Short Circuit Current Calculation Theory & Techniques PDF

CHAPTER 2.
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CALCULATION

THEORY AND TECHNIQUES

2.1 Introduction
Power system short circuit levels must be determined in order to specify the required
interrupting capacity at various points on the system and also to evaluate the earthing
provisions at substations. Specifically fault current calculations are required:
To establish short circuit ratings of interrupting devices, such as
circuit breakers and fuses.
To determine the short-time or withstand thermal rating of system
components, such as cables, transformers, reactors, etc.
To calculate settings of short circuit protective devices, such as
direct-acting trips, fuses and relays.
To evaluate voltage levels in the system under the fault condition.
To determine the amount of current flow through the earthing
structure and to calculate the ground potential rise (GPR).
Generally, short-circuit practices are established to solve the first four problems,
particularly circuit-breaker sizing. A well-known IEEE/ANSI standard [1] specially caters
for this. This standard enables suitable circuit-breakers and interrupting devices to be
selected on the basis of the magnitude of symmetrical short circuit current only. The
asymmetric nature of the short circuit current has been analysed in various IEEE
papers [2, 3, 4]. The IEEE/ANSI standards [1, 5, 6] set out a methodology for
considering the total asymmetrical capability of the switchgear. In addition to that, one
of the IEEE/ANSI standards [7] is specially designed to deal with total (asymmetrical)
current based circuit-breakers.
Shor t Ci r cui t Cur r ent Cal cul at i on Theor y and Techni ques
Power Syst em Tr ansi ent s and Ear t hi ng Syst ems 2- 2
On the other hand, IEC 909 [8] is a standard devoted to calculating the short circuit
current itself and pays particular attention to establishing the dynamic wave shape of
the current. It also takes into account asymmetry as a function of the system R/X ratio.
Both the IEC standard and IEEE/ANSI approach are based on simple quasi steady-
state calculation techniques and employ various empirical factors.
Recent studies [9, 10, 11] have shown that both the IEC standard and the IEEE/ANSI
approach provide highly conservative results when compared to detailed dynamic
calculation procedures. The need for more accurate fault calculation algorithms has
been the subject of some recent publications [12, 13].
In general, the three-phase fault is accepted to be the most severe one. The severity of
fault depends on the fault location. However it is possible for the magnitude of the
single line-to-earth fault current to be greater than the three-phase fault. Generally,
line-to-line fault currents on the system are about 87% of the three-phase value, while
line-to-earth fault currents can range from about 25% to 125% of the three-phase value
[14]. For that reason, three-phase and single line-to-earth fault analyses are the most
important for the purpose of the interrupting duty calculation.
The faults which occur most frequently in power systems are unbalanced and
predominantly the single line-to-earth fault. The typical occurrence frequency for three-
phase, double line-to-earth, line-to-line and single line-to-earth faults is 5%, 10%, 15%
and 70%, respectively [15].
In the literature [9, 10, 11], the three-phase fault is by far the most analysed and the
accuracy of the standards in terms of predicting three-phase fault currents is well
tested. Additionally, single line-to-earth faults that are far from the generator (i.e.
without decrement of the symmetrical component of the short circuit current) have been
analysed and various comparisons made [16]. Additionally, both IEC and IEEE/ANSI
standards have been compared in various papers [17, 18, 19].
Recent developments in computing technology have facilitated the implementation of
more detailed fault calculation methods, and consequently a series of new methods
which are aimed to represent the network and its components in more detail have been
proposed. Some only determine the d.c. component of fault current for single or three
phase faults [20]. On the other hand, other methods are limited to three-phase
balanced faults [21]. An approach which is advocated by Halpin et al [22, 23] is claimed
to be valid for all type of faults. Unfortunately, no results are given in the papers for
single line-to-earth types of fault.
Accordingly, this chapter will examine the short circuit calculation in terms of
basic calculation methodology,
the various factors which give rise to and affect the transient
nature of a.c. and d.c. components of short circuit current,
the IEC and IEEE/ANSI standard approaches.
2.2 Steady-State Short Circuit Current Calculation Methodology
In the reviewed literature [24, 25, 26], two main methods are available to calculate the
rms value of the symmetrical short circuit current. These are called method one and
two. Both methods are applications of the classical network theorem of superposition.
Generally, method one is used to evaluate the generator current of the faulted system
and its distribution over the networks branches while method two is used to calculate
the fault current at the faulted point directly.
An overview of the methods is given here considering a simple network which consists
of a generator, a delta/star connected step-up transformer and a passive load fed by an
overhead line as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Example network.
Both methods establish positive, negative and zero sequence networks according to
Fortescue [27] transformation due to the unbalanced nature of the single line-to-earth
type of fault. The sequence networks for Figure 1 are shown in Figure 2.
one two three
Load
V
D/Y
Line
Fault
Source
Figure 2 Sequence networks relating to network in Figure 1.
2.2.1 Method One
The impedances of the negative and zero sequence networks are lumped as Z
2
and Z
0
,
respectively as shown in the Figure 3.
one two three
V1. V2 V3
Zg1 Zt1 Zl1
Zload
Zl2
Zload
Zl0
Zload
Zg2 Zt2
Zt0
Negative sequence network
Zero sequence network
Positive sequence
network
one two three
two three
Figure 3 The network according to method one.
Internal voltages of all generators and motors are determined from the pre-fault
network motor/generator currents, which may be calculated by running a load flow
calculation, and then employing
V
N
= E + I
1
Z
G

- 1
where V
N
is the pre-fault voltage at the generator terminal, I
1
is the generator or motor
current prior to the fault. Z
G
is the impedance of the generator and E is the internal
voltage of the generator. I
g
and I
f
refer to the total current of the generator and the fault
current of the particular nodes, respectively. The generator current, fault current and
load current can be calculated by employing suitable network solution methods.
2.2.2 Method Two
In this method, it is necessary to determine the pre-fault voltage at the faulted node in
order to calculate the Thevenin equivalent voltage source of the faulted node. The pre-
fault voltage of the node can be determined by running a load flow study before the
short circuit current calculation.
According to this method, the pre-fault voltage acts as the only voltage source of the
system. Therefore, internal voltages of generators and motors are ignored. However,
impedances of the system sources should be considered and motors whose
contributions to the short circuit current exist up to the end of the transient period, can
be taken into account for the initial short circuit calculation. As a result, the network is
greatly simplified as shown in Figure 4.
Z
load
one
two
three
Z
g
Z
t Z
l
Z
2
Z
0
E
I
g
I
f
Figure 4 The network for method two.
The single line-to-earth fault current may be calculated using
I
f
= 3 (V
2
/Z
eq
)
- 2
where V
2
is the phase to neutral voltage of the faulted node prior to the fault, Z
eq
is the
equivalent impedance of the system as seen by the faulted point, and I
f
is the
symmetrical fault current. Since the calculation of internal voltages of generators and
motors is not necessary, this method is preferable to method one.
2.2.3 The Simplified Method
Although method two is much simpler than method one, it is still necessary to run a
load flow program before the short circuit calculation in order to determine pre-fault
network conditions. Obviously, this requires extra calculation effort and knowledge of
pre-fault network load conditions. It has been shown [28] that if pre-fault network loads
are considered, a pessimistic load flow calculation should be introduced in order to
calculate the maximum possible short circuit current. If it is wished to avoid the need for
running a pre-fault load flow calculation, a simplified approach is established which
builds in conservative assumptions.
According to this approach, all non-rotating system loads and shunts, such as line
capacitors and transformer magnetising impedances are ignored. Also, pre-fault
loading of motors is neglected. Accordingly, there is zero pre-fault current and therefore
one
two
three
Z
g
Z
t
Z
l
Z
load
Z
2
Z
0
V
2
I
f
equal voltages at all system nodes. Thus, internal voltages of generators and motors
are chosen to be equal to one per unit with zero phase angle for the initial value of the
short circuit current. Depending upon the time constants of the particular devices and
the fault duration, the contribution of motors may be excluded from the steady-state
value of the short circuit current.
If more conservative results are required, viz. the calculation of maximum short circuit
current values, a voltage factor is introduced by taking into account the voltage
tolerance of the system and the network structure such as tap settings. Table 1
presents the voltage factor, c, [29] from IEC 909. On the other hand, a nominal one per
unit voltage is assumed to be the short circuit voltage for most ANSI/IEEE [1]
calculations. However, it is also stated in the IEEE Buff book [5] that a correction can
be made by considering the operating voltage of the faulted bus bar.
As a result of these assumptions the calculation procedure is greatly simplified and a
load flow study is not essential. Hence, in IEC 909 the short circuit current is given by
the following equation.
- 3
Where I
k1
is the initial single line-to-earth symmetrical short circuit current, Z
1
, Z
2
and
Z
0
are the total sub-transient short circuit impedances of the sequence networks as
seen by the faulted point, c is the voltage factor and U
n
is the rated voltage of the
system.
Table 1 Voltage factor, c, according to IEC 909.
Voltage factor c for the calculation of
Nominal voltage (U
n
)
Maximum short circuit
current (c
max
)
Minimum short circuit
current (c
min
)
Low voltage 100 V to 1000 V
230/400 V
1.00 0.95
Other voltages 1.05 1.00
Medium voltage > 1 kV to 35 kV 1.10 1.00
High voltage > 35 kV to 230 kV 1.10 1.00

I
cU
Z Z Z
k
n
"
1
1 2 0
3
=
+ +
2.3 The Transient Variations of Short Circuit Current
Short-circuits in electrical power systems cause electromechanical and electromagnetic
transient disturbances, which depend on the magnitude and time variation of the
current.
Generally, the transient nature of the short circuit current depends on:
Available short circuit current sources, which are principally the
synchronous machines. Asynchronous generators and motors
also have a significant effect on the initial short circuit currents.
The instant at which the short circuit occurs, relative to the voltage
wave form. This has a considerable effect upon the peak value of
the short circuit current.
The location of the short circuit, which has influence mainly on the
severity of the short circuit current, and also determines whether
the synchronous machines have a greater or lesser effect on the
short circuit current time variations.
The duration of the short circuit, which is significant with regard to
determining the effects of additional control systems upon the
short circuit current.
The structure of the system, whether meshed or radial, which
defines the path of the short circuit current and the effectiveness
of the parallel impedances.
The system impedance, which not only determines the magnitude
of the short circuit current but also has a significant effect on the
transient nature of the current.
The initial loading condition of the system, which determines the
effective voltage of the system and also establishes possible short
circuit current sources.
The extent of the transient nature of the short circuit current is mainly determined
according to the location of short circuit with respect to the synchronous machines of
the system. Therefore in IEC 909, the evaluation of short circuit current is classified in
two groups related to fault location. These are the near to generator/motor and far
from generator/motor position. Also, the IEEE/ANSI approach defines the fault
regarding its location as local or remote. Through this classification, the IEC standard
and IEEE/ANSI approach simplify and consequently introduce a further approximation
to the calculation of short circuit current. On the other hand, ER G74 [30] proposes a
computer-based method and treats the short circuit current without such positional
discrimination when a greater precision is needed.
2.3.1 Short Circuit Far from the Generator
The IEC standard defines the far from the generator short circuit in clause 3.18 as; A
short circuit during which the magnitude of the symmetrical a.c. component of
prospective (available) short circuit current remains constant.
In this case, the short circuit voltage source is assumed to be constant. Therefore, the
rms and peak to peak values of symmetrical short circuit current are constant during
the short circuit. An illustrative waveform of the short circuit current is shown in Figure
5.
Figure 5 Short circuit current as a function of time for far from the generator fault.
The rms value of the symmetrical component of the short circuit current may be
determined by either method one or two, which have been presented in section 2.2.
Since the short circuit impedance proportionally has a large amount of inductive
reactance, the X/R ratio of the system is high and there will be a transient unidirectional
current. Additionally, the initial value of this d.c. component may be of the same order
of magnitude as the initial peak current of the short circuit. The basic mathematical
analysis of a circuit containing linear resistance and reactance gives the d.c. or
asymmetrical component of the current by the following equation [24, 31]
Time in s.
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

A
.
Symmetrical DC Total
- 4
where, I
k
is the rms value of the initial symmetrical short circuit current. is the
initiation angle related to the initiation time of the short circuit and measured with
respect to voltage zero crossing.
k
is the phase angle, t is time, and lastly, T
a
is the
d.c. time constant which is related to the system impedance and expressed by the
following equation [14]
T
a
= L
2
/R
1
L
1
/R
1

- 5
where, L
2
is the negative sequence inductance of the system. R
1
is the effective
positive sequence resistance of the system, and L
1
is the positive sequence system
inductance. A typical value of d.c. time constant for a synchronous machine is 0.015s
[14, 25, and 34]. It is assumed in one reference that the value of this constant remains
unchanged for all types of fault [25]. However, a different reference calculates this
constant for each type of fault [32].
The total instantaneous value of the short circuit current may be written by the following
equation
- 6
Referring to the assumption that the short circuit voltage is constant, it can be stated
that all the parameters of equation - 6, except initiation angle , angular velocity and
time t, are a function of the short circuit impedance of the system. However the
initiation angle depends upon the instant of occurrence of the fault. The maximum
d.c. offset occurs for an initiation angle given by
DCmax
=
k
/2
- 7
Generally, short circuits occur when a system is loaded. Therefore, for accurate
calculation, pre-fault load current and the effect of passive load impedance as part of
the short circuit impedance should be considered. Therefore, equation - 6 should be
generalised to consider pre-fault load conditions. Hence
| | i I e
dc k
t T
k
a
=
2 " sin( )
( / )

| |
i i i
I t e
k ac dc
k k
t T
k
a
= +
= +
2 " sin( ) sin( )

( / )

- 8
where, I
b
and are the rms value of the load current and the pre-fault phase angle,
respectively. The first term of equation - 8 is related to the instantaneous value of the
symmetrical a.c. short circuit current, the second term corresponds to the
instantaneous value of the load current and the third term represents the d.c.
component. The last two terms decay with the related d.c. time constant.
2.3.1.1 Effects of the Initiation Angle
Although the effect of the initiation angle is well known [25, 31], there does not appear
to be in the published literature details of the proportion of the d.c. component to the
total asymmetrical current as a function of initiation angle . Accordingly, a simple
parametric study has been carried out, considering a fault on the network shown in
Figure 1. A single line-to-earth fault is assumed to occur at bus-bar two. The d.c.
component of fault current is presented in Figure 6 for different initiation angles.
Figure 6 D.C. component of single line-to-earth fault current for different initiation
angles.
Since the short circuit angle
k
, generally is close to 90 degrees, the maximum
asymmetry occurs around zero degrees of initiation angle.
In order to consider more precisely the effect of initiation angle, a passive load with a
constant 0.8 power factor has been modelled and short circuit current assumed to be
| |
i i i i
I t I e I e
k ac dc b
k k b
t T
k k
t T
a a
= + +
= + + + + +

2 " sin( ) " sin( ) " sin( )
( / ) ( / )

-6.0E+04
-3.0E+04
0.0E+00
3.0E+04
6.0E+04
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time [s]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
A
]
Initiation Angle 0 Initiation Angle 30 Initiation Angle 60
Initiation Angle 90 Initiation Angle 120 Initiation Angle 180
five times higher than nominal load current. The short circuit current angle is kept
constant at 83 degrees. The initiation angle is varied from zero to 180 degrees. The
dependence of the initial value of d.c. component of the current on the initiation angle
of the fault is presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7 Effects of the initiation angle on initial value of fault current.
The initiation angle at which the highest d.c. offset occurs is related to the load
condition and may be determined by the following equation [25].
- 9
In the case shown in Figure 7,
DCmax
is equal to 9.5 degrees. However, it should be
noted that the maximum d.c. transient does not necessarily cause a maximum peak in
the total asymmetrical current. It has been shown [33] that the maximum peak in total
asymmetrical current always occurs for fault initiation at zero crossing voltage. On the
other hand, maximum d.c. transient current occurs for the fault initiation time at which
the symmetrical component of the short circuit current is at its peak. This angle
DCmax

is always different from zero and is a function of the short circuit angle as given in
equation - 7 or - 9.

DC
k
k b k
I I
max
tan
sin( )
" / cos( )
=

1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 1.5 3
Initiation angle [rad]
I
n
i
t
i
a
l

d
.
c
.

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

o
f

s
h
o
r
t

c
i
r
c
u
i
t

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
p
u
]
To illustrate this difference, Figure 8 shows the total asymmetrical current and d.c.
component of current for the two particular fault initiation angles viz. = zero and =
DCmax
. Although the d.c. component is higher for the later condition this does not result
in a higher peak in total current.
Figure 8 Comparison of peak currents.
It is evident that the evaluation of fault current magnitude at
DCmax
is not of concern for
fault interruption assessment. However when the maximum rms current is required for
earthing assessments it would be necessary, if the worst case is to be considered, to
calculate the current at
DCmax
.
2.3.2 Short Circuit Near to Generator
In the case of near to generator short circuits, the alternating component of the short
circuit current also decays with time since it is under the influence of near-by
generators or motors. This effect is recognised in the fault current calculation standards
and hence a broad treatment of this phenomenon based on semi-empirical tables and
graphs is provided for the three-phase balanced fault.
The near to generator type of fault is defined as: A short circuit to which at least one
synchronous machine contributes a prospective initial symmetrical short circuit current
which is more than twice the generators rated current, or a short circuit to which
synchronous or asynchronous motors contribute more than 5% of the initial
-1.0E+03
1.0E+03
3.0E+03
5.0E+03
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
Time [s]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
A
]
Total Current with maximum peak DC component with maximum peak
Total Current with maximum transient DC component with maximum transient
symmetrical short circuit current without motors. However in IEC 909 this effect is
completely neglected for the single line-to-earth type of fault.
Illustrative waveforms of current for this condition can be seen in Figure 9 where the
a.c. component of the current is under the influence of the near-by generator and it has
a decaying component in relation to the generator time constants.
Figure 9 Time dependent short circuit current with a.c. and d.c. components.
The d.c. component of the current may be analysed as in the previous section of this
chapter. Additionally, equation - 5 which is given in section 2.3.1 remains valid. The
symmetrical decrement of the short circuit current, which is mainly due to the
synchronous machines of the system [14, 25] will be analysed in the following section.
2.3.2.1 Short Circuit on Generator Terminal Without Load
The transient behaviour of the short circuit current of a synchronous machine which is
subject to a sudden short circuit is a well known phenomenon and is dealt with in detail
by Kimbark [34] and Concordia [35]. In order to characterise the transient behaviour of
single line-to-earth fault current, the three-phase balanced fault will be first
investigated. The short circuit currents of a synchronous machine which is subject to a
sudden three-phase short circuit are presented in Figure 10.

Time in s.
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

A
.
Symmetrical DC Total
Figure 10 Short circuit current of synchronous machine (reproduced from 34).
Each phase current in Figure 10 has a symmetrical and asymmetrical or d.c.
component. The envelope of the symmetrical component is large at the first instant and
decays eventually to a sustained (steady state) value. If the sustained component of
the symmetrical current is subtracted, the remaining current can be found to have two
exponential components namely; sub-transient and transient components. The rms
symmetrical short circuit current can be formulated with a close approximation to
- 10
where I
ac
is the symmetrical rms fault current, I
k
is the symmetrical transient current,
I
k
is the symmetrical sub-transient current, T
d
and T
d
are the transient and sub-
transient d axis short circuit time constants of the machine, respectively. The time
constants of the machine will be discussed later in section 2.3.2.2.
Since there is no load on the machine terminal, the effective voltage of each stage,
namely the transient, sub-transient and steady state voltage, is equal to the phase to
neutral voltage of the machine. Additionally, since the resistance of the machine is
assumed to be constant throughout each stage, the decaying characteristics of short
( ) ( ) I I I e I I e I
ac k k
t T
k k
t T
k
d d
= + +

" ' '
/ " / '
circuit current may be explained by an increase of machine reactance. The associated
reactance in each stage is known as:
Synchronous reactance
Transient reactance
Sub-transient reactance.
Thus, the rms value of currents may be expressed in terms of machine reactances
I
k
= U
n
/X
d
I
k
= U
n
/X
d
I
k
= U
n
/X
d

- 11
where U
n
is the terminal voltage and equal to the internal voltage of the machine. X
d
,
X
d
and X
d
are the machine reactances of corresponding stages. Thus, the total
instantaneous short circuit current with symmetrical and asymmetrical components,
can be expressed by
- 12
Substituting equation - 11 into equation - 12 yields
- 13
The first term of the equation is the sub-transient component of the short circuit current,
the second term is the transient component, the third is the sustained component and
the last one is the d.c. component. Therefore, the waveform of the short circuit current
can be expressed completely only using the machine reactances. In equation - 13, the
initiation angle, is assumed to be zero.
2.3.2.2 Time Constants
It has been shown that the time constants of the machine are dependent on machine
impedances [36] and may be determined by plotting the short circuit current on
logarithmic graph [34].
( ) ( ) i I t I e
k ac k k
t
T
k
a
= +
2 sin " sin

( ) i U
X X
e
X X
e
X
t
X
e
k n
d d
t
T
d d
t
T
d
k
d
t
T
k
d d a
=
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| +
( +
(

2
1 1 1 1 1 1
" ' '
sin
"
sin
" '

The typical value of the sub-transient short circuit time constant is approximately 0.04s.
On the other hand, the transient time constant is much longer than the sub-transient
one and its value is about 1.5s [14, 25]. Each constant can be calculated by
T
d
= T
d0
(X
d
/X
d
)
T
d
= T
d0
(X
d
/X
d
)
- 14
where T
d0
and T
d0
are sub-transient and transient open circuit time constants of the
synchronous machine. However, all the time constants are highly dependent upon
external impedances if the fault occurs remote from the machines terminal. The given
time constants are valid for the direct axis representation of the machine, while a
similar treatment may be used for the quadrature axis of the machine.
Concardia [35] calculates these time constants for the single line-to-earth type fault and
provides the following equations.
T
d
= T
d0
[(X
d
+X
2
+X
0
)/(X
d
+X
2
+X
0
)]
T
d
= T
d0
[(X
d
+X
2
+X
0
)/(X
d
+X
2
+X
0
)]
- 15
where X
2
and X
0
refer to negative and zero sequence reactances of the machine,
respectively.
2.3.2.3 Short Circuit with Load
While the generator is feeding a load at a given power factor with a constant terminal
voltage, the effective (internal) voltage of the generator differs from the voltage
available on the machine terminal due to the voltage drop across the machine
impedances. Therefore, the effective voltage of the generator needs to be related to
sub-transient, transient and steady state stage values of the machine reactances.
Internal voltages of the machine may be calculated for each stage by employing related
reactances behind the terminal voltage. The machine internal voltages corresponding
to each stage are called the sub-transient, transient and steady state voltages, and are
symbolised as E, E and E.
In Figure 11, the general vector diagram of the synchronous machine for the transient
stage is presented.
Figure 11 The general vector diagram of the synchronous machine for the transient
state.
Fortunately, since direct and quadradure axis reactances are equal to each other for
turbo (cylindrical rotor) generators, internal voltages can be derived easily by equating
E to E
i
, E to E
i
and lastly E to E
i
. Additionally, ignoring the machine resistance the
following equations can be formulated
E = U
n
+ jI
b
X
d

E = U
n
+ jI
b
X
d

E = U
n
+ jI
b
X
d

- 16
where I
b
is the load current and the related phasor diagram is given in Figure 12.
Figure 12 Approximate phasor diagram
Quatrature
axis
E
E
E
U
n

Quadrature axis
Direct axis
I
b
I
b
X
d

I
b
X
d
I
b
X
d

E
d

E
q
E
E
d

E
q
E
E
i
I
q
X
d
I
b
R
a

U
n

Direct axis I
q
X
q
I
d
X
d

I
q
X
q
(X
q
-X
d
)I
q

I
b
X
d
Nevertheless, it should be appreciated in the case of salient pole machines, much
more calculation effort is required for accurate calculation of the internal voltages, due
to the differing d and q axis reactances. However, it is claimed in some published
literature that the same procedure may be applied with sufficient accuracy for short
circuit calculation, especially in the initial period of fault [14, 25].
It is possible to determine the actual voltages for each stage by knowing the direct and
quadrature axis currents of the machine for the initial loading condition. The d and q
axis currents can be determined by using Parks [37] transformations. The same
phasor diagram can be used to represent the sub-transient state of the machine by
substituting transient reactance values by sub-transient reactances. Thus the internal
voltages of the machine can be determined by
E = U
n
+ I
b
R
a
+ I
b
X
d
+ jI
q
(X
q
X
d
)
E = U
n
+ I
b
R
a
+ I
b
X
d
+ jI
q
(X
q
X
d
)
- 17
where the last term of each equation becomes negligible for round rotor machines,
since the d and q axis reactances are equal each other in this case.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit of the machine can be arranged by considering
equation - 17 as shown in Figure 13;
Figure 13 Equivalent circuit of the transient state
The phasor diagram of the machine is also given in Figure 14 for the steady-state
condition.
U
n
+

E

-

R
a
X
d
- j(X
q
-X
d
)I
q
+
Figure 14 Steady-state phasor diagram of the machine
The internal voltage of the machine can be determined by;
E =E
q
= U
n
+ I
b
R
a
+ jI
b
X
q
+ jI
d
(X
d
X
q
)
- 18
Substituting the appropriate voltages into equation - 11 yields more accurate results
[21].
2.3.3 The Effect of the External Network Impedance
In general, there is always an impedance between the short circuit point and the
machine terminal. Since this impedance can be proportionally larger than the machine
impedances, it can not only have considerable influence upon the rms value of the
symmetrical short circuit current but also has a large effect on the time constants of the
short circuit. Therefore, equation - 11 may be modified as
- 19
where subscript s refers to system values, and R
a
represents the machine armature
resistance. The time constants of the short circuit current which are given in equations
- 5 and - 14 may be rewritten as
I
E
Z
E
R R j X X
I
E
Z
E
R R j X X
I
E
Z
E
R R j X X
k
k a s d s
k
k a s d s
k
k a s d s
"
"
"
"
( " )
'
'
'
'
( ' )
( )
= =
+ + +
= =
+ + +
= =
+ + +
E
I
q
X
q
E
i
U
n

Quadrature axis
Direct axis
I
b

I
b
R
a

I
b
X
q

I
d
X
d

(X
d
-X
q
)I
d
- 20
If the system impedance has a relatively high resistance, the time constants need to be
extended to consider the systems resistance. This effect is particularly important for
the transient time constant since it is significantly larger. Hence
- 21
The external resistance is the main element that determines whether there is significant
decrement or not.
2.4 Overview of Standards
The short circuit current calculation standards are intended to give simple but
conservative estimates of short circuit current magnitude. The standards employ a
quasi steady state calculation technique to enable particular short circuit values to be
determined related to short circuit duties. In general, the machine model adopted has
been kept very simple and referred to as the constant impedance behind the constant
voltage source. IEC 909 uses the sub-transient reactance of the machine in this
respect. IEC 909 and IEEE/ANSI approaches calculate similar values, however each
uses a particular terminology for each duty. The duties are presented in Table 2
Table 2 Comparison of short circuit current quantities and terminologies.
Initial Short circuit currents Breaking currents
Symmetrical

Peak

Asymmetrical Symmetrical

Steady-state short
circuit current

IEC 909
I
K
i
p
I
basym
I
bsym
I
k
First cycle duty Contact parting duty
Symmetrical Peak Asymmetrical Symmetrical

Short circuit current
for time delaying
relays
IEEE/ANSI
I
sc
i
p
I
asym
I
sym
I
k

The above duties coincide with the specific values of the short circuit current and can
be visualised on the wave shape of the short circuit current as presented in Figure 15.
T
X X
X X
T T
X X
X X
T T
L L
R R
d
d s
d s
d d
d s
d s
d a
s
G s
"
"
'
" '
'
' =
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
0 0
2

T
R X X X X
R X X
T
d
s d s d s
s d s
d
'
( ' )( )
( )
' =
+ + +
+ +
2
2 2 0
Figure 15 Short circuit current reproduced from [8].
The relevant details of each standard are described in the following sections.
2.4.1 IEC 909 Standard
IEC 909 classifies the short circuit with respect to its location as near-to-generator and
far from the generator or motor. The main objective of the standard is to establish a
general, practicable and concise procedure leading to conservative results with
sufficient accuracy. The short circuit current is treated as the sum of a decaying
unidirectional (d.c.) and a symmetrical component (a.c.). For near-to-generator types of
short circuit, the symmetrical component of the current is treated as a decaying current
while for far-from-generator faults it is considered constant. It should be noted that the
standard treats the single line-to-earth fault as a far-from-generator type without paying
any attention to the location of the fault. Therefore, no symmetrical decrement is
considered for this type of fault. IEC 909 in particular is interested in the following
current duties and describes calculation techniques for each of them.
2.4.1.1 Initial Symmetrical Short Circuit Current
The standard employs an approximate superposition method to calculate this current
as explained in section 2.2.3. A series of correction factors are employed to improve
the accuracy of the results while erring on the safe side. These factors are employed to
calculate the effective impedance of the power system components. The magnitude of
the factors depend upon the network configuration and fault location and include the
voltage factor which is given in Table 1,
generator correction factor, (K
G
),
transformer correction factors (K
T
),
power station units correction factors, (K
PS
).
Once the short circuit network is established by ignoring all non-rotating loads and
system shunts, the initial symmetrical short circuit current can be calculated using
equation - 3. The short circuit impedance in equation - 3 is calculated by considering
the above given correction factors for the specific elements. For the other elements of
the network such as; overhead lines, cables, external network infeed, the standard also
provides appropriate formulae and techniques. If the fault is considered as far-from-
generator, rotating machine impedances are ignored.
For unbalanced faults, the standard provides an appropriate equation to calculate the
short circuit current by considering the connection of the sequence networks. The
single line-to-earth type of fault is calculated using equation - 3.
2.4.1.2 Peak Short Circuit Current
The peak short circuit current is shown in Figure 15 and defined by the standard as
The maximum possible instantaneous value of the prospective (available) short circuit
current. The standard also notes that The magnitude of the peak short circuit current
varies in accordance with the moment at which the short circuit occurs. Consequently
the standard calculates the greatest possible short circuit current by considering the
worst case scenario.
In the case of calculation of the peak short circuit current, it is necessary to distinguish
between the cases of a radial or meshed network to calculate this current. In the case
of a radial network, the total peak current is the sum of the contributions from the
converging path to the faulted bus. The summation of each converging branch is
advised to be done by algebraic sum. To employ an algebraic sum instead of a vector
one will result in a conservative result. However this greatly simplifies the calculation
process. Each branchs peak current is calculated using the equation.
i
pi
= K
i
2 I
ki

- 22
where coefficient K
i
depends on the X/R ratio of the related branch. It is also possible
to evaluate this value by empirical formulae. In the case of a meshed network the
standard describes three different methods (viz. Method A, B and C) to compute the
equivalent X/R ratio for the system. The same methods can be used for near-to
generator or far-from-generator types of faults. For unbalanced faults, the peak short
circuit current is calculated using the same techniques.
2.4.1.3 Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Breaking Current
The standard adopts different approaches for the treatment of near-to-generator and
far-from-generator short circuits to compute this current. In the case of the far-from-
generator fault, I
b
is assumed to be the initial symmetrical current without any
decrement. For the near-to-generator case, the standard distinguishes between the
types of network as meshed or radial in a similar way to the treatment of peak short
circuit current. In a radial network, the total symmetrical breaking current is expressed
as the sum of the contributing branches currents. Each branch current is calculated by
multiplying the initial symmetrical current of the branch by a multiplication factor,
namely . The factor , is given by a series of empirical formulae which depend on a
number of factors including
time delay,
the partial symmetrical rms short circuit current at the machine
terminal,
the highest symmetrical rms current of the machine with locked
rotor fed with rated voltage at rated frequency.
In the case of a meshed network, with a conservative approximation, the factor is
assumed equal to unity.
Asymmetrical breaking current is not separately considered in the main body of the
standard. However, in the appendix of the standard, this current is calculated with the
given formulae, which enables the asymmetrical current to be determined for a given
time interval.
- 23
In the case of a radial network i
dc
is computed by the summation of branch currents.
The X/R ratio of related branches is calculated by the methods used for the
determination of peak short circuit current. In a meshed network, the total X/R ratio is
computed by either method B or C.
2.4.1.4 Steady-State Short Circuit Current
For the computation of the steady-state short circuit current in the case of the near-to-
generator fault, the standard supplies several graphs for each type of machine. These
graphs provide a factor to calculate the current injected from generators. The
contribution from motors is accepted to fade away rapidly and hence neglected. The
factor depends on; the generator type (viz. turbo or salient pole machine), steady
state reactance of the generator and the ratio between the partial short circuit current
on the generator terminal and the highest symmetrical rms current of the generator with
locked rotor fed with rated voltage at rated frequency.
In the case of a meshed network, the standard re-structures the network diagram and
re-calculates the symmetrical short circuit current without considering motors. This new
calculated value is assumed equal to the steady-state current. For far-from-generator
type of faults, no decrement is considered and therefore this current is assumed equal
to the initial symmetrical one. Since no decrement is foreseen for the single line-to-
earth types of faults in the standard, no calculation technique is provided.
2.4.2 IEEE/ANSI Approach
The main scope of this standard is to allow the installation of suitable sizes of medium
and high voltage circuit breakers for systems at 1000kV and above [1]. The standard
specifies a simplified calculation of short circuit current based on the method described
in section 2.2.3. According to this method the standard reduces the network to an
equivalent voltage source and reactance. The voltage source is the typical operating
voltage of the system. The nominal voltage of the system could also be employed for
this purpose. In general, only a reactance network is considered to determine the first
cycle current. However, it is also recommended that two different reactance and
I I i
i I e
basym b dc
dc k
ftR X
= +
=

2 2
2
2
" ( / )
resistance networks should be used to evaluate the total short circuit impedance. The
networks are built by considering all rotating loads without taking into account whether
they are remote from or near to the fault location. However, depending upon duty types
a series of impedance multiplication factors are introduced. Particular guidelines are
provided for the determination of single line-to-earth fault current levels.
2.4.2.1 First Cycle Duty
To compute this duty, two separate first cycle networks, namely resistance and
reactance networks, are built. These networks consist of branch impedances and
corrected rotating machine sub-transient impedances. All passive loads are neglected.
Correction factors for rotating machines are provided in the standard. These factors
depend upon rated power, number of poles and type of the machine. All machines are
modelled in the first cycle network whether the fault is remote or not. The first cycle
duty can be then evaluated as E/X. This is the symmetrical rms value of the current in
the first cycle. The asymmetrical rms current can be calculated by multiplying this
current by the factor 1.6. In addition, peak current is given as 2.7 times the first cycle
symmetrical rms current. The factors 1.6 and 2.7 are not empirically determined values
as they may appear. The calculation procedure for arriving at these values has been
described in references [33, 38] in detail. The multiplication factors for the asymmetrical
first cycle current S
rms
and for the peak current S
peak
can be derived by using the given
formulae below
- 24
Where, f is the frequency of the system and t is the half cycle time. The above factors
of 1.6 and 2.7 correspond to a ratio of X/R 25. However, the standard pays particular
attention to calculating the contact parting currents by considering different X/R ratios.
These factors are also called capability factors and it has been recognised that they
predict a pessimistic total fault current value [38].
For the single line-to-earth fault, the standard provides multiplication factors to
calculate the asymmetrical and peak values from the symmetrical value.
S e
S e
rms
ft
R
X
peak
ft
R
X
= +
= +
1 2
2 1
4
2
2.4.2.2 Contact Parting Duty
To calculate this current value, the standard rebuilds the resistance and reactance
network by considering different machine reactances and related multiplication factors.
A table which lists machine reactances and multiplication factors according to
IEEE/ANSI C37 [1] is provided below.
Table 3 IEEE/ANSI machine reactance and multipliers
First cycle network Contact parting
Machine Type
Factor Reactance Factor Reactance
Turbo alternators 1.00 X
d
1.00 X
d

Hydro with dampers 1.00 X
d
1.00 X
d

Hydro no dampers 0.75 X
d
0.75 X
d

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r
s

Condenser 1.00 X
d
1.00 X
d

Synchronous Motor 1.00 X
d
1.50 X
d

Larger than 1000 HP
1800 rpm or less
1.00 X
d
1.50 X
d

Above 250 HP at
3600 rpm
1.00 X
d
1.50 X
d

All others 50 HP and
above
1.20 X
d
3.00 X
d

M
o
t
o
r
s

I
n
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

m
o
t
o
r
s

Smaller than 50 HP 1.67 X
d
Neglect -

The standard also provides several curves to determine the multiplication factor for
each time interval, (viz. Two, three, five and eight cycles.) Using these factors the
asymmetrical breaking current can be calculated. For remote faults this current could
also be calculated using equation- 24. In the case of a local fault empirical look up
tables are provided in the appendix of the standard. However it is claimed that a curve
fit equation is also available for this purpose [39, 40]. Similar curves are also provided
for the single line-to-earth fault.
2.4.2.3 Short Circuit Current for Time Delaying Relays
In order to calculate the sustained value of short circuit current a different network
should be built by considering only generators and passive elements of the system. All
loads including rotating ones are neglected. The generators are modelled by their
transient reactance or by a larger reactance that takes into account a.c. decrement.
The d.c. component of the current is supposed to be zero. Symmetrical decrement on
the single line-to-earth fault is also treated in the standard.
2.4.3 Comparison of the Standards
It has been shown in many publications [11, 16, 17, 18, 19, 41] that IEC 909 provides
more conservative results than IEEE/ANSI. This is mainly due to the higher pre-fault
voltages recommended by IEC 909. In addition, smaller machine reactances (mainly
sub-transient) are employed in IEC 909 for all types of duties. IEC 909 is probably
more complicated to use than the IEEE/ANSI, particularly, in the treatment of meshed
networks. On the other hand the IEC standard treats the effects of machine excitation
systems for the sustained value of short circuit current while IEEE/ANSI does not.
However, in terms of data requirements, both standards are similar.
For comparison, both standards have been applied to an example network which is
detailed in the IEC 909 appendices. It should be noted that only balanced three phase
faults are considered. The circuit is a high voltage system fed by an infinite bus which
is modelled by a constant impedance behind a voltage source and hence no
decrement of a.c. component of the short circuit current is simulated. The network also
includes two induction machines. Resulting current values from each standard are
reproduced in Table 4.
Table 4 Comparison of standards for three-phase fault current magnitudes [8, 19].
IEC 909 current in
kA
IEEE/ANSI current in
kA
Percentile
difference in %
Initial symmetrical 18.82 16.74 11.10
Peak 47.18 42.50 9.92
Breaking
symmetrical
16.33 15.60 4.47
Breaking
asymmetrical
17.51 15.69 10.39
Steady-state 14.32 13.32 6.98

It is clear from the above figures, the IEC 909 calculation over-estimates all current
values. Differences in percentile rank suggest that differences between the two
standards reduce in the later period of the fault.
2.4.4 Engineering Recommendation G.74
The realisation of conservative modelling in IEC 909 has prompted the employment of
more precise calculation practices. For example, ER G.74 [30, 42] Procedure to Meet
the Requirements of IEC 909 for the Calculation of Short Circuit Currents in Three
Phase ac Systems sets out a Good Industry Practice for a computer-based method of
calculating short-circuit currents, which can be used as an alternative to the methods
presented in IEC 909.
This engineering recommendation does not provide or recommend any particular
software for short circuit calculation but describes a computer-based technique and
details the models of the power system components. The main principle of the
recommendation is the consideration of pre-fault network conditions and inclusion of all
loads including passive ones and rotating plants. ER G.74 pays particular attention to
induction machine contributions in the case of three phase faults. However, the scope
of the document is limited to circuit breaker sizing in three phase ac power systems
having a nominal voltage range 380V to 400kV.
2.5 Conclusions
The factors which give rise to and affect the transient nature of fault current have been
identified in terms of a.c. and d.c. components. A simple parametric study has shown
how a particular fault initiation angle results in the maximum d.c. component of fault
current but this does not coincide with the maximum peak total asymmetrical current. It
has been shown that the IEC and IEEE/ANSI standards characterise a.c. and d.c.
transients in an approximate way. Both standards and particularly IEC 909 appear to
over-estimate short circuit current magnitudes.
In view of this apparent overestimation through the use of simple models and
simplifying assumptions, and the fact that IEC 909 does not correctly deal with single
line-to-earth faults, a more detailed treatment of the fault condition is required which is
in line with the consensus of the reviewed literature. Accordingly, chapter 3 investigates
different a.c. machine models in an attempt to identify the appropriate level of
complexity required for short circuit current evaluation for earthing design applications.
2.6 References

1 IEEE/ANSI C37: IEEE standard Rating Structure for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, (The IEEE Inc. November, 1985)
1986 edn.
2 AIEE COMMITTEE REPORT: Calculated symmetrical and asymmetrical short-circuit
current decrement rates on typical power systems, AIEE Trans. on PAS, June 1956,
part 3, vol. 75, pp. 274-285
3 AIEE COMMITTEE REPORT: Calculation of electric power system short-circuits
during the first few cycles, AIEE Trans. on PAS, April 1956, part 3, vol. 75, pp. 120-
127
4 LANTZ, M.: Power System Fault Current Analysis Including Study of Transient
Offset, AIEE Trans. on PAS, October 1954, vol. 73, part 3, pp. 1073-1078
5 IEEE Std. 242-1975: IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and Co-ordination
of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, Buff Book, (IEEE Press, New York,
1980)
6 IEEE Std. 399-1980: IEEE Recommended Practise for Power System Analysis,
Brown Book, (IEEE Press, New York 1980)
7 IEEE/ANSI, C37.12-1981: Guide to Specifications for AC High-Voltage Circuit
Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis and a Total Current Basis,
Approved on August 1981, (The IEEE Inc. November, 1985)
8 IEC 909: Short Circuit Calculation in Three Phase ac Systems, IEC, International
Electrotechnical Commission publication, 1988, First edn.
9 DUNKI-JACOBS, J.R., LAM, B.P., STRATFORD, R.P.: A comparison of ANSI-based
and dynamically rigorous short-circuit current calculation procedures, IEEE Trans. on
Industry Applications, November/December 1988, Vol. 24, No. 6, pp. 1180-1194
10 ROENNSPIESS, O.E., EFTHYMIADIS, A.E.: A comparison of static and dynamic
short-circuit analysis procedures, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, May/June
1990, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 463-475
11 BERIZZI, A., MASSUCCO, S., SILVESTRI, A., ZANINELLI, D.: Short-circuit current
calculation: A comparison between methods of IEC and ANSI standards using
dynamic simulation as reference, IEEE Trans. on Industry applications, July/August
1994, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 1099-1106
12 PROFESSIONAL GROUP P9: IEE Colloquium on Fault level assessment-guessing
with greater precision?, The IEE, London, 30 January 1996, Digest No: 1996/016
13 ARRIILAGA, J., ARNOLD, C.P.: Computer Analysis of Power Systems (J. Willey
and Sons, London, 1990)
14 ANDERSON, P.M.: Analysis of Faulted Power Systems (Iowa State University
Press Ames, Iowa, 1973)
15 WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC CORPORATION: Electrical Transmission and
distribution Reference Book, (East Pittsburgh, PA., 1950) 4
th
edn.
16 CASTELLI-DEZZA, F., SILVESTRI, A., ZANINELLI, D.: The IEC 909 standard and
dynamic simulation of short-circuit currents, ETEP (European Transactions on
Electrical Power), May/June 1994, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 213-221

17 BRIDGER, B.: All amperes are not created equal: A comparison of current of high
voltage circuit breakers rated according to ANSI and IEC standards, IEEE Trans. on
Industry Applications, January/February 1993,Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 195-201
18 KNIGHT, G., SIELING, H.: Comparison of ANSI and IEC 909 short-circuit current
calculation procedures, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, May/June 1993, Vol.
29, No. 3, pp. 625-630
19 BERIZZI, A., MASSUCCO, S., SILVESTRI, A., ZANINELLI, D.: ANSI/IEEE and IEC
standards for short-circuit current evaluation: methodologies, computed values and
results, 6
th
International symposium on short-circuit currents in power systems,
September 1994, Liege Belgium, pp. 1.1.1-1.1.8
20 MORCHED, A.S., TENCH, G.A., KUNDUR, P.: Accurate calculation of
asymmetrical fault currents in complex power systems, IEEE Trans. on PAS, August
1981, Vol. 100, No. 8, pp. 3875-3790
21 GIUSEPPE, P.: A new approach to calculate the decaying AC contributions to
short-circuit: The characteristics current method, IEEE Trans. on Industry
Applications, January/February 1995, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 214-221
22 HALPIN, S.M., GROSS, C.A., GRIGSBY, L.L.: An improved method of including
detailed synchronous machine representations in large power system models for
fault analysis, IEEE Trans. on Energy conversion, December 1993, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp.
719-725
23 HALPIN, S.M., GRIGSBY, L.L., GROSS, C.A., NELMS, R. M.: An improved fault
analysis algorithm for unbalanced multi-phase power distribution systems, IEEE
Trans. on PWD., July 1994, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 1332-1338
24 CLARKE, E.: Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems, Volume I and II, (J. Willey
and Sons, London, 1950)
25 ROEPER, R.: Short-circuit Currents in Three-phase Systems, (J. Willey and Sons,
the Bath press. Avon, 1985) 2
nd
edn.
26 STAGG, W.G., EL-ABIAD, A.: Computer Methods in Power System Analysis,
(McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1968)
27 FORTESCUE, C. L.: Method of symmetrical co-ordinates applied to the solution of
polyphase networks, Trans. AIEE ,1918, Vol. 37, pp. 1027-1140
28 OEDING, D., SCHEIFELE, J.: Maximum short-circuit current at pessimal load flow,
18
th
Universities Power Engineering Conference, April 1983, University of Surrey
Guildford UK, pp. 545-550
29 IEC 909-1: Short Circuit Calculation in Three Phase ac Systems Part 1. Factors for
the calculation of short-circuit currents in three-phase a.c. systems according to IEC
909, International Electrotechnical Commission publication, 1991 First edn.
30 EA ER-G74, (Electricity Association, Engineering Recommendation G74) 1992:
Procedure to meet the requirements of IEC 909 for the calculation of short circuit
currents in three phase ac systems, Electricity Association Services Limited, London
1992
31 ROBERTSON, D. ed.: Power System Protection Manual, (Oriel Press Ltd.,
Northumberland UK, 1982) pp. 47-65

32 KAI, T, TAKEUCHI, N., FUNABASHI, T., SASAKI, H.: A simplified Fault Current
Analysis Method Considering Transient of Synchronous Machine, IEEE Trans. on
Energy Conversion, Sep 1997, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp.225-231
33 HERMANN, W.R., JUAN, C.G.: Relationship of X/R, I
p
, and I
rms
to asymmetry in
resistance/reactance circuits, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, March/April
1985, Vol. IA-21, No.2, pp. 481-492
34 KIMBARK, W.E.: Power System Stability, Volume III Synchronous machines, (John
Willey & Sons, INC. New York, 1956)
35 CONCORDIA, C.: Synchronous Machines, Theory and Performance, (J. Willey and
Sons Inc. New York, Chapman & Hall Ltd. London, 1951)
36 ADKINS, B., HARLEY, R.G.: The General Theory of Alternating Current Machines:
Application to Practical Problems (Chapman and Hall, London, 1975)
37 PRENTICE, B.R.: Fundamental concepts of synchronous machine reactances,
AIEE. Trans. 1937, vol. 56 supplement, pp. 1-21
38 CRAIG, N.H.: Understanding Asymmetry, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications,
July/August 1985, Vol. IA-21, No. 4, pp. 842-848
39 CONRAD, R. ST. PIERRE: Sample System for Three-Phase Short Circuit
Calculations, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, March/April 1990, Vol. 26, No. 2,
pp. 204-211
40 SIMPSON, R.H.: Multivoltage Short-Circuit Duty Calculation for Industrial Power
Systems, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, March/April 1986, Vol. IA-22, No. 2,
pp. 365-381
41 RODALAKIS, A.: A Comparison of North American (ANSI) and European (IEC)
Fault Calculation Guidelines, IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, May/June 1993,
Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 515-521
42 EA ETR-120, (Electricity Association, Engineering Technical Report No. 120) 1995:
Application Guide To Engineering Recommendation G74 for calculation of fault
currents in three phase ac power systems, Electricity Association Services Limited,
London 1995

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Short Circuit Current Calculation Theory & Techniques PDF

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CHAPTER 2.

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT CALCULATION

2 " sin( ) sin( )

2 sin " sin

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