Lab reports

Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering and can count for as
much as 25% of a course yet little time or attention is devoted to how to write them well. Worse
yet, each professor wants something a little different. Regardless of variations, however, the goal
of lab reports remains the same: document your findings and communicate their significance.
With that in mind, we can describe the report's format and basic components. Knowing the
pieces and purpose, you can adapt to the particular needs of a course or professor.

A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's comprehension of the
concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient;
you should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your
experiment, and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to
examine. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and
organized writing. You still need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently.

Typical Components

• Title Page • Results

• Abstract • Discussion
o Note: Verb Tenses • Conclusion
• Introduction • References
• Methods and Materials (or Equipment) • Appendices

• Experimental Procedure • Further Reading

1. The Title Page needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab partners, and the
date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words (i.e. Not "Lab #4" but
"Lab #4: ).

The Abstract summarizes four essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the experiment
(sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report), key findings, significance and major
conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology. The
information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report.
The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words (the sample below is 191 words).
Quick Abstract Reference

Must have:
1. Purpose
2. Key result(s)
3. Most significant point of discussion
4. Major conclusion

May include:
1. Brief method
2. Brief theory

Restrictions:
ONE page
200 words MAX.

Sample Abstract

This experiment examined the effect of line orientation and arrowhead angle on a subject's ability
to perceive line length, thereby testing the Müller-Lyer illusion. The Müller-Lyer illusion is the
classic visual illustration of the effect of the surrounding on the perceived length of a line. The
test was to determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects adjust line segments to
equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were tested in a repeated measures
design with four different arrowhead angles and four line orientations. Each condition was tested
in six randomized trials. The lines to be adjusted were tipped with outward pointing arrows of
varying degrees of pointedness, whereas the standard lines had inward pointing arrows of the
same degree. Results showed that line lengths were overestimated in all cases. The size of error
increased with decreasing arrowhead angles. For line orientation, overestimation was greatest
when the lines were horizontal. This last is contrary to our expectations. Further, the two factors
functioned independently in their effects on subjects' point of subjective equality. These results
have important implications for human factors design applications such as graphical display
interfaces.

3. The Introduction is more narrowly focussed than the abstract. It states the objective of the
experiment and provides the reader with background to the experiment. State the topic of your
report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences:
Quick Intro Reference

Must Have:
1. Purpose of the experiment
2. Important background and/or theory

May include:
1. Description of specialized equipment
2. Justification of experiment's importance

Example: The purpose of this experiment was to identify the specific element in a metal powder
sample by determining its crystal structure and atomic radius. These were determined using the
Debye-Sherrer (powder camera) method of X-ray diffraction.

A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or formulas
the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does not want you to repeat the lab manual, but
to show your own comprehension of the problem. For example, the introduction that followed the
example above might describe the Debye-Sherrer method, and explain that from the diffraction
angles the crystal structure can be found by applying Bragg's law. If the amount of introductory
material seems to be a lot, consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or
Background.

Note on Verb Tense

Introductions often create difficulties for students who struggle with keeping verb tenses straight.
These two points should help you navigate the introduction:

• The experiment is already finished. Use the past tense when talking about the
experiment.

"The objective of the experiment was..."

• The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, these get the
present tense:
 "The purpose of this report is..."
"Bragg's Law for diffraction is ..."
"The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs ...

4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment) can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is
accurate and complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or
standard procedure: "Equipment was set up as in CHE 276 manual."

5. Experimental Procedure describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph
structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to
happen. If your professor says you can simply state that you followed the procedure in the
manual, be sure you still document occasions when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. "At step
4 we performed four repetitions instead of three, and ignored the data from the second
repetition"). If you've done it right, another researcher should be able to duplicate your
experiment.

6. Results are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you still need to
state all significant results explicitly in verbal form, for example:

Using the calculated lattice parameter gives, then,

R = 0.1244nm.

Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1: Input Frequency and
Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your results effective is to draw the reader's
attention to them with a sentence or two, so the reader has a focus when reading the graph. In
most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder in an
appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in an appendix. Refer to appendices as
necessary, pointing out trends and identifying special features.

Quick Results Reference

1. Number and Title tables and graphs

2. Use a sentence or two to draw attention to key points in tables or graphs
3. Provide sample calculation only
4. State key result in sentence form
 7. Discussion is the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you
understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain. Analyse. Interpret.
Some people like to think of this as the "subjective" part of the report. By that, they mean this is
what is not readily observable. This part of the lab focuses on a question of understanding "What
is the significance or meaning of the results?" To answer this question, use both aspects of
discussion:

1. Analysis
What do the results indicate clearly?
What have you found?
Explain what you know with certainty
based on your results and draw conclusions:
2. Interpretation
What is the significance of the
results? What ambiguities exist?
What questions might we raise? Find
logical explanations for problems in
the data:

Since none of the samples Although the water samples were

reacted to the Silver foil test, received on 14 August 2000, testing

therefore sulfide, if present at could not be started until 10 September

all, does not exceed a 2000. It is normally desirably to test as

concentration of approximately quickly as possible after sampling in

0.025 g/l. It is therefore order to avoid potential sample

unlikely that the water main contamination. The effect of the delay is

pipe break was the result of unknown.

sulfide-induced corrosion.

More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these:

• Compare expected results with those obtained.

If there were differences, how can you account for them? Saying "human error" implies
you're incompetent. Be specific; for example, the instruments could not measure
precisely, the sample was not pure or was contaminated, or calculated values did not take
account of friction.
• Analyze experimental error.
Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment? If an experiment was within the
tolerances, you can still account for the difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from
the experimental design explain how the design might be improved.
 • Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues.
Often undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws, such as
Kirchhoff's voltage law, or the Müller-Lyer illusion. Usually you will have discussed
these in the introduction. In this section move from the results to the theory. How well
has the theory been illustrated?
• Relate results to your experimental objective(s).
If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic
structure, you'd better know the metal and its attributes.
• Compare your results to similar investigations.
In some cases, it is legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your
answer, but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those.
• Analyze the strengths and limitations of your experimental design.
This is particularly useful if you designed the thing you're testing (e.g. a circuit).

8. Conclusion can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply state what you know
now for sure, as a result of the lab:
Example: The Debye-Sherrer method identified the sample material as nickel due to the
measured crystal structure (fcc) and atomic radius (approximately 0.124nm).
Notice that, after the material is identified in the example above, the writer provides a
justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure and size. This makes a sound and
sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is enough; however, the conclusion might also be a place to
discuss weaknesses of experimental design, what future work needs to be done to extend your
conclusions, or what the implications of your conclusion are.
Quick Conclusion
Reference
Must do:
1. State what's known
2. Justify statement
Might do:
3. State significance
4. Suggest further research

9. References include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done.
10. Appendices typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs pictures or
tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of item should be contained in a
separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each appendix at least once in your report. For
example, the results section might begin by noting: "Micrographs printed from the Scanning
Electron Microscope are contained in Appendix A."

PROPOSALS

The proposal is one of the most important forms of writing engineers do. Successful
proposals lead to jobs, products and profit. Unsuccessful proposals lead nowhere. This
document presents the basics of proposals:

• The goal
• The audience
• The structure
• The use of research

The Goal

While style and structure of proposals vary, successful proposals require Attitude.
A successful proposal convinces the reader that:

• The proposal is good (scientifically, economically)

• The writers are qualified to accomplish the task.

"Convincing" makes many engineers uncomfortable because they think good science
should convince by itself; however, you must still persuade the reader that your science is
good. Convince the reader that you have thought through the problem and have a
workable solution.

The Audience

No one ever paid a consultant to tell him what he already knew. Your audience needs to
know something. You need to explain the problem clearly, and to provide full
background to give context to your solution. Remember the readers need
• to know that you know what you are doing
• to understand your approach

Structure of the Proposal

Six Basic Elements:

1. Executive Summary
2. Introduction
3. Project Description or Program
4. Timeline and Milestones
5. Budget
6. Qualifications

The Executive Summary

The executive summary is a short, information-packed summary of the proposal. In one

or two paragraphs, state the purpose of the proposal, the essentials of the program and the
total expense of the budget. This should not exceed one page. A reader should finish the
summary knowing the basic information. Only an interested reader needs to read more.
Write the executive summary after you have finished the rest of the report.

Purpose ÷ The purpose can be described any number of ways. Here are two:

 State the problem or need you are prepared to address. Many proposals are
responding to problems that need to be solved. e.g. A part of a product wears out too
soon. How can we make the product work better?
 Explain the goal of the proposal. Sometimes a proposal is to develop a new
product or idea. In this case, you are not solving a problem. Still you need to explain
why you want to develop the proposal. (See the sample below for an example of this).

However you describe it, you need to clearly and simply explain what the proposal is for.
The executive summary needs to be aimed at a general audience ÷ typically managers ÷
so this is not the place for technical detail. It is the place, however, for considering the
company and its requirements
Program ÷ At the proposal stage, students will rarely have a fully-worked out solution.
That is expected for research-based projects. (Many proposals in industry will be able to
present a full solution because the proposal is to implement previously developed
technology.) Regardless, the executive summary needs to include a brief statement of
what you think you will do. In one or two sentences state at least one of these:

o what will take place

o benefit of the project
o how and where it will operate

Funding requirements ÷ State the bottom line. If an explanation of the figure is

required, make that as concisely as possible.

Qualifications ÷ Briefly state your name, history, purpose, and activities, emphasizing
your capacity to carry out this proposal.

Sample of an Executive Summary (Slightly modified from the original)

Executive summary Notes

(1) Memory management is a crucial factor
in operating system and application
performance. (2) The purpose of this
project is to study of the relative merits of
the best fit and worst fit selection
algorithms used in memory management.
(3) the first goal of the project is to produce
a reference table with the test sets and
results for software developers using
algorithms. (4) The second goal is to
develop a very specific set of rules for
when to use each algorithm. (5) the results
will be valuable to software developers
when choosing between the best fit and
1. The first sentence gives some
context by defining terms. it could
be improved by adding the simple
word "computer" to separate this
study from something in cognitive
ergonomics.
2. The project's goals are clearly
stated in the second, third and
fourth sentences.
3. The value of the project is outlined
in sentence five.
4. the limitation or scope of the work
is presented in sentences six and
seven.

worst fit selection algorithms. (6) while the
first goal can be attained in the ten week
period, attaining the second goal will
depend on the results of the data. (7)
consequently, the second goal may be
unreachable, or require further research. (8)
the cost for the ten week period is $7500.
5. the cost is explained in the last
sentence. note that the cost is for
ten weeks regardless of whether the
second goal is attained.
6. this summary does not include the
writer's qualifications, presumably
because the writer is a student who
has no experience in this kind of
work.

Introduction

One major problem students have is blurring Executive Summaries and Introductions.
NEVER assume that the reader of the introduction has already read the executive
summary. In other words, the executive summary just repeats

1. State the purpose (make it clear that you are proposing something).

Define the opportunity or problem. Usually, you need to begin by explaining the
situation: what circumstances led to the proposal (e.g. an industrial sponsor's problem)?
Consider the following:

o Decide what facts best support the project.

o Determine whether it is reasonable to portray the need as acute.
o Explain how your project relates to similar projects that preceded it.
o Avoid circular reasoning.

2. Explain useful background. e.g. What engineering principles will guide your
solution? Even if you think your reader knows this information, show the reader that you
understand it too. (Sometimes, background is separated into a separate section. If you do
this, put the background after the overview.)

3. Give a brief overview of the contents of the whole proposal. (For example, in
the introduction to the "structure of the proposal" here, six basic elements are listed.
These are then elaborated in later sections. A similar kind of brief sketch will help a
proposal reader.)

This is what a first draft of an introduction might look like Notice that there are a number
of questions whose answers might help develop really good opening context.

The market for backpacks is huge. Students throughout North America from ages 5-25
carry backpacks to school. [find out sales figures?] Many need to replace their
backpacks each year due to frayed straps or broken zippers. [survey users to discover
complaints about existing backpacks?] Therefore, any company that can produce and
market a product that is cheap and/or high quality will be able to find a market niche.
[analyze what determines cost? materials? place of manufacture? distance to market?]
This proposal will outline a product that will fill the need for a high quality yet affordable
product appropriate for university students.

The Project Description or Program

State explicitly what you propose to do. Some also include a "scope" statement ÷ an
explicit statement of what you will not be doing to help limit the task. Explain your
approach to the problem in detail. Some of the following questions might be useful:

• What are the technical specifications for the proposed piece of work?
• How will current research ÷ such as recent articles on the subject or other
projects of a similar kind ÷ be used to help solve the problem?
• How does your work fit into a larger project?

Included in your program you should have three subsections: objectives, methods, and
evaluation. You do not need to use these sections as subheadings, but you do need to
clearly explain all three aspects of the project.

OBJECTIVES

Your objectives must be tangible, specific, concrete, measurable, and achievable in a

specified time period.
 Currently, software developers have only a general description and understanding of
how the algorithms work in deciding which algorithm is more appropriate for their
application. I propose to quantify the performance of each algorithm given varying sets
of memory requests. This data will allow developers to compare the performance trade
off of each algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application.

Objectives can come in several varieties:

1. Behavioral ÷ A human action is anticipated.

Software developers will be able to compare the performance trade off of each
algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application.

2. Performance ÷ A specific time frame within which a behavior will occur, at an

expected proficiency level, is expected.

Software developers will be able to compare the performance trade off of each
algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application.
This efficiency will cut the time for testing new applications by 40%.
3.

4. Product ÷ A tangible item results.

The first goal of the project is to produce a reference table with the test sets
and results for software developers using algorithms. The second goal is the
development of a very specific set of rules for when to use each algorithm.
While the first goal can be attained in the ten week period, attaining the second
goal will depend on the results of the data.

METHODS

In your program, you need to do the following:

• Describe the specific activities that will take place to achieve the objectives, that
is what will occur from the time the project begins until it is completed.
• Enable the reader to visualize the implementation of the project.
• Match the previously stated objectives.
• Provide the order and timing for the tasks.
• Defend your chosen methods, especially if they are new or unorthodox.

EVALUATION

Building evaluation into a project is an important part of engineering design. You need
to consider how you will evaluate whether the project is successful. How will you
measure whether the project meets its goal? By including a mechanism for evaluation in
your proposal, you indicate that achieving objective is a serious goal. You also provide
the best means for others to learn from your experience. Two types of Formal Evaluation
are common

1. Measuring the product (e.g. test a computer program's performance under various
conditions for versatility, accuracy, speed, etc.)
2. Analyzing the process (e.g. analyze the milestones such as the ability of a
prototype to integrate with other components of a project)

Either or both might be appropriate

SHORT REPORTS

Business and industry, as well as university, often demand short technical reports. They
may be proposals, progress reports, trip reports, completion reports, investigation reports,
feasibility studies, or evaluation reports. As the names indicate, these reports are diverse
in focus and aim, and differ in structure. However, one goal of all reports is the same: to
communicate to an audience.

Your audience for an academic report is already very well informed. Your professor and
teaching assistants will not usually read your report in order to extract knowledge;
instead, they will look for evidence that you understand the material and ideas your report
presents. Your document, then, should not only convey information clearly and
coherently (such as numbers, facts or equations), but should also, where appropriate,
detail the logical processes you relied upon (such as interpretation, analysis, or
evaluation).

This document describes a general format for a short report, which you can adapt to the
needs of specific assignments. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot
replace clear thinking and strategic writing. You still need to organize your ideas
carefully and express them coherently. Be precise and concise.

Typical Components

• Title Page
• Abstract or Summary
• Introduction
• Background
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
• Attachments

1. Title Page

The essential information here is your name, the title of the project, and the date. Be
aware of any other information your instructor requires. The title of a report can be a
statement of the subject. An effective title is informative but reasonably short.
Ornamental or misleading titles may annoy readers.

2.Abstract or Summary

This section states the report in miniature. It summarizes the whole report in one,
concise paragraph of about 100-200 words. It might be useful to think in terms of writing
one sentence to summarize each of the traditional report divisions: objective, method,
discussion, conclusions. Emphasize the objective (which states the problem) and the
analysis of the results (including recommendations). Avoid the temptation to copy a
whole paragraph from elsewhere in your report and make it do double duty. Since the
abstract condenses and emphasizes the most important elements of the whole report, you
cannot write it until after you have completed the report. Remember, the abstract should
be a precise and specific summary -- give details. A technical document is not a mystery
novel -- give your conclusion right away. Support it later.

This report considers three energy sources and recommends the best one.
(Too general)
This report compares nuclear plants, fossil fuels, and solar generators, in order to
determine which energy source will best meet the nation's needs. The criteria for
comparison were the economic, social, and environmental effects of each
alternative. The study concludes that nuclear energy is the best of these options,
because North America is not self-sufficient in fossil fuels, and solar power is
currently too unreliable for industrial use. Although nuclear plants are potentially
very dangerous, nuclear energy is still the best short-term solution.
(Specific & detailed)

3. Introduction
3.1. Whereas the abstract summarizes the whole report, the introduction of a technical
report identifies the subject, the purpose (or objective), and the plan of development of
the report. The subject is the "what", the purpose is the "why", and the plan is the "how."
Together these acquaint the reader with the problem you are setting out to solve.
3.2. State the subject and purpose as clearly and concisely as possible, usually in one
sentence called the thesis or purpose statement:

This report describes the design of a full-scale prototype shrimp trawl that would
permit a test of the commercial feasibility of electric trawling during daylight.

3.3. Use the introduction to provide the reader with any background information which
the reader will need before you can launch into the body of your paper. You may have to
define the terms used in stating the subject and provide background such as theory or
history of the subject. For example, the purpose statement quoted above might warrant
some explanation of daylight trawling or even of the commercial shrimp industry. Avoid
the tendency to use the introduction merely to fill space with sweeping statements that are
unrelated to the specific purpose of your report ("Throughout the ages, human beings
have looked up at the stars and wondered about [your topic here].").

4. Background
If the introduction requires a large amount of supporting information, such as a review of
literature or a description of a process, then the background material should form its own
section. This section may include a review of previous research, or formulas the reader
needs to understand the problem. In an academic report, it is also the point where you can
show your comprehension of the problem.

5. Discussion
5.1. This section is the most important part of your report. It takes many forms and may
have subheadings of its own. Its basic components are methods, findings (or results), and
evaluation (or analysis). In a progress report, the methods and findings may dominate; a
final report should emphasize evaluation. Most academic assignments should also focus
on your evaluation of the subject.
5.2. Before you begin writing, ask the journalist's questions: who? when? where? what?
why? how? The last three in particular will help you focus analysis. Beyond asking these
simple questions, you also need to make decisions such as: How do you interpret the
data? What is the significance of your findings?

6. Conclusion
What knowledge comes out of the report? As you draw a conclusion, you need to explain
it in terms of the preceding discussion. Some repetition of the most important ideas you
presented there is expected, but you should avoid copying.

7. Recommendations
What actions does the report call for? The recommendations should be clearly connected
to the results of the rest of the report. You may need to make those connections explicit at
this point--your reader should not have to guess at what you mean. This section may also
include plans for how further research should proceed. In professional writing, this
section often comes immediately after the introduction.

8. Attachments
8.1. These will include references and may include appendices. Any research that you
refer to in the report must also appear in a list of references at the end of the work so that
an interested reader can follow up your work. Since the format for references varies
across engineering, consult your instructor, or check a style manual for the field.
8.2. Appendices may include raw data, calculations, graphs, and other quantitative
materials that were part of the research, but would be distracting to the report itself. Refer
to each appendix at the appropriate point (or points) in your report. In industry, a
company profile and profile of the professionals involved in a project might also appear
as appendices.

Case studies

Introduction:

Case studies occur frequently in engineering because, by nature, engineering analyzes

(studies) situations that already exist (cases). This document explains how to use a basic
engineering problem-solving method to structure case studies, but the structure may also
apply to other engineering reports (including undergraduate theses). This document
focuses on a particular logical structure that is important to engineering.

• understanding the situation being faced;

• analyzing the specific problem to be tackled;
• creating, analyzing, and refining a solution;

• and further evaluating, improving, and implementing. [4]

The method is known as

Situation---- Problem ----Solution(s) ---- Evaluation

Each of the logical components here consists more of questions than "how-to" because
the goal of this web-page is to help you think through the logic structure of this pattern.

Situation
Even when a client (or professor) defines a situation, engineers need to understand it in
their own terms:

• What are the needs of the client?

• What are the constraints of the situation (time, resources, laws, technology) ?
• What are the background facts?
• What are the key questions that need asking?

Example: What happens when the Client doesn't tell you everything?

If an engineer responding to the Request for Proposal (RFP) below did not think through
the whole situation, she might end up in big trouble. An RFP asks contractors to bid on a
particular project. Getting the job without understanding the situation can be disastrous.
This RFP describes the government's responsibilities in a research project to test ABS
brakes using an "instrumented car" (a car outfitted with sophisticated measuring
equipment):

An instrumented vehicle, Pontiac 6000 STE, has been developed and will be provided to
the contractor without charge by Transport Canada. A separate contractor has been
engaged to perform hardware modifications to the various systems in the vehicle if they
are required and approved by the scientific authority. Costs associated with any
approved modifications, and the maintenance of the data collection system will be the
responsibility of Transport Canada, unless the contractor has been negligent in the use of
the system.[9]

All of this sounds good at first--someone else is worrying about maintaining the systems
inside a rather expensive vehicle--BUT what about systems outside the vehicle? Such
things as pop-up stop signs and means of altering the slipperiness of the track will be
needed. Since these are outside the car, who pays? If those bidding on this contract do not
state their understanding of the situation clearly, they could win a bid but lose a bundle.
Showing a clear understanding of the situation is the first step to a clear report.

Where it fits: Typically this will fit into the introduction or background sections of a
report.
Problem

Before you can solve a problem you need to know what it is. Defining a problem
clearly is crucial to finding a solution. In defining the problem, you need to explain the
factors that affect the problem. Consider not only what the client says the problem is, but
what the client might not recognize. Here is a statement of a problem,

Original:

SunnyBrook's Chronic Pain Clinic experiences two problems:

• In its present mode of operation, it loses money on initial consultations.

• Patients' waiting times for initial consultations are perceived as being too long
and should be shortened without significant expenditure.

Unless the number of consultations can be increased by 15% using the same resources,
the pain clinic is in danger of being shut down.

This problem statement is not complete. In fact, it is the problem as defined by the client,
which is really just the situation. The writer needs to analyze the problem: the problem
here might in part be defined as inefficiency in initial consultations.

Revised:

Sunnybrook's Chronic Pain Clinic loses money on initial consultations and suffers from
long patient waiting times for initial consultations. Unless the number of consultations
can be increased by 15% using the same resources, the pain clinic is in danger of being
shut down. The loss of money and the waiting times are related because two of the four
doctors do not manage to see their patients within the allotted one hour consultation.
This means not only that these doctors are unable to see as many patients as the other
two doctors, but that those they do see have to wait well past their scheduled
appointment. The problem, then, is to eliminate inefficiency in initial consultations
without compromising the level offer.
Part of defining the problem is seeing it in terms of what has been done before. These
questions might help you explain the full background to the problem:

• What are the parameters that have been set for your analysis?
• What is happening in the situation now?
• What are the shortcomings of the current or previous ways of handling the
situation?
• What changes have been made in the situation? or are expected?

These questions might lead to an additional paragraph in our example to clarify and
refine the definition of the problem. Here the writer goes on to consider how one
parameter physicians' financial benefit might affect the current situation.

(continued from above example)

If inefficiency is a factor, understanding the physicians' relationship to the clinic
becomes important. First, financially, the four doctors who provide service in the pain
clinic do so out of interest in the field. They derive little financial benefit from their
involvement; in fact, they incur a significant opportunity cost for not performing other,
more lucrative procedures. Their pay is not proportionally dependent on the number of
patients they examine; instead, it is a percentage of the total revenue generated by a pool
of twenty-six physicians performing a variety of roles at the hospital. For this reason,
personal income cannot influence physician behavior.

This example is only part of what goes into a problem definition, but it shows how the
writer can refine his problem definition by limiting the possible parameters for solutions.

Where it fits: Typically, the Problem definition is also the purpose of the report;
therefore, it will follow the situation, or sometimes, precede it. Notice that the problem
and the situation overlap. This is predictable because the problem arises out of the
situation.

Solution

University assignments often expect you to come up with alternatives; hence,you may
need to examine more than one solution. Ultimately, to be effective,any solution must
1. Solve the problem. Obvious, but explain: How does the solution work?
2. Explain how the solution can be derived from the available data. How does it fit
with what we know?
3. Fit clearly into the available research on a topic. What research supports it?

As you might guess, this section could be a huge part of the body of a report.

Evaluation

Before Engineers can implement a solution, it needs to be refined. The first step in
refining any solution is an evaluation. You need to think your way around the solution
just as if it were an object you were walking around. Ask as many questions as possible.
Here are a few:

• Is the solution you suggest likely to be successful?

• What limitations might prevent total success? (eg. does it depend on people
being trained?)
• What must a company do to make your solution work? (funding? training?
design? safety measures?)
• If you are proposing more than one solution, which one(s) do you recommend
be implemented? In which order? (short term vs. long term; most important vs. less
important; necessary vs. optional)

Where it fits: Typically, the evaluation comes just before the recommendations. Once
you have evaluated several options, then you can make a recommendation. It may also be
incorporated into the recommendations.

What is an outline?

An outline is a blueprint for your final document. It presents the content of your report in
brief, organizing your topics and supporting details in the order you intend to discuss
them.

Poor organization is by far the most common writing problem that we encounter at the
Engineering Writing Centre. An outline is all about organization. If you are afraid
organization means Roman numerals and capital letters, don't panic! Even without such
structures, the outline is a useful tool [1].

How does an outline help?

It helps you
...by exposing the gaps in your logic and organization early, while you still have time
to fill them.

It helps your professor or supervisor

...by demonstrating

• that you understand the assignment,

• that you have clearly focused the topic,
• that your content is thorough and well-organized,
and, of course,
• that you were thinking about the paper before the deadline.

If your outline gets trashed, don't despair: better the outline than the final draft.

• How to Write an Outline

• How to Use Your Outline to Create the Final Draft

Outlines for Others: An Illustrative Example

This framed web-page provides an illustrative example of a functional outline which is

informative, detailed, and brief. The bottom frame contains a "scrolling" commentary on the
following outline. Click on the links within the outline to find information on that specific
element of the report, which will appear in the bottom frame.

The outline addresses this problem statement:

As a summer student with Ford Canada, your first assignment as a member of the electrical
system design team is to look into the 12V battery standard. This standard is being questioned
because every year consumers demand more from the power supply in their cars: powerful air
conditioners, power windows, power locks, sophisticated audio systems, power antennas, plugs
for cellular phones, plugs for notebook computers.
The , and indicate things that the author has done right, wrong, and questions that need to
be addressed arising from that part of the report, most of which deal with the issues of audience,
purpose, organization, and content. Click on these symbols to read the appropriate commentary
on each section of the report.

Outline for Formal Report:

1. Introduction

1.1 Address the audience (supervisor with limited technical background).

1.2 State Purpose: To determine if the 12 volt battery standard is a sufficient

power supply to support the increasing demand for power in todayís automobiles.

1.3 Describe the organization of this report.

2. Principles

2.1 Electrostatic potential: A measurement of work done if

a charge were moved from a to b in a circuit (an extended definition will be given)

Electrostatic Potential = a constant (k) x (amount of charge on body 1)

(amount of charge on body 2) / (distance between bodies)2

2.2 Kirchoff's Voltage Law: The charges travelling around a circuit transfer
energy from one circuit element to another, but do not receive energy themselves.
This means energy is conserved, which shows that the energy released by the
battery is equal to the energy used by the elements the battery powers.
2.3 The relationship between Electrostatic Potential and Kirchoffís Voltage Law
is that the first offers the explanation of stored energy within the circuit, as the
 other uses that stored energy and shows how the energy is used by the circuit
elements. The battery releases energy at a potential difference of 12 V and each
element of the automobile is made to use the 12 volts of energy supplied by the
battery. The battery also has an alternator (a charger) which keeps a constant
supply of energy entering the battery (through the positive terminal), thus, the

energy of the battery cannot be fully used up.

3. Relationship of in-class experiments (based on only one completed class experiment)

3.1 Experiment 1: Shows that changes in voltage are proportional to changes in

current. This would reflect the same changes as in a 12 V battery. The current
through the battery remains constant with the constant voltage

supplied.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages (of creating a higher voltage standard for car batteries)

4.1 Advantages

4.1.1 More power could be available for equipment requiring

higher voltage.
4.1.2 More equipment could be used simultaneously without

power drain.

4.2 Disadvantages

4.2.1 The 12 V standard is widely used; it would take too much time and
effort to change it. Costs, including re-tooling appliances to take
advantages of the new standard, would be too high for the reasons for
changing the voltage standard.
4.2.2 Higher energy use is not environmentally friendly, leading to the
question: are all these portable appliances really necessary?
4.2.3 More equipment used at the same time would lead to more car
 accidents. For example, cellular phone use has been reported to lead to

dangerous driving.

5. Recommendations

5.1 The raising of the standard voltage will be deemed unnecessary, largely
because of the costs involved in implementing the new

standard.

1. Purpose

State the purpose of your report at the top of the paper. A clear purpose is the
key to good reports. In order to write a clear purpose statement, determine what
problem you are facing and from that, determine the goal of the report.

In the above example, the purpose statement is derived directly from the
problem statement:

From the assignment

The Problem Statement:
statement:

"To determine if the 12 volt

"[the 12V battery
battery standard is a
standard] is being --->
sufficient power supply to
questioned because every
support the increasing
year consumers demand
demand for power in todayís
more from the power
automobiles"
supply in their cars."

Keep your purpose in mind throughout the paper. Reread it whenever you need
to decide what to include and what to cut.
2. Audience

State your audience at the top of the paper. Although you may not actually
include the statement "the audience for this report is for X, Y, and Z" in the
report, it remains important to acknowledge it in the outline because the audience
dictates the content and organization of any report. The audience statement
serves as a reminder of this important consideration and might change the
appearance of the final version. For example:

If you are writing for an However, if you are writing about the same concept
engineer you might write: for non-engineers, you might be better to write it
this way:
amount of amount of

Epot = Q1 Q2 Electrostatic charge x charge

a constant
k X = on body 1 on body 2
d2 (k) X
Potential (distance between
bodies)2
Then you will need to go on and explain just what
this means.

3. Organization

Deciding where and when to use information is the most important part of the
outlining process. It helps to develop This involves several steps:

1. Identifying the Groups: Sometimes you will have to do a lot of

thinking and shuffling of information to come up with categories; other
times they will be obvious (or even assigned). If categories are assigned,
you must still understand how the provided topics/categories link
together, and what to say about each topic in order to create a coherent
report.
2. Sequencing the Groups:Once you have clustered information
together, arrange it logically. What is "logical" is a sequence that both
 makes sense to you and addresses your audience's needs [1]. This may
mean that you follow a traditional format [see EWC handbook for
various formats]. Regardless of format, a you will still need to think
about which ordering pattern (called a rhetorical pattern) is most useful.
A single document might use more than one rhetorical pattern. The
introduction to this web collection, for example, began with a definition,
followed by a process description.
3. Sequence the Items in a Group: Now you need to organize
each group and subgroup of information into a logical pattern. Again,
the rhetorical patterns may help.
4. Avoid Common Logical Problems: Two major problems are
faulty coordination and faulty subordination. Here's a simple illustration
of each.

3.4.1. Faulty Coordination involves

3.4.1.1. equating items that are not of

equal value, or not the same level. For
example:

o Citrus Fruits o Citrus Fruits

 grapefruit  grapefruit
 lemon  lemon
 lime  lime
 mandarin  oranges
orange  mandarin
orange
 navel
orange  navel
orange

oranges placed at wrong

position of oranges corrected
level
3.4.1.2. creating more than one heading which could logically contain the
same item.

3.4.2. Faulty Subordination involves

3.4.2.1. placing an item under a topic where it does not belong

In a draft of a fourth year thesis, the writers had the following headings
in a chapter:

II. Thesis Objectives

A. Scope
B. Cost Function

But these are not the objectives at all.

The objective was to design a computer
program for a telephone queuing
system. Neither A nor B fit under the
heading given above. Cost was
certainly involved, but was one of two
constraints. The other constraint
(useability) never got mentioned in the
outline. When they redrafted, "Scope"
was moved to the introduction, and the
new chapter looked like this:

II. Project Constraints

A. Useability
B. Cost

3.4.2.2. listing only one sub-unit under a unit

(this is an error because an "A" makes no sense
without a "B"). In the above example, for
example, the third heading only has one sub
unit. In this particular case, the student was
 planning to include more information, but at this
point had only one

3. Relationship of in-class experiments 3. Relationship of Experiment 1

(based on only one completed class
experiment) 3.1 Experiment Setup:
equipment and procedures
3.1 Experiment 1: Shows that used
changes in voltage are proportional 3.2 Results: Shows that
to changes in current. This would changes in voltage are
reflect the same changes as in a 12 proportional to changes in
V battery. The current through the current.
battery remains constant with the 3.3 Relationship to
constant voltage supplied. Battery : This reflects the
same changes as in a 12 V
battery. The current through
the battery remains constant
with the constant voltage
supplied.
Sub-headings clarify the
Only one sub-unit under a unit nature of the experiment and its
relationship to the battery problem.

1. Make all Entries Grammatically Parallel: Most instructions

for résumés encourage you to use active verbs to describe what you did
in your jobs: directed, shipped, served, was responsible for. A résumé is
a highly specialized form of an outline. Following a similar principle in
every outline (whether you use verbs or nouns) will strengthen the logic
of your outline, and prevent haphazardness that may prevent you from
recognizing errors in planning or consistency.
2. Choose a Format for Your Outline: If your outline is going to
be evaluated, you need to use a format that will make reading easy. Two
standards are the Traditional Alpha-Numeric Format, or a Decimal
Format shown below. In each case, these formats force you to prioritize
 ideas, so the secondary ideas are clearly placed under the main point. If
you don't want to use these highly regimented systems, you can simply
use points that are ordered under headings. Make sure that the headings
are of equal weight and that they obey the same logical structure as
pointed out above.

Traditional Alpha-Numeric Format Decimal Format

I. Main point (or chapter) 1.0. Main point (or introduction to a

A. Support to main point chapter)
1. Evidence for point IA 1.1. First issue in this chapter
2. More evidence for IA 1.1.1. Evidence for point 1.1
B. Second support for main point 1.1.2. More evidence for 1.1
1. Evidence for point IB 1.2. Second issue in this chapter
a. support for this evidence 1.2.1 Evidence for point 1.2
b. more support for this evidence 1.2.1.1. support for this evidence
2. More evidence for IB 1.2.1.2. more support for this
II. Second main point evidence
(and so on) 1.2.2 More evidence for point 1.2
2.0. Second main point or chapter
(and so on)
A single entry under this system could A single entry under this system could
look like this: look like this:
II.A.1.b.iii. 2.1.1.2.3.

3. The above example uses the decimal format, but the alpha-
numeric could also have been used.

4. Content

The most difficult part of writing an outline for another reader is deciding how
much information you want to include. Clearly, you want to be able to show that
you've thought considerably about the problem and your response to the problem,
but have a limited amount of space in which to demonstrate your expertise.
 1. Provide adequate indication regarding background
information for the problem at hand:

Filling in the background appropriately in the outline provides

evidence of thoughtfulness and, as in the report, helps to clarify
the following points and comments.

From the Principles section of the above example:

"The relationship between Here, the author develops the

Electrostatic Potential and background theory which will be
Kirchoffís Voltage Law is that used to explain his decision for or
the first offers the explanation against upgrading the 12V
of stored energy within the standard. This is the background
circuit, as the other uses that required to understand automobile
stored energy and shows how battery operation and what is
the energy is used by the involved in upgrading the current
circuit elements. The battery 12 volt standard. By indicating his
releases energy at a potential awareness of the principles
difference of 12 V and each involved in the problem, the author
element of the automobile is gives evidence of his expertise,
made to use the 12 volts of showing that he is properly
energy supplied by the equipped to make an appropriate
battery. The battery also has recommendation.
an alternator (a charger)
which keeps a constant supply
of energy entering the battery
(through the positive
terminal), thus, the energy of
the battery cannot be fully
used up."

2. Show clear relationships between concepts:

 Establishing relationships between concepts helps the outline and,
ultimately, the report by giving it a logical flow. Although this involves
using certain principles of "organization" (see above), it remains
important that these connections be clearly shown and elaborated on.

From the Principles section of the above example:

"The relationship between Electrostatic Here, the author

Potential and Kirchoffís Voltage Law is establishes that
that the first offers the explanation of Electrostatic Potential
stored energy within the circuit, as the is the principle behind
other uses that stored energy and shows Kirchoff's Voltage
how the energy is used by the circuit Law, and both are at
elements. The battery releases energy at work in automobile
a potential difference of 12 V and each batteries.
element of the automobile is made to
use the 12 volts of energy supplied by
the battery. The battery also has an
alternator (a charger) which keeps a
constant supply of energy entering the
battery (through the positive terminal),
thus, the energy of the battery cannot be
fully used up."

3.Provide enough evidence to support your arguments:

In your outline, showing that you have sufficient evidence to

support your points, conclusions, and recommendations, and that
you know how to use this evidence is key. It shows that you
have really thought through the problem and gives the reader
confidence that your actual report will turn out well.
From the Advantages and Disadvantages section from the above example:

4.1 Advantages Here, the author does provide examples of

advantages emerging from a new battery
4.1.1 More power standard, but are these the only ones? The
could be available for most important ones? In fact, they are the
equipment requiring most obvious and important: both emerge
higher voltage. from the fact that the battery supports more
4.1.2 More power usage, so these advantages can be
equipment could be logically developed from the preceding
used simultaneously material.
without power drain.

4.2 Disadvantages As above, are these the only disadvantages?

4.2.1 The 12 V standard is
widely used; it would take too
much time and effort to change
it. Costs, including re-tooling
appliances to take advantages of
the new standard, would be too
high for the reasons
The most important one? Do they respond
to the above advantages? Note also that the
author orders the points so as to show the
progression from most to less relevant (to
audience):
for 1) Cost

changing the voltage standard. 2) Environmental

4.2.2 Higher energy use is not Unfriendliness

environmentally friendly, 3) Driver Safety

leading to the question: are all

these portable appliances really
necessary?
4.2.3 More equipment used at
the same time would lead to
more car accidents. For
example, cellular phone use has
been reported to lead to
dangerous driving.
 Secondly, The conclusion must be support by the
information provided by the outline.

Given these Advantages and Disadvantages, does the conclusion (recommendation) make
sense?

5.1 The raising of the standard This recommendation follows from the
voltage will be deemed advantages and disadvantages above because:
unnecessary, largely because of 1) Cost of implementing the new standard is an
the costs involved in implementing overbearing concern which outweighs the
the new standard. benefits.
2) The advantages of being able to run more
appliances and run more powerful appliances
have been brought into question because of the
threat it poses to the environment and the
dangers it can present.

The next step is to use your outline to write your final draft.

"Memo writing is technical writing with its sleeves rolled up."

A memo is a no-nonsense professional document, designed to be read quickly

and passed along rapidly, often within a company or work group. E-mail
messages are by far the most common form of memo.

This document describes the basic format for the business and technical memo.
Most memos are characteristically brief, but they should follow the other
principles of good technical writing as well: know your audience, be clear, and
be accurate.
Typical Components

• Header While a memo generally requests or delivers a quick response to a

• Purpose specific question, it may also be a compact version of a short report,
• Summary progress report, or lab report. Although section titles may appear
• Discussion awkward in a very short memo, they allow your readers to scan
efficiently and respond quickly.
• Action
Memos are often routed, posted, and forwarded, which means they
can reach a lot of people quickly. Effects of careless mistakes
compound quickly, since they tend to generate even more memos
asking for clarification. Memos also get filed, which means they can
come back to haunt you later. In fact, "memo" comes from the Latin
memorandum, "a thing which must be remembered."

1. Header
The header is a compact block of information at the top of a memo. Different
offices may prefer different layouts, but in general you should use an
arrangement like the following:

Date: January 24, 1998

To: F. Prefect
From: A. Dent
cc: T. MacMillan
Z. Beeblebrox
bcc: D. Adams

Subject: My Suggested Revisions to the

Local Demolition Schedule

 • Date: Spell it out. In some countries "12/01/98" means
"December 1, 1998," but in others it means "12 January, 1998."
• To: and From: In general, omit titles such as Professor or Mr.,
but follow the style your organization prefers. Write your initials after
your name on the "From" line.

Note: The standard memo does not use a salutation ("Dear Mr.
Prefect:") or a closing ("Sincerely, Arthur P. Dent"). However,
many people do add such lines to e-mail messages.

• cc ("Carbon Copy") and BCC("Blind Carbon Copy"): Although

carbon copy paper is obsolete technology, the term persists. A "blind
copy" might go to a person who should be informed of what is going on
(such as an office assistant or a secretary), but who is otherwise not
directly involved. These headers are optional. The people on the "cc"
list do not see the names of the people on the "BCC" list.
• Subject: Be specific.
Annual Report
(Too vague)
Annual Report Cover Artwork
(A little more precise, but there could be many other memos on this same topic)
Cost Estimate for Annual Report Cover Artwork
Emergency Revisions to Annual Report Cover Artwork
• The first two examples are unacceptable because they only state
a topic, but the last two are more informative because they also identify
the focus -- the particular relationship of this memo to the general topic.

2. Purpose
Immediately state your reason for writing. Answer the journalist's questions:
who, what, when, where, and why.

Mr. Howard has asked me to arrange a working lunch for all members of the
writing staff, at the main office, sometime before the end of the month.
The purpose of this memo is to request authorization to purchase a sound card and
a modem for the computer in the front office.
This memo confirms the details of your tour of the new processing plant, as we
 discussed over the telephone this morning.

3. Summary
The summary should do more than describe the contents of the memo, it should
be a miniature version of the memo. A technical document is not a mystery
novel, so put all your important information up front.

This memo confirms the plans made during the writing staff's working lunch with
Mr. Howard. It describes the proposed changes to the Greenfield Power proposal,
and explains the procedure by which employees may voice their own opinions.
(This passage merely describes the organization of the memo. It does not actually
summarize the contents.)
During last week's working lunch, Mr. Howard asked the the writing staff to
consider two major changes to the Greenfield Power proposal: 1) invite the
governor to write a letter of introduction, 2) transpose sections four and five. Mr.
Howard will hold an open meeting next Friday at 12, in conference room 2, in
order to solicit employee feedback.
(Some readers, satisfied with the summary, might stop reading here. If so, you
have done your job well.)

4. Discussion
Since your memo may be pulled from a file years from now, your discussion
section should include sufficient background information. The background may
include the names and titles of the people involved, or the dates of earlier memos
related to the one you are writing. The rest of the section should expand on and
support all the points you made in your summary. You may employ subheadings
similar to those found in larger technical documents: situation, problem,
solution, evaluation. Label these subsections. You may choose to arrange the
discussion chronologically, from more important to less important, or from the
general to the specific. Whatever rhetorical pattern you choose, you should
follow these general pointers:

• Start with the old information and work carefully towards the
new.
 • Give your reader a sense of the big picture before you zero in on
the individual parts.
Observation A. [Details on A...] Observation B. [Details on B...]
Observation C. [Details on C...] Research suggests that factors A, B, and
C combine to create problem Y. [Details on Y...] Therefore, conclusion
X. [Details on X...]
(An unconnected string of details is often hard to follow.)
Problem Y occurs when factors A, B, and C are present. This section
explains why we should avoid problem Y, examines each of the
contributing factors, and explains why I feel that action X should prevent
further instances of problem Y. [Details follow, in the order promised.]
(Advance knowledge of how the details fit together makes them easier to
absorb.)
• Use active verbs.
• Use the pronoun "I" when you are talking about your work.
• Simplify your language. Instead of "somewhere in the proximity
of," write "near". Instead of "at this point in time," write "now." Avoid
puffing up your writing to make yourself appear more important.

5. Action
Unless the purpose of the memo is simply to inform, you should finish with a
clear call for action. Who should do what, and how long do they have to do it?
You may need to include alternatives, in the event that your readers disagree with
you. Be polite when you ask others to do work for you, especially when they are
not under your supervision. You may wish to mention the actions that you plan
to take next, and what your own deadlines are, so your reader can gauge how
important the project is to you. A canned conclusion such as "If you have any
questions, please feel free to contact me at 555-1234" is too vague for a statement
of action.

Progress reports are common in engineering. As the name suggests, they

document ongoing projects. They might be one-page memos or long, formal
documents. Such a report is aimed at whoever assigned the project. Its goal is to
enable the manager or sponsor of a project to make informed decisions about the
future of the project. Usually, progress reports are stressful. The sponsor wants a
job done quickly and cheaply; the engineer needs to ensure accuracy and
quality. A sponsor might cancel even a quality job if it is behind or overbudget.
As the engineer, you need to please the sponsor and do the job well. Yet, any
project of size or significance is bound to encounter snags: additional
requirements, miscommunications, problems, delays, or unexpected expenses. A
progress report must account for those snags.

Organization

The original proposal for the project determines the structure: make use of
original milestones or the timeline. With this in mind, the simplest structure is as
follows:

1. Introduction
2. Work Completed
3. Work Scheduled
4. Problems

But a more comprehensive list of components will give you a clearer structure,
even if you return to the simpler structure for the report itself.

Beer and McMurrey's [8] Detailed Structure:

1. Introduction
2. Project Description
3. Progress Summary
4. Problems Encountered
5. Changes in Requirements
6. Overall Assessment of the Project
This document adds: 7. Report Apparatus (titles, references, etc.)
1. Introduction
As always, first indicate the purpose of the report and its intended audience.
Clearly define the time period covered in the report (see also titles). Then,
explain the project's objectives and summarize the major issues. Sometimes the
summary can be a separate section from the introduction [2].

2. Project Description
In very short reports, the introduction might contain this section, but if it is under
its own heading, readers who are familiar with the project can skip it. Someone
unfamiliar with the project, however, needs summarized details such as purpose
and scope of the project, start and completion dates, and names of parties
involved [8]. Often this section can be adapted from a proposal or borrowed from
a previous progress report.

3. Progress Summary
This is the substance of the report (so "summary" may be a misnomer). You want
to discuss work done, work in progress, and work to be done. You might just
use these as subheadings to structure the section. This would be a project-tasks
approach. Other approaches are time-periods or a combined approach.

• Project-tasks approach: Focus on the tasks. Defined milestones

can logically organize your discussion into this kind of structure. Also if
you are working on a number of semi-independent tasks at the same
time, this approach will work well [8].
• Time-periods approach: Focus on time: the previous period,
the current period, the future. If a timeline (or deadline) is more
important than milestones, then use this approach. Also, use it for
projects with a simple linear structure.
• Combined approach: The two above approaches could be
combined if, for example, under previous work, you break down what
you have done by individual tasks. Or, under the tasks, you focus on
what part is complete, what part is in progress, and what part is yet to
come.
Your project (and sometimes your sponsor) will determine which of these three
you use. If the problems encountered or changes required are time-related, then
use the time-periods approach to your advantage; likewise, if the problems or
changes relate to specific tasks then use the project-tasks approach. Another item
that may be included here is a summary of financial data. This last item could
be contained in a table or appendix, or an independent section.

4. Problems Encountered
As noted in the opening, snags are expected. Don't hide from them; explain what
they are and how they might affect key areas of the job (such as timing, price or
quality). If the problem occurred in the past, you can explain how you overcame
it. This is least serious; in fact, you look good. If the problem is in front of you
(now or in the future), explain how you hope to overcome it, if you can.

5. Changes in Requirements
Here, you record the changes to the project: milestones added, new requirements,
or schedule changes (good or bad). Even if these changes have not affected the
ultimate goal of the project, you need to tell the sponsor how problems have been
accommodated.

Note: If changes are a direct result of problems encountered, sections 4 and 5

may be combined. This would lead to a modified organization: first problem and
the change it required, then the next problem and change, and so on.

6. Overall Assessment of the Project

Since a progress report is not about a finished work, the conclusion needs only to
give your professional opinion of how the project is going. Being unrealistically
optimistic is as inappropriate as being unduly negative. Beware of promising
early completion: a single setback can gobble up much time. Likewise, don't
overreact if you are behind schedule. You may also gain time along the way. Far
more significant for the engineer is to explain anything that may change the
expected quality of the final product. Keeping in mind your purpose can help you
focus here: your goal is to enable the manager or sponsor to make informed
decisions.
 7. Report Apparatus
A long progress report will include all the apparatus of formal reports: letter of
transmittal, title page, table of contents, abstract, appendices, references. Only the
most common will be addressed here.

• Title: whether on a separate page or merely as a header, the title

sends an important message to the reader. It needs to be clear and
concise. Sample good title:

PROGRESS REPORT:
Manufacturing Custom Relief Valve Assemblies
XYZ Company

Reporting Period: April - July 1997

• Subtitle: Note that the subtitle in the above example

incorporates the dates covered by the report. This makes handy
reference for a reader, particularly on a large project where more than
one progress report may be necessary.
• Appendices: In a short report (less than 10 pages) keep
appendices to a minimum. It is always appropriate, however, to lodge
financial data in an appendix if it does not fit elsewhere in the report. An
important guideline is that it is only worth including an appendix if you
mention it in the guts of the report. Otherwise, leave it out altogether.

References: Systems of referencing vary widely within engineering disciplines. The University
of Toronto's Language Across the Curriculum program has a convenient "bibliography builder"
for people using the author-date system. The basics of the format can be seen in the reference list
below that contains the references used in producing these pages. See also:

MAJOR COMPONENTS

1. Executive Summary (no more than 1 page)

 • Place your piece in the context of the larger project
• Explain the goal of your part (in relation to the whole project)
• Explain clearly what stage you are at and how that stage fits with
the expected milestones.

Have a look at an example of an executive summary from one of the

projects done last year. The project was to develop a new protection
circuit to replace the current limiter circuit for an ultrasound machine at
Sunnybrook Hospital. The annotations in the left margin should help you
see the significant points that you will also need to include.

2. Introduction (1-3 pages)

• more detailed purpose and overview

• clear "road map" of sections of report
• any important additions to literature review (ie. work that
influences design)

3. Program Review (5-15 pages)

• Describe the stages in this piece of the project (from the

proposal if they were clearly explained there)
• Explain each stage

For completed stages:

o what was done, why, and how does it contribute to
related stages?
o explain significant obstacles especially if they required a
change of plan or of timeline
o if possible, explain how the obstacles have been
overcome.

For incomplete stages

o explain briefly work being done and to be completed

 To keep this specific, focus only on your components and points
of intersection with those of others. Do not talk about the whole
project at this stage.

4. Changes to the Program (0-10 pages)

Explain:

• why a change was made

• what effect it will it have on the outcome
• how responsibilities are being revised

5. Revised Milestones

6. Revised Division of Responsibilities

7. Appendix

Original Milestones from the Proposal

Original Division of responsibilities from the Proposal

8. References

Sample Executive Executive Summary

Summary:
The first paragraph, though
a little rough, places the
transducer into the context
of the larger ultrasound
imaging project.
The high-frequency, high-sensitivity transducer is part of
the project to design high-frequency-high-speed
protection circuitry for Ultrasound imaging. Current
ultrasound technology needs this development because
the current limiter circuit causes multiple signal
reflections at the high voltages produced by the pulsers.
These reflections deteriorate the resolution of the
imaging system. A new protection switching circuit will
replace the current limiter circuit and will preserve the
stimulation pulse in the form it was delivered from the
 pulser.
The transducer appears at the stage before the limiter
circuit which makes up the main focus of this project.
The second paragraph is
The transducer is activated by a 400V pulse from the
better. It defines what the
pulser and produces a mechanical pulse. This pulse is
transducer actually is.
then reflected by the observed object and transformed
back to an electric signal.
The goal of the transducer project is to design and build a
prototype of a metal-backed transducer based on thin co-
polymer PVDF (poly (vinylidene fluoride)). This process
has three stages:
The third paragraph clearly
sets out the purpose and o finding an optimal alloy of Lead and Tin that can
milestones. be cast in a Teflon mold.
o designing the mold and prototype based
primarily on existing research

o building a prototype.
The project is on schedule, having met the first two
milestones. A Pb27%Sn alloy has been selected because
of its melting properties [1,2] and because it can easily
The final paragraph be cast in the Teflon mold [2,3]. The design will follow
addresses the crucial point Malloy [1]; however, Malloy used a Pb23%Sn alloy, so
of the report: the progress. we expect our transducer to be more efficient and
The second and third produce less circuit noise [3]. Arrangements have been
sentences clearly address made to cast the prototype in the first week of January.
milestones one and two. Once the casting is complete, the remainder of the
prototype should be finished on schedule by the end of
January when preliminary testing of the whole project is
scheduled to begin.
Ý
Electronic documents should
be...
Better-written technical documents enable people to work
with greater speed, accuracy, and comfort. These qualities
1. short,
are measured by the usability factor.
2. top-heavy,
Sun Microsystems researchers applied several simple
3. scannable,
writing strategies to test web pages, improving the usability
4. navigable, and
of a tourism web site by 127%, and a technical web site
by 149%. (See "Web Usability Studies").
5. straightforward.

Note: These strategies are designed to improve informational web pages, but some non-
technical web sites also have value. The Internet has room for writing that creates
suspense, style, and poetry.

1. Electronic Documents Should Be Short

The shorter, the better.

2. Electronic Documents Should Be Top-heavy

The inverted pyramid writing style puts the important information at the top.
People do judge books by their cover; and they will judge web pages by what
they can see without scrolling.

• If your first few lines satisfy your reader's needs, you will have
done your job well.
• Curious or skeptical readers can keep reading, perhaps following
links deeper into your document.
• Bored or satisfied readers can move on.

Use the inverted pyramid on several levels, whether you are writing a
paragraph, a single page, or a multi-page collection.

• Paragraph
 o Begin with the conclusion. (It may be all your visitor
has time to read.)
o Use subsequent sentences to support your conclusion.
o Use bulleted lists and highlighted keywords to break
up long, boring blocks of text.
• Page
o Begin each page (or posting) with a table of contents, or
a detailed abstract.
o The abstract should provide the Coles Notes version of
your page:

 "This web page has some neat links and

cool graphics."
(Vague and completely useless.)

 "This web page offers links to my favorite

science fiction TV shows and some original computer
graphics."
(Although slightly improved, this version still lacks any
specific details.)

 "This web page has an annotated list of

links to Canadian Star Trek and Babylon 5 web sites,
and graphics that emulate their computer interfaces."
 (This more informative summary helps the
reader evaluate a document without reading it to the
end.)
• Collection
o Provide an informative overview, near the top of the
first page (in order to minimize scrolling).
o Different kinds of electronic documents require slightly
different overviews. For example:
 A web home page should contain:
 a statement of purpose
 a table of contents
  An on-line manual, help file, or FAQ (list of
"Frequently Asked Questions") should contain:
 a condensed, easily-accessible index or
table of contents for those who want a quick
overview
 items arranged so that the most
common problems are the most easily solved.
 An archive or list of links should begin with:
 a clear description of the selection
criteria
 a summary of contents (the better the
summary, the more useful the collection)

3. Electronic Documents Should Be Scannable

Conventional Text Scannable Revision

Traditional writing genres, such as the five- Electronic Documents Should Be Scannable
paragraph essay, or a short story, are usually
harder to read on a visually-intensive electronic People dislike reading long paragraphs of

media such as the World Wide Web, because electronic text. Technical paragraphs are often

computer users dislike reading long paragraphs. inefficient ways of conveying complex

On average, people read electronic 25% slower information, and electronic text is harder to

than conventional text. Monitors cause read.

eyestrain, it takes time for long pages to

Users prefer scannable text, so that they can
download, and it is easy to lose your place in an
glance over a page and quickly gauge its value.
electronic document. Traditional writing modes
Scannable text uses
such as essays and narratives use long blocks of
text in order to build gradually and inevitably to • descriptive subheadings,
a conclusion. This kind of writing assumes a • highlighted keywords, and
captive audience -- readers who want to absorb • bulleted lists.
every word and idea on the page, in the order
that the author presents them. Technical authors Technical Paragraphs Are Often Inefficient
cannot make the same assumptions, because
time is money in the professional world, which
means that people will bail out of what looks More traditional writing genres, such as the

like a boring document, unless they see concrete five-paragraph essay or the short story, build

signs of useful information. Documents which gradually and inevitably to a conclusion.

emphasize their most important information Long paragraphs are acceptable in this kind of

with meaningful subheadings, highlighted writing, because the reader is expected to read

keywords, and bulleted lists allow readers to every word, in strict sequential order.

scan the document -- to glance over its contents

Technical readers want the conclusion up
quickly, stopping whenever they encounter
front. They will bail out quickly, unless they
something interesting, and skimming ahead
find something interesting. They will scan
when they are bored. People "who surf the 'net"
ahead in order to predict a page's
will likely try to surf your document as well,
usefulness, focusing on the words and phrases
which means that long blocks of plain text will
that jump out at them.
appear to be more trouble than they are worth.
The first person who actually reads this far in Electronic Text Is Harder to Read
the text should e-mail the author to receive a
free, autographed picture of the cast from "Full • Electronic text takes 25% longer to
House." Preparing and revising electronic read.
documents according to this principle is a time • Many users report eye strain or other
consuming project which, judging by the discomfort.
prevalence of text-heavy web sites on the • Users lose their place when pages are
Internet, many people do not want to do; densely packed.
however, the time that you have already
• Blocks of text can be intimidating.
invested in doing the work in the first place is
completely wasted if your users never find it on
your site.

Analysis

Although the paragraph on the left actually contains more information, not all of
it would be of interest to the users who come to this page, and there is nothing
that would particularly attract the attention of those who might be interested.
The revision on the right highlights the most important details; an author can use
hyperlinks to send the reader to related subdocuments or to lower sections of the
same page in order to provide more details.

4. Electronic Documents Should Be Navigable

Non-expert users typically depend more heavily on help files, navigation aids,
and other supporting features. As more ordinary people encounter electronic
media, those elements become more important. As an electronic author, you
should generally help a novice use your document. At the same time, too
much help slows down the experts.

• Use hyperlinks with care.

o Build links using informative text.
o Avoid extraneous links.
• Expect late arrivals and premature departures.
o Any page on your site may be the only page your
reader sees.
o Help your reader navigate efficiently.

Use Hyperlinks With Care

In some ways, hypertext frees readers by letting them pick and choose from
among several paths through a document At the same time, hypertext restricts
readers, because they can follow only the links the author chose to create. As
an electronic author, you should build links using informative text, and avoid
extraneous links.

• Build links using informative text

Take advantage of the fact that linked text stands out, and use it to
highlight the important information you offer. Use the surrounding
words to explain why the reader might want to click on the link.
 o For a web page about plagiarism, click here.
(Sloppy writing; the word "here" jumps out, but it means little by
itself.)

o Click on the following link for a web page about

plagiarism.
(The linked text is more descriptive, but the sentence still offers
no good reason for a reader to follow the link; further, since
most readers don't need to be told that you click on links to make
hypertext work, the instruction wastes time.)

o All students are required to know the university's

official definition of plagiarism.
(The linked words describe what the document is about, and the
context clarifies why a reader might want to read it.)
• Avoid extraneous links
o For a reader with a specific goal in mind, link-saturated
paragraphs can be distracting.

My name is Dennis G. Jerz. At present, I work for the

Engineering Writing Centre in the Faculty of Applied
Science and Engineering at the University of Toronto. I am
completing my Ph.D. at the Graduate School of English. I
am a citizen of the United States of America, although I have
been living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada for six years. I
received my B.A. and M.A. in English at the University of
Virginia. I have recently accepted a job in the Department of
English at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.
(Many people's first web pages include passages like this. It
may be fine for beginners who simply want to play with
hyperlinks, but an annotated list is a much more efficient and
useful way to organize a series of links.)
o Internal cross-links may fight each other for your
reader's attention.
o Links to external sites may send your reader away
prematurely.
 Obviously the solution is not to hide links; rather, offer links that
actually help a reader who wants to use your resources to achieve a
goal.

Expect Late Arrivals and Premature Departures

Any page on your site may be the only page your reader sees. Make it as useful
as possible.

• Even a Brief Visit Should be Productive

o On the way in...
 Search engines may point users directly to one
of your internal pages.
 Don't assume your visitor has read any of your
other pages.
 Treat each page as an independent document.
o On the way out...
 Users can and will leave your web site.
 A technical or service-oriented web site
should try to satisfy the user as soon as
possible.
 Do not try to trick them into staying
longer.
 Aim to send them away satisfied.
 If you want to keep their interest longer, don't
employ tricks -- write stuff that's more interesting.
• Orient Your Reader Within Each Page
o Provide meaningful navigation aids.

 [ Go Back ]
(This link would mean nothing to a user who didn't come
from the place you want to send them.)

 [ Home ]
(There are millions of home pages out there.)
 
(While most users of the present web site would
probably understand the function of this graphic, to
novices, it may seem like just a pretty picture. [Hint:
click on it.])
 [ Engineering Writing Centre Home ]
(Low-tech, but more informative than the graphic. [So:
why does this site use the logo instead? Well... umm...
you see, graphics are cool...])
o Provide navigation alternatives.
 Is your document sequential, with a clear
beginning and ending? That may be good, and it may be
bad.
 Novice users typically prefer a
sequential document, so they can tell when they
have finished.
 Expert users may object to tedious
strings of "Go to next page" links.
 A user should be able to change navigation
strategies from moment to moment
 The main navigation bar at the top of
this page clearly reflects a hierarchical
arrangement.
 The arrow buttons at the top and
bottom indicate the sequential arrangement of
documents in this particular section.
 The arrows appear at the top of
the page for those users who want to
click quickly through all the pages, in
order to get an idea of what each page
contains.
 The arrows also appear at the
bottom of the page because that's
 where sequential readers will end up
when they make their decision about
whether they want to keep reading.
 The occasional hyperlink embedded in
the main text indicates a thematic
arrangement among various sections

Electronic Documents Should Be Straightforward

• Avoid "marketese"

o Click here to see the best web site ever! You

won't be sorry!
(Users detest this kind of writing. They end up mistrusting the
web page, even feeling insulted by the writer.)

• Avoid pompous and overblown language.

Pompous Straightforward
At this point in time... Now...
Due to the fact that... Because...
It is important to note that... [cut entirely]
From X, it can be seen that Y is the case. X proves Y.

• Don't hide behind words. Say what you mean.

o At this point, the management would like to offer

its most sincere sympathies for any inconvenience that might
have been caused by the recent, brief network incident. Our
valuable customers should rest assured that we remain
committed to offering reliability and affordability blah blah
blah...
(If this is supposed to make amends to customers who have
suffered a great inconvenience, it is a sorry attempt.)
o We regret the inconvenience caused by the server
crash -- we hate being locked out of the network just as much as
you do. The upgrade should be completed by Monday morning.
(The informality and directness of this passage is more
believable -- a reader would tend to believe that this writer
actually did feel bad about the "incident.")