:

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Source: www.adept.com
A SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) robot is an important example of robotic manipulator.
The SCARA robot shown above has three revolute joints and one prismatic joint. Using D-H algorithm, we can construct the
link-coordinate diagram as shown below,
Fig: A four-axis SCARA Robot (Adept One)
The kinematics parameters of the four axis SCARA robot is given by,
Axis d
1
2 0 0
3 0 0 0
4 0 0














PUMA ROBOT:
The PUMA robot is one of the most famous industrial robots with 6 rotary joints.
The robot is shown in the figure below:
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Source: www.berglas.org

The kinematic parameters of the PUMA robot are as follows:
Joints d
1 90 0 0 -90
2 0 149.5 432 0
3 90 0 0 90
4 0 432 0 -90
5 0 0 0 90
6 0 55.5 0 0








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