Electrical World, Feb.

21, 1891
http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1891-02-21.htm
Electrical journals are getting to be more and more interesting. New facts are observed and
new problems spring up daily wic command te attention of engineers. !n te last few
numbers of te Englis journals, principally in te Electrician tere ave been several new
matters brougt up wic ave attracted more tan usual attention. "e address of #rofessor
$roo%es as revived te interest in is beautiful and s%illfully performed e&periments, te
effect observed on te Ferranti mains as elicited te e&pressions of opinion of some of te
leading Englis electricians, and 'r. (winburne as brougt out some interesting points in
connection wit condensers and dynamo e&citation.
"e writer)s own e&periences ave induced im to venture a few remar%s in regard to tese
and oter matters, oping tat tey will afford some useful information or suggestion to te
reader.
*mong is many e&periments #rofessor $roo%es sows some performed wit tubes devoid of
internal electrodes, and from is remar%s it must be inferred tat te results obtained wit
tese tubes are rater unusual. !f tis be so, ten te writer must regret tat #rofessor
$roo%es, wose admirable wor% as been te deligt of every investigator, sould not ave
availed imself in is e&periments of a properly constructed alternate current macine +
namely, one capable of giving, say 1,,,,, to 2,,,,, alternations per second. -is researces
on tis difficult but fascinating subject would ten ave been even more complete. !t is true
tat wen using suc a macine in connection wit an induction coil te distinctive caracter
of te electrodes +wic is desirable, if not essential, in many e&periments + is lost, in most
cases bot te electrodes beaving ali%e. but on te oter and, te advantage is gained tat
te effects may be e&alted at will. /en using a rotating switc or commutator te rate of
cange obtainable in te primary current is limited. /en te commutator is more rapidly
revolved te primary current diminises, and if te current be increased, te spar%ing, wic
cannot be completely overcome by te condenser, impairs considerably te virtue of te
apparatus. No suc limitations e&ist wen using an alternate current macine as any desired
rate of cange may be produced in te primary current. !t is tus. possible to obtain
e&cessively ig electromotive forces in te secondary circuit wit a comparatively small
primary current. moreover, te perfect regularity in te wor%ing of te apparatus may be relied
upon.
"e writer will incidentally mention tat any one wo attempts for te first time to construct
suc a macine will ave a tale of woe to tell. -e will first start out, as a matter of course, by
ma%ing an armature wit te re0uired number of polar projections. -e will ten get te
satisfaction of aving produced an apparatus wic is fit to accompany a torougly
/agnerian opera. !t may besides possess te virtue of converting mecanical energy into
eat in a nearly perfect manner. !f tere is a reversal in te polarity of te projections, e will
get eat out of te macine. if tere is no reversal, te eating will be less, but te output will
be ne&t to noting. -e will ten abandon te iron in te armature, and e will get from te
(cylla to te $arybdis. -e will loo% for one difficulty and will find anoter, but, after a few
trials, e may get nearly wat e wanted.
*mong te many e&periments wic may be performed wit suc a macine, of not te least
interest are tose performed wit a ig+tension induction coil. "e caracter of te
discarge is completely canged. "e arc is establised at muc greater distances, and it is
so easily affected by te sligtest current of air tat it often wriggles around in te most
singular manner. !t usually emits te rytmical sound peculiar to te alternate current arcs,
but te curious point is tat te sound may be eard wit a number of alternations far above
ten tousand per second, wic by many is considered to be, about te limit of audition. !n
many respects te coil beaves li%e a static macine. #oints impair considerably te spar%ing
interval, electricity escaping from tem freely, and from a wire attaced to one of te terminals
streams of ligt issue, as toug it were connected to a pole of a powerful "oepler macine.
*ll tese penomena are, of course, mostly due to te enormous differences of potential
obtained. *s a conse0uence of te self+induction of te coil and te ig fre0uency, te
current is minute wile tere is a corresponding rise of pressure. * current impulse of some
strengt started in suc a coil sould persist to flow no less tan four ten+tousandts of a
second. *s tis time is greater tan alf te period, it occurs tat an opposing electromotive
force begins to act wile te current is still flowing. *s a conse0uence, te pressure rises as
in a tube filled wit li0uid and vibrated rapidly around its a&is. "e current is so small tat, in
te opinion and involuntary e&perience of te writer, te discarge of even a very large coil
cannot produce seriously injurious effects, wereas, if te same coil were operated wit a
current of lower fre0uency, toug te electromotive force would be muc smaller, te
discarge would be most certainly injurious. "is result, owever, is due in part to te ig
fre0uency. "e writer)s e&periences tend to sow tat te iger te fre0uency te greater
te amount of electrical energy wic may be passed troug te body witout serious
discomfort. wence it seems certain tat uman tissues act as condensers.
1ne is not 0uite prepared for te beavior of te coil wen connected to a 2eyden jar. 1ne,
of course, anticipates tat since te fre0uency is ig te capacity of te jar sould be small.
-e terefore ta%es a very small jar, about te si3e of a small wine glass, but e finds tat
even wit tis jar te coil is practically sort+circuited. -e ten reduces te capacity until e
comes to about te capacity of two speres, say, ten centimetres in diameter and two to four
centimetres apart. "e discarge ten assumes. te form of a serrated band e&actly li%e a
succession of spar%s viewed in a rapidly revolving mirror. te serrations, of course,
corresponding to te condenser discarges. !n tis case one may observe a 0ueer
penomenon. "e discarge starts at te nearest points, wor%s gradually up, brea%s
somewere near te top of te speres, begins again at te bottom. and so on. "is goes on
so fast tat several serrated bands are seen at once. 1ne may be pu33led for a few minutes,
but te e&planation is simple enoug. "e discarge begins at te nearest points. te air is
eated and carries te arc upward until it brea%s, wen it is re+establised at te nearest
points, etc. (ince te current passes easily troug a condenser of even small capacity, it will
be found 0uite natural tat connecting only one terminal to a body of te same si3e, no matter
ow well insulated, impairs considerably te stri%ing distance of te arc.
E&periments wit 4eissler tubes are of special interest. *n e&austed tube, devoid of
electrodes of any %ind, will ligt up at some distance from te coil. !f a tube from a vacuum
pump is near te coil te wole of te pump is brilliantly ligted. *n incandescent lamp
approaced to te coil ligts up and gets perceptibly ot. !f a lamp ave te terminals
connected to one of te binding posts of te coil and te and is approaced to te bulb, a
very curious and rater unpleasant discarge from te glass to te and ta%es place, and te
filament may become incandescent. "e discarge resembles to some e&tent te stream
issuing from te plates of a powerful "oepler macine, but is of incomparably greater
0uantity. "e lamp in tis case acts as a condenser, te rarefied gas being one coating, te
operator)s and te oter. 5y ta%ing te globe of a lamp in te and, and by bringing te
metallic terminals near td or in contact wit a conductor connected to te coil, te carbon is
brougt to brigt incandescence and te glass is rapidly eated. /it a 1,,+volt 1, c.p. lamp
one may witout great discomfort stand as muc current as will bring te lamp to a
considerable brilliancy. but it can be eld in te and only for a few minutes, as te glass is
eated in an incredibly sort time. /en a tube is ligted by bringing it near to te coil it may
be made to go out by interposing a metal plate on te and between te coil and tube. but if
te metal plate be fastened to a glass rod or oterwise insulated, te tube may remain ligted
if te plate be interposed, or may even increase in luminosity. "e effect depends on te
position of te plate and tube relatively to te coil, and may be always easily foretold by
assuming tat conduction ta%es place from one terminal of te coil to te oter. *ccording to
te position of te plate, it may eiter divert from or direct te current to te tube.
!n anoter line of wor% te writer as in fre0uent e&periments maintained incandescent lamps
of 6, or 1,, volts burning at any desired candle power wit bot te terminals of eac lamp
connected to a stout copper wire of no more tan a few feet in lengt. "ese e&periments
seem interesting enoug, but tey are not more so tan te 0ueer e&periment of Faraday,
wic as been revived and made muc of by recent investigators, and in wic a discarge
is made to jump between two points of a bent copper wire. *n e&periment may be cited ere
wic may seem e0ually interesting.
!f a 4eissler tube, te terminals of wic are joined by a copper wire, be approaced to te
coil, certainly no one would be prepared to see te tube ligt up. $uriously enoug, it does
ligt up, and, wat is more, te wire does not seem to ma%e muc difference. Now one is apt
to tin% in te first moment tat te impedance of te wire migt ave someting to do wit
te penomenon. 5ut tis is of course immediately rejected, as for tis an enormous
fre0uency would be re0uired. "is result, owever, seems pu33ling only at first. for upon
reflection it is 0uite clear tat te wire can ma%e but little difference. !t may be e&plained in
more tan one way, but it agrees peraps best wit observation to assume tat conduction
ta%es place from te terminals of te coil troug te space. 1n tis assumption, if te tube
wit te wire be eld in any position, te wire can divert little more tan te current wic
passes troug te space occupied by te wire and te metallic terminals of te tube. troug
te adjacent space te current passes practically undisturbed. For tis reason, if te tube be
eld in any position at rigt angles to te line joining te binding posts of te coil, te wire
ma%es ardly any difference, but in a position more or less parallel wit tat line it impairs to a
certain e&tent te brilliancy of te tube and its facility to ligt up. Numerous oter penomena
may be e&plained on te same assumption. For instance, if te ends of te tube be provided
wit wasers of sufficient si3e and eld in te line joining te terminals of te coil, it will not
ligt up, and ten nearly te wole of te current, wic would oterwise pass uniformly
troug te space between te wasers, is diverted troug te wire. 5ut if te tube be
inclined sufficiently to tat line, it will ligt up in spite of te wasers. *lso, if a metal plate be
fastened upon a glass rod and eld at rigt angles to te line joining te binding posts, and
nearer to one of tem, a tube eld more or less parallel wit te line will ligt up instantly
wen one of te terminals touces te plate, and will go out wen separated from te plate.
"e greater te surface of te plate, up to a certain limit, te easier te tube will ligt up.
/en a tube is placed at rigt angles to te straigt line joining te binding posts, and ten
rotated, its luminosity steadily increases until it is parallel wit tat line. "e writer must state,
owever, tat e does not favor te idea of a lea%age or current troug te space any more
tan as a suitable e&planation, for e is convinced tat all tese e&periments could not be
performed wit a static macine yielding a constant difference of potential, and tat
condenser action is largely concerned in tese penomena.
!t is well to ta%e certain precautions wen operating a 7um%orff coil wit very rapidly
alternating currents. "e primary current sould not be turned on too long, else te core may
get so ot as to melt te guta+perca or paraffin, or oterwise injure te insulation, and tis
may occur in a surprisingly sort time, considering te current)s strengt. "e primary current
being turned on, te fine wire terminals may be joined witout great ris%, te impedance being
so great tat it is difficult to force enoug current troug te fine wire so as to injure it, and in
fact te coil may be on te wole muc safer wen te terminals of te fine wire are
connected tan wen tey are insulated. but special care sould be ta%en wen te terminals
are connected to te coatings of a 2eyden jar, for wit anywere near te critical capacity,
wic just counteracts te self+induction at te e&isting fre0uency, te coil migt meet te fate
of (t. #olycarpus. !f an e&pensive vacuum pump is ligted up by being near to te coil or
touced wit a wire connected to one of te terminals, te current sould be left on no more
tan a few moments, else te glass will be crac%ed by te eating of te rarefied gas in one of
te narrow passages + in te writer)s own e&perience quod erat demonstrandum.
"ere are a good many oter points of interest wic may be observed in connection wit
suc a macine. E&periments wit te telepone, a conductor in a strong field or wit a
condenser or arc, seem to afford certain proof tat sounds far above te usual accepted limit
of earing would be perceived. * telepone will emit notes of twelve to tirteen tousand
vibrations per second. ten te inability of te core to follow suc rapid alternations begins to
tell. !f, owever, te magnet and core be replaced by a condenser and te terminals
connected to te ig+tension secondary of a transformer, iger notes may still be eard. !f
te current be sent around a finely laminated core and a small piece of tin seet iron be eld
gently against te core, a sound may be still eard wit tirteen to fourteen tousand
alternations per second, provided te current is sufficiently strong. * small coil, owever,
tigtly pac%ed between te poles of a powerful magnet, will emit a sound wit te above
number of alternations, and arcs may be audible wit a still iger fre0uency. "e limit of
audition is variously estimated. !n (ir /illiam "omson)s writings it is stated somewere tat
ten tousand per second, or nearly so, is te limit. 1ter, but less reliable, sources give it as
ig as twenty+four tousand per second. "e above e&periments ave convinced te writer
tat notes of an incomparably iger number of vibrations per second would be perceived
provided tey could be produced wit sufficient power. "ere is no reason wy it sould not
be so. "e condensations and rarefactions of te air would necessarily set te diapragm in
a corresponding vibration and some sensation would be produced, watever + witin certain
limits + te velocity, of transmission to teir nerve centres, toug it is probable tat for want of
e&ercise te ear would not be able to distinguis any suc ig note. /it te eye it is
different. if te sense of vision is based upon some resonance effect, as many believe, no
amount of increase in te intensity of te etereal vibration could e&tend our range of vision
on eiter side of te visible spectrum.
"e limit of audition of an arc depends on its si3e. "e greater te surface by a given eating
effect in te arc, te iger te limit of audition. "e igest notes are emitted by te ig+
tension discarges of an induction coil in wic te arc is, so to spea%, all surface. !f 7 be te
resistance of an arc, and $ te current, and te linear dimensions be n times increased, ten
te resistance is 78n , and wit te same current density te current would be n2$. ence te
eating effect is n9 times greater, wile te surface is only n2 times as, great. For tis reason
very large arcs would not emit any rytmical sound even wit a very low fre0uency. !t must
be observed, owever, tat te sound emitted depends to some e&tent also on te
composition of te carbon. !f te carbon contain igly refractory material, tis, wen eated,
tends to maintain te: temperature) of te arc uniform and te sound is lessened. for tis
reason it would seem tat an alternating arc re0uires suc carbons;
/it currents of suc ig fre0uencies it is possible to obtain noiseless arcs, but te
regulation of te lamp is rendered e&tremely difficult on account of te e&cessively small
attractions or repulsions between conductors conveying tese currents;
*n interesting feature of te arc produced by tese rapidly alternating currents is its
persistency. "ere are two causes for it, one of wic is always present, te oter sometimes
only. 1ne is due to te caracter of te current and te oter to a property of te macine.
"e first cause is te more important one, and is due directly to te rapidity of te
alternations. /en an arc is formed by a periodically undulating current, tere, is, a
corresponding undulation in te temperature of te gaseous column, and, terefore, a
corresponding undulation in te resistance of te arc. 5ut te resistance of te arc varies
enormously wit te temperature of te gaseous column, being, practically infinite wen te
gas between te electrodes is cold. "e persistence of te arc, terefore, depends on te
inability of te column to cool. !t is for tis reason impossible to maintain an arc wit te
current alternating only a few times a second. 1n te oter and, wit a practically
continuous current, te arc is easily maintained, te column being constantly, %ept at a ig
temperature and low resistance. "e iger te fre0uency te smaller te time interval during
wic te arc may cool) and increase considerably in resistance. /it a fre0uency of 1,,,,,
per second or more in any arc of e0ual, si3e e&cessively small variations of temperature are
superimposed upon a steady temperature, li%e ripples on te surface of a deep sea. "e
eating effect is practically continuous and te arc beaves li%e one produced, by a
continuous current, wit te e&ception, owever, tat it may not be 0uite as easily started, and
tat te electrodes are e0ually consumed. toug te writer as observed )some irregularities
in tis respect. "e second cause alluded to, wic possibly may not be present, is due to
te tendency of a, macine of suc ig fre0uency td maintain a practically constant current.
/en te arc is lengtened, te electromotive force rises in proportion and te arc appears to
be more persistent.
(uc a macine is eminently adapted to maintain a constant current, but it is very unfit for a
constant potential. *s a matter of fact, in certain types of suc macines a nearly constant
current is an almost unavoidable result. *s te number of poles or polar projections is greatly
increased, te clearance becomes of great importance. 1ne as really to do wit) a great
number of very small macines. "en tere is te impedance in te armature, enormously
augmented by te ig fre0uency. "en, again, te magnetic lea%age is facilitated. !f tere
are) tree or four undred alternate poles, te lea%age is so great tat it is virtually te same
as connecting, in a two+pole macine, te poles by a piece of iron. "is disadvantage,, it is
true, may be obviated more or less by using a field trougout of te same polarity, but ten
one encounters difficulties, of a different nature; *ll tese tings tend to maintain a constant)
current in te armature circuit.
!n tis connection it is interesting to notice tat even to+day engineers are astonised at te
performance of a constant current macine, just as, some years ago, tey used to consider it
an e&traordinary performance if a macine was capable of maintaining a constant, potential
difference between te terminals. <et one result is just as easily secured as te oter. !t must
only be remembered tat in an inductive apparatus of any %ind, if constant potential is
re0uired, te inductive relation between te primary or e&citing and secondary or armature
circuit must be te closest possible. wereas, in an apparatus for constant current just te
opposite is re0uired. Furtermore, te opposition to te current)s flow in te induced circuit
must be as small as possible in te former and as great as possible in te latter case. 5ut
opposition to a current)s flow may be caused in more tan one way. !t may be caused by
omic resistance of self+induction. 1ne may ma%e te induced circuit of a dynamo macine
or transformer of suc ig resistance tat wen operating devices of considerably smaller
resistance witin very wide limits a nearly constant current is maintained. 5ut suc ig
resistance involves a great loss in power, ence it is not practicable. Not so self+induction.
(elf+induction does not necessarily mean loss of power. "e moral is, use self+induction
instead of resistance. "ere is, owever, a circumstance wic favors te adoption of tis
plan, and tis is, tat a very ig self+induction may be obtained ceaply by surrounding a
comparatively small lengt of wire more or less completely wit iron, and, furtermore, te
effect may be e&alted at will by causing a rapid undulation of te current. "o sum up, te
re0uirements for constant current are; /ea% magnetic connection between te induced and
inducing circuits, greatest possible self+induction wit te least resistance, greatest
practicable rate of cange of te current. $onstant potential, on te oter and, re0uires;
$losest magnetic connection between te circuits, steady induced current, and, if possible, no
reaction. !f te latter conditions could be fully satisfied in a constant potential macine, its
output would surpass many times tat of a macine primarily designed to give constant
current. =nfortunately, te type of macine in wic tese conditions may be satisfied is of
little practical value, owing to te small electromotive force obtainable and te difficulties in
ta%ing off te current.
/it teir %een inventor)s instinct, te now successful arc+ligt men ave early recogni3ed te
desiderata of a constant current macine. "eir arc ligt macines ave wea% fields, large
armatures, wit a great lengt of copper wire and few commutator segments to produce great
variations in te current)s strengt and to bring self+induction into play. (uc macines may
maintain witin considerable limits of variation in te resistance of te circuit a practically
constant current. "eir output is of course correspondingly diminised, and, peraps wit te
object in view not to $ut down te output too muc, a simple device compensating
e&ceptional variations is employed. "e undulation of te current is almost essential to te
commercial success of an arc+ligt system. !t introduces in te circuit a steadying element
ta%ing te place of a large omic resistance, witout involving a great loss in power, and, wat
is more important, it allows te use of simple clutc lamps, wic wit a current of a certain
number of impulses per second, best suitable for eac particular lamp, will, if properly
attended to, regulate even better tan te finest cloc%+wor% lamps. "is discovery as been
made by te writer + several years too late.
!t as been asserted by competent Englis electricians tat in a constant+current macine or
transformer te regulation is effected by varying te pase of te secondary current. "at tis
view is erroneous may be easily proved by using, instead of lamps, devices eac possessing
self+induction and capacity or self+induction and resistance + tat is, retarding and
accelerating components + in suc proportions as to not affect materially te pase of te
secondary current. *ny number of suc devices may be inserted or cut out, still it will be
found tat te regulation occurs, a constant current being maintained, wile te electromotive
force is varied wit te number of te devices. "e cange of pase of te secondary current
is simply a result following from te canges in resistance, and, toug secondary reaction is
always of more or less importance, yet te real cause of te regulation lies in te e&istence of
te conditions above enumerated. !t sould be stated, owever, tat in te case of a macine
te above remar%s are to be restricted to te cases in wic te macine is independently
e&cited. !f te e&citation be effected by commutating te armature current, ten te fi&ed
position of te bruses ma%es any sifting of te neutral line of te utmost importance, and it
may not be tougt immodest of te writer to mention tat, as far as records go, e seems to
ave been te first wo as successfully regulated macines by providing a bridge
connection between a point of te e&ternal circuit and te commutator by means of a tird
brus. "e armature and field being properly proportioned, and te bruses placed in teir
determined positions, a constant current or constant potential resulted from te sifting of te
diameter of commutation by te varying loads.
!n connection wit macines of suc ig fre0uencies, te condenser affords an especially
interesting study. !t is easy to raise te electromotive force of suc a macine to four or five
times te value by simply connecting te condenser to te circuit, and te writer as
continually used te condenser for te purposes of regulation, as suggested by 5la%esley in
is boo% on alternate currents, in wic e as treated te most fre0uently occurring
condenser problems wit e&0uisite simplicity and clearness. "e ig fre0uency allows te
use of small capacities and renders investigation easy. 5ut. altoug in most of te
e&periments te result may be foretold, some penomena observed seem at first curious.
1ne e&periment performed tree or four monts ago wit suc a macine and a condenser
may serve as an illustration. * macine was used giving about 2,,,,, alternations per
second. "wo bare wires about twenty feet long and two millimetres in diameter, in close
pro&imity to eac oter, were connected to te terminals of te macine at te one end, and
to a condenser at te oter. * small transformer witout an iron core, of course, was used to
bring te reading witin range of a $ardew voltmeter by connecting te voltmeter to te
secondary. 1n te terminals of te condenser te electromotive force was about 12, volts,
and from tere inc by inc it gradually fell until at te terminals of te macine it was about
>6 volts. !t was virtually as toug te condenser were a generator, and te line and
armature circuit simply a resistance connected to it. "e writer loo%ed for a case of
resonance, but e was unable to augment te effect by varying te capacity very carefully
and gradually or by canging te speed of te macine. * case of pure resonance e was
unable to obtain. /en a condenser was connected to te terminals of te macine + te
self+induction of te armature being first determined in te ma&imum and minimum position
and te mean value ta%en + te capacity wic gave te igest electromotive force
corresponded most nearly to tat wic just counteracted te self+induction wit te e&isting
fre0uency. !f te capacity was increased or diminised, te electromotive force fell as
e&pected.
/it fre0uencies as ig as te above mentioned, te condenser effects are of enormous
importance. "e condenser becomes a igly efficient apparatus capable of transferring
considerable energy.
"e writer as tougt macines of ig fre0uencies may find use at least in cases wen
transmission at great distances is not contemplated. "e increase of te resistance may be
reduced in te conductors and e&alted in te devices wen eating effects are wanted,
transformers may be made of iger efficiency and greater outputs and valuable results may
be secured by means of condensers. !n using macines of ig fre0uency te writer as
been able to observe condenser effects wic would ave oterwise escaped is notice. -e
as been very muc interested in te penomenon observed on te Ferranti main wic as
been so muc spo%en of. 1pinions ave been e&pressed by competent electricians, but up to
te present all still seems; to be conjecture. =ndoubtedly in te views e&pressed te trut
must be contained, but as te opinions differ some must be erroneous. =pon seeing te
diagram of '. Ferranti in te Electrician of ?ec. 19 te writer as formed is opinion of te
effect. !n te absence of all te necessary data e must content imself to e&press in words
te process wic, in is opinion, must undoubtedly occur. "e condenser brings about two
effects; @1A !t canges te pases of te currents in te brances. @2A it canges te strengt
of te currents. *s regards te cange in pase, te effect of te condenser is to accelerate
te current in te secondary at ?eptford and to retard it in te primary at 2ondon. "e former
as te effect diminising te self+induction in te ?eptford primary, and tis means lower
electromotive force on te dynamo. "e retardation of te primary at 2ondon, as far as
merely te pase is concerned, as little or no effect since te pase of te current in te
secondary in 2ondon is not arbitrarily %ept.
Now, te second effect of te condenser is to increase te current in bot te brances. !t is
immaterial weter tere is e0uality between te currents or not. but it is necessary to point
out, in order . to see te importance of te ?eptford step+up transformer, tat an increase of
te current in bot te brances produces opposite effects. *t ?eptford it means furter
lowering of te electromotive force at te primary, and at 2ondon it means increase of te
electromotive force. at te secondary., "erefore, all te tings co+act to bring about te
penomenon observed. (uc actions, at least, ave been formed to ta%e place under similar
conditions. /en te dynamo is connected directly to te main, one can see tat no suc
action can appen.
"e writer as been particularly interested in, te suggestions and views e&pressed by
'r. (winburne. 'r. (winburne as fre0uently onored im by disagreeing wit is views.
"ree years ago, wen te writer, against te prevailing opinion of engineers, advanced) an
open circuit transformer, 'r. (winburne was te first to condemn it by stating in teElectrician;
B"e @"eslaA transformer must be inefficient. it as magnetic poles revolving, and as tus an
open magnetic circuit.B "wo years later 'r. (winburne becomes te campion of te open
circuit transformer, and offers to convert im. 5ut, tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis.
"e writer cannot believe in te armature reaction teory as e&pressed in !ndustries, toug
undoubtedly tere is some trut in it. 'r. (winburne)s interpretation, owever, is so broad
tat it may mean anyting.
'r. (winburne seems to ave been te first wo as called attention to te eating of te
condensers. "e astonisment e&pressed at tat by te ablest electrician is a stri%ing
illustration of )te desirability to e&ecute e&periments on a large scale. "o te scientific
investigator, wo deals wit te minutest 0uantities, wo observes te faintest effects, far
more credit is due .tan to one wo e&periments wit apparatus on an industrial scale. and
indeed istory of science as recorded e&amples of marvelous s%ill, patience and %eenness
of observation. 5ut owever great te s%ill, and owever %een te observer)s perception, it
can only be of advantage to magnify an effect and tus facilitate its study. -ad Faraday
carried out but one of is e&periments on dynamic induction on a large scale it would ave
resulted in an incalculable benefit.
!n )te opinion of te writer, te eating of te condensers is due to tree distinct causes; first,
lea%age or conduction. second, imperfect elasticity in te dielectric, and, tird, surging of te
carges in te conductor.
!n many e&periments e as been confronted wit te problem of transferring te greatest
possible amount of energy across a dielectric. For instance, e as made incandescent
lamps te ends of te filaments being completely sealed in) glass, but attaced to interior
condenser coatings so tat all te energy re0uired ad to be transferred across te glass wit
a condenser surface of no more tan a few centimetres s0uare. (uc lamps would be a
practical success wit sufficiently ig fre0uencies. /it alternations as ig as 16,,,, per
second it was easy to bring te filaments to incandescence. /it lower fre0uencies tis could
also be effected, but te potential difference ad, of course, to be increased. "e writer as
ten found tat te glass gets, after a wile, perforated and te vacuum is impaired. "e
iger te fre0uency te longer te lamp can witstand. (uc a deterioration of te dielectric
always ta%es place wen te amount of energy transferred across a dielectric of definite
dimensions and by a given fre0uency is too great. 4lass witstands best, but even glass is
deteriorated. !n tis case te potential difference on te plates is of course too great and
losses by conduction and imperfect elasticity result. !f it is desirable to produce condensers
capable to stand differences of potential, ten te only dielectric wic will involve no losses
is a gas under pressure. "e writer as wor%ed wit air under enormous pressures, but tere
are a great many practical difficulties in tat direction. -e tin%s tat in order to ma%e te
condensers of considerable practical utility, iger fre0uencies sould be used; toug suc a
plan as besides oters te great disadvantage tat te system would become very unfit for
te operation of motors.
!f te writer does not err 'r. (winburne as suggested a way of e&citing an alternator by
means of a condenser. For a number of years past te writer as carried on e&periments wit
te object in view of producing a practical self+e&citing alternator; -e as in a ,variety of ways
succeeded in producing some e&citation of te magnets by means of alternating currents,
wic were not commutated by mecanical devices. Neverteless, is e&periments ave
revealed a fact wic stands as solid, as te roc% of 4ibraltar. No practical e&citation can be
obtained wit a single periodically varying and not commutated current. "e reason is tat
te canges in te strengt of te e&citing current produce corresponding canges in te field
strengt, wit te result of inducing currents in te armature. and tese currents interfere wit
tese produced by te motion of te armature troug te field, te former being a 0uarter
pase in advance of te latter. !f te field be laminated, no e&citation can be produced. if it be
not laminated, some e&citation is produced, but .te magnets are eated. 5y combining two
e&citing currents + displaced by a 0uarter pase, e&citation may be produced in bot cases,
and if te magnet be not laminated te eating effect is comparatively small, as a uniformity in
te field strengt is maintained, and, were it possible to produce a perfectly uniform field,
e&citation on tis plan would give 0uite practical results. !f suc results are to be secured by
te use of a condenser, as suggested by 'r. (winburne, it is necessary to combine two
circuits separated by a 0uarter pase. tat is to say, te armature coils must be wound in two
sets and connected to one or two independent condensers. "e writer as done some wor%
in tat direction, but must defer te description of te devices for some future time.