PLANT FAMILIES

The idea of Plant Families is that plants which have something in common can be grouped
together.
Knowing which Family a plant belongs to can be useful - not just a way of showing off!
For a start, it can help identify a new plant. If your unknown plant has the characteristics of a
particular Family, then you can narrow the search to find its identity.
It can give you an idea of what the plant looks like. Almost anything in the Asteraceae Family
will look like a Daisy. Most members of the Campanulaceae Family have blue flowers in a bell
or star shape. Many collections of seed from their natural habitat just give the Family name.
If you know which Plant Family a plant belongs to, it might help you to find the seeds. For
instance, members of the Cabbage family (Brassicaceae) have a seedpod that has a thin
papery membrane between the two halves (like Honesty), members of the Nettle Family
(Lamiaceae) don't have a seed pod, they have four seeds on a pad at the bottom of the open
calyx, and members of the old Leguminosae Family all have their seeds in legumes (pods like
pea or bean pods).
Knowing the Plant Family can tell you where the seed pod will be - on the stalk side of the
flower (called an Inferior Ovary - such as in Amaryllidaceae, Cannaceae) or in the middle of the
flower itself (a Superior Ovary - as in Nyctaginaceae, which includes Mirabilis, Geraniaceae,
Iridaceae).
It can often tell you what the seeds will be like - whether they're large or small, and whether
there are a lot of them in a seedpod or only one. Members of the Campanulaceae have many
small seeds in a capsule, seeds of the Asclepiadaceae are usually flat and oval with long silky
hairs, members of the Solanaceae Family have either a berry or a capsule with many seeds.
Knowing the Plant Family can also give you a clue about how to germinate any new seeds you
have from other plants in that Family. I know I've had success with many members of the
Geranium Family by nicking them and sowing them indoors by the Norman Deno method.
That's also worked for many members of the Lily family, but many members of the Iris Family
need to be sown outside and take a long time to germinate.
Knowing which Family a plant belongs to can tell you what the seedling looks like. Seeds of all
the Monocot families (such as Liliaceae, Iridaceae, other bulbs, grasses and palms) will come
up with only one seed leaf. Dicots (most of the other larger plant families) have two seed leaves.
There's a brief introduction to some of the main Plant Families here:
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Most members of this Family are soft-stemmed annuals, biennials or
perennials, although some grow tough stems and there are a few woody tree-like or shrubby
species in tropical regions. Several species are prickly (Eryngium, Aciphylla). The stems are
hollow between the leaf-joints, often ribbed (Angelica, Celery), and the leaves themselves are
alternate, usually divided or pinnate, sometimes very like a fern. Sometimes they may be bluish
(Eryngium).
APIACEAE (formerly UMBELLIFERAE) - The Celery Family
There are between 2500 and 3000 members of this family, found all over the world, but mainly
in the temperate areas and rarely in tropical regions. Some well-known vegetables and herbs
are in this family (Carrot, Parsnip, Celery, Fennel, Angelica) some are familiar weeds of
hedgerows and woodland (Cow Parsley, Hogweed), and some are grown as ornamental garden
plants (Eryngium, Astrantia, Aciphylla), although these mainly do not look like umbellifers at all.
Some are poisonous, notably Hemlock.
Flowers ~ It is the flowers which gave this plant family its original name of Umbelliferae. The
flowers grow in umbels or clusters forming an umbrella shape. The flowers have stalks of
different lengths so that all the flowers are the same height so that the umbel has a flat top. The
flower head may be a single umbel or many smaller umbels making up a large 'flower'. Each
individual flower has five petals and five stamens, and they are generally small and insignificant,
even in an umbel. The outer flowers may have some larger and some smaller petals. They are
very often white, sometimes cream, yellow or pink.. The outer flowers open first. The flower
stalk arises from the leaf axil. The overall appearance of many umbels is unimposing, as they
are generally relatively tall and leggy.
The members of this Family grown for ornament often have flowers very different from the
normal type. In Eryngium (Sea Holly) and Astrantia (Masterwort), it is the large bracts
surrounding the umbel which are coloured and the flowers themselves are insignificant.
Recently, the international panel of botanists who rule on these things decided that all plant
families ought to have the same ending (-aceae), and be named after a plant typical of the
family, so the family is now called Apiaceae after the type plant, Apium (Celery).
Seeds ~ The seed capsule in this Family is behind the petals (inferior). The seed capsule has
two parts with a single seed in each part. The seeds themselves are of many different shapes
and sizes. They may be spiny, hooked or winged. Some are of culinary or medicinal use (Dill,
Coriander, Cumin, Anise).
Members of this Family usually have:
Hollow stems
Small flowers in umbels
Flowers with five petals
White, yellow or pink (not blue) flowers
ASTERACEAE (formerly COMPOSITAE) - The Daisy Family
This is one of the largest plant families, with over 25,000 species distributed all over the world. It
includes shrubs, perennials and annuals, but not trees or aquatics. Many of them are weeds
(e.g. Dandelion and Thistle), many are familiar garden flowers (Aster, Chrysanthemum and
Echinacea), and some are edible (Lettuce and Artichoke).
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of this family are often undivided and spoon-shaped, but
they are sometimes toothed or divided, and they may be prickly. There is often a basal rosette,
as in the Daisy or Dandelion, and there may be leaves on the stem, as in the thistle. The stem
itself may be solid or hollow and it, too, may be prickly. The roots may be short and near the
surface, as in the Daisy, or there may be a long tap root, as in the Dandelion or Thistle.
Flowers ~ It is the flowers which give this plant family its original name of Compositae They are
composite, or made up of many individual flowers. These flowers may be regular (disc florets),
with all the petals the same size, or irregular (ray florets), with some petals larger than others.
Often, the disc florets form the central disc of short flowers, and the irregular ray florets form the
outside 'petals' with the larger edge on the outside of the flower head. In the photograph, the
dark centre of the flower is the disc florets and the outer 'petals' are the ray florets. Some
members of this family are made up of only disc florets or only ray florets.
Recently, the international panel of botanists who rule on these things decided that all plant
families ought to have the same ending (-aceae), and be named after a plant typical of the
family, so the family is now called Asteraceae after the type plant, the Aster.
Seeds ~ Each single flower can produce a seed. The flowers sit on a disc surrounded by the
bracts. After pollination, the seeds grow and mature until they are ripe and ready to be
dispersed. In some species, the bracts surrounding the flower simply open and allow the seeds
to be dispersed by the wind. In this case, the seed is often attached to its own 'parachute', as in
the Dandelion. In other species, the bracts close over the disc while the seeds mature, and this
seed case also turns brown as the seeds ripen. When the seeds are ready to be dispersed, they
separate from the disc. Seeds of this family are oval and may be flat or rounded. They can be
straw-coloured, warm brown or nearly black.
Many members of this plant family do not produce viable seeds. Often, they produce what looks
like a fine seedhead of white fluff, but on examination it will be seen that there is no seed at the
bottom of the 'parachute'. In some cases, there may be a seed case full of ripe brown 'seeds',
but they may be flat or bent and spindly, and if they are compared to a healthy seed, it can be
seen that they are not viable seeds. Healthy seeds are easily recognisable - there is a slight
bulge to even the flat-looking viable seeds, and some are fat and rounded.
Members of this Family usually have:
Daisy-type flowers but are not big trees or aquatic
APOCYNACEAE - The Periwinkle Family
This is a large Family with about 1500 species found mainly in tropical regions. It includes many
of the most well-known tropical ornamental plants (Oleander, Frangipani, Allamanda,
Mandevilla). Many are large trees with buttress roots found in rainforests, some are smaller,
evergreen or deciduous trees, shrubs or climbers from other warm areas of the world, and one
or two are found in temperate regions (Vinca). The sap of most plants is a milky latex, which is
often of economic importance for medicinial use, or for the production of rubber. This sap is
often toxic.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Leaves are simple and undivided, and are either opposite or in rings
around the stem.
Flowers ~ There is a calyx with five parts, either separate or joined to form a tube. The flowers
are in clusters and are often large and showy. They usually have five petals joined into a tube at
the base. There are five stamens joined together.
Seeds ~ The seeds capsule has two parts and may be either inside the flower or not. Seeds are
very variable, and may be small with a hairy tuft (Nerium) or large and woody (Allamanda).
Members of this Family usually have:
Simple leaves
Milky sap
Five part calyx
Clusters of flowers
Five large petals joined at the base
Five stamens
*** Most parts of many members of this Plant Family are POISONOUS ***
BIGNONIACEAE - The Bignonia Family
This is a family of around 650 species in 120 genera, found mainly in the tropics, particularly
South America. Most species are woody, often climbing. They are grown for their timber and as
ornamental plants, and include many plants frequently seen by travellers in tropical regions, as
many species are used as street trees or in hotel gardens. Trees include African Tulip Tree
(Spathodea campanulata), Jacaranda ovalifolia, the Tabebuias and Catalpas, and the climbers
Pyrostegia venusta, Pandorea and Tecomaria. One or two may be grown outside in the milder
parts of Britain, including Campsis radicans and Eccremocarpus scaber. The family also
includes the well-known Calabash (Crescentia), used as a water container in many tropical
areas.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Nearly all members of this Family have woody stems. The leaves are
opposite, with no stipules, and are usually compound. There are often tendrils used for climbing.
The calyx has five lobes, and is sometimes 2-lipped.
Flowers ~ The flowers are bell or funnel shaped, also with five lobes. They grow in clusters and
are usually large and brightly-coloured. There are four stamens.
Seeds ~ The seedpod forms inside the flower (a superior ovary). The seeds are usually flat with
papery wings, although sometimes there is an indehiscent fleshy fruit containing unwinged
seeds (Kigelia).
Members of this Family usually have:
Bright trumpet-shaped flowers in clusters
Four stamens
A superior seed capsule containing flat winged seeds
No stipules and are mostly tropical woody climbers
BORAGINACEAE - The Borage Family
This is a family of around 2000 species, occurring mainly in Europe and Asia, especially in the
Mediterranean region. Most of them are herbs, although there are some woody plants. Most of
them are grown as ornamental plants, although some are a source of dye or have medicinal
uses. The most well-known members of the Family include Forget me Not (Myosotis),
Heliotrope (Heliotropium), the Comfreys (Symphytum), Borage (Borago), and Hound's Tongue
(Cynoglossum).
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems are usually covered in rough hairs, as are the leaves and
inflorescence. The leaves are generally alternate, simple and entire, without stipules.
Flowers ~ The flowers are borne in a characteristic coiled inflorescence (crozier), the lower
ones opening first. There are five sepals, free or joined at the base, and a five-lobed corolla
which may be tubular or salver-shaped. There are often scales or hairs at the base or mouth.
The flowers are usually regular, or sometimes irregular as in Echium, and usually bisexual,
although the female flowers are frequently borne on separate plants. There are five stamens
attached to the corolla. The flower colour may be pink, purple, yellow or white, but is
predominantly blue.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and the fruit is either four nutlets or a drupe.
Members of this Family usually have:
Blue flowers in a coiled inflorescence
Hairy stems and leaves
No stipules
Four seeds and are usually annual or perennial herbaceous plants.
BRASSICACEAE (formerly CRUCIFERAE) - The Cabbage Family
This is a large family with many plants of major economic importance, including many familiar
vegetables (Cabbage, Turnip), oil crops (Oil-seed Rape), ornamental plants (Wallflower,
Alyssum), and weeds (Bittercress). They are found more or less all over the world, with most
species occurring in the north temperate region and few in the southern hemisphere. They are
mostly annual or perennial herbaceous plants, with one or two small shrubs or climbers.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves are usually alternate up the stem. In species which are
used as food crops, plants have been selected and bred to maximise the size of the part used -
large, fleshy roots as in Turnips or Swedes, large leaves as in Cabbages, large flower buds as
in Cauliflower and Broccoli.
Flowers ~ It is the flowers which give this plant family its original name of Cruciferae They are
cruciform, made up of four petals in a cross shape. They are usually in clusters or heads, and
the flowers are very often white or yellow, although they may be red, blue, orange, white, pink or
mauve, particularly in species cultivated for ornament. Rarely (as in the Candytuft), there are
two large and two small petals.
Recently, the international panel of botanists who rule on these things decided that all plant
families ought to have the same ending (-aceae), and be named after a plant typical of the
family, so the family is now called Brassicaceae after the type plant, Brassica (Cabbage).
Seeds ~ The seedpods of this plant family are also fairly easily identifiable. They are formed of
two chambers joined by a thin membrane, which opens from the bottom. The seed pod may be
round and flat, as in Honesty, or it may be long and thin, as in Wallflowers or Bitter Cress. The
flat membrane often remains after the outer surface of the seed capsule has been shed.
Members of this Family usually have:
Four petalled flowers in a cross shape
Clusters of flowers
Papery membrane dividing a two-chambered seed capsule
LEGUMINOSAE (now separated into CAESALPINIACEAE, FABACEAE, MIMOSACAE,
PAPILIONACEAE) - The Pea Family
This is one of the largest and most useful plant families. - 17,000 species, distributed almost
throughout the world. It includes many well-known vegetables particularly of temperate regions
(Beans, Peas), ornamental trees in tropical regions (Bauhinia, Flamboyant, Cassia), fodder
crops (Clover, Lucerne) and weeds (Vetches and Trefoils), and their growth habits vary from
ground cover and aquatic to shrubs, climbers and trees. Many species of trees in this family are
important for their timber.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of this plant family are placed alternately up the stem, and
are pinnate or bipinnate. In some species, the leaves are able to close together at night
(nyctinasty), and in some species of Mimosa they close when touched. The roots are one of the
most easily recognisable features of this plant family. Most species have irregular nodules on
the roots which enable the plant to absorb nitrogen from the air in the soil and convert it into the
nitrogen the plant needs for growth. This enables the species to grow and produce crops in poor
soil.
Flowers ~ Many members of the Leguminosae family have flowers of the typical 'pea' type.
These are composed of one large back petal (the standard), two side petals called wings and
two lower petals fused together to form a 'keel'. In members of the family which have other
flower shapes, there are still five petals. The flowers may occur individually, or in large clusters.
Recently, the international panel of botanists who rule on these things decided that all plant
families ought to have the same ending (-aceae), and be named after a plant typical of the
family. This has resulted in several groups which were previously sub-families of the
Leguminosae being elevated to family status. These new plant families include
Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae and Papilionaceae. The differences which separate the members
of these new families may be unidentifiable to the non-botanist, and the similarities which they
share as members of the Leguminosae family are still the easiest way to identify these plants.
Seeds ~ It is the seedpods that give this family its original name. The typical pea-pod shape is a
legume. It is always a single chamber, although it may be constricted between the individual
seeds. The pod may contain just one or several seeds, and they are usually large, and
sometimes brightly coloured. The coat of the individual seed is often watertight. Each seed
contains a large embryo and little endosperm, so they often germinate quickly once the
seedcoat is punctured.
Members of this Family usually have:
Pea flowers
Nodules on the roots
Pinnate leaves
Seeds in pods like peas or beans
CAMPANULACEAE - The Bellflower Family
This plant family contains mostly perennial plants, although some are annual or biennial, but
hardly any shrubs. Plants of this family are found in most parts of the world except Africa,
although the majority are found in the temperate regions. The flowers are most usually blue.
The family includes Campanulas, Symphyandra, Edraianthus, and almost all are grown for
ornament. They may be several feet tall, or only a few inches.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ There is a variety of leaf shapes in this family, although they are
undivided. They may be kidney-shaped, oval, round, or like a nettle. The stem varies with the
size and type of the plant - it may be woody, wiry or brittle. The root is often a tuber or at least
fleshy.
Flowers ~ It is the flowers which give this plant family its name. Campanula is Latin for bell, and
the majority of the flowers are bell-shaped to some degree. They may be long tubular bells, or
open starry shapes. In some members of the family, the likeness to a bell is not apparent - in
Jasione or Phyteuma, for instance, where there are many flowers together forming a single
'flower-head'. The flower parts are in fives - this is most noticeable in the five points at the end of
the bell, and the five points to the sepals (calyx). Flowers occur in all shades of blue, and in
mauves, purples, white, and rarely pink or cream.
Seeds ~ Each single flower can produce thousands of seeds. They form in three chambers in
the seed capsule, and are usually tiny.
Members of this Family usually have:
Blue (or white) bell-shaped flowers
Lots of small seeds
CARYOPHYLLACEAE - The Pink Family
This is quite a large plant Family, with about 2000 species in 80 genera. They are mainly
temperate herbaceous plants, and include many popular garden plants - the Pinks, Carnations
and Sweet William (Dianthus), Baby's Breath (Gypsophila), Campions and Catchflies (Silene
and Lychnis) and Sandworts (Arenaria), as well as a number of weeds, including several types
of Chickweed (Stellaria), Mouse-Ear (Cerastium) and Pearlwort (Sagina). They seem to do
particularly well on chalky soils.
The plants of this family are relatively uniform, so are easily recognised.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems are usually herbaceous, dying back to a crown in winter,
although some are evergreen, and some are shrubby with persistent woody rootstocks. The
leaves are almost always undivided and opposite, and the stem is swollen and easily broken at
the nodes. The leaf bases are often joined around the joints to make them perfoliate, but there
are usually no stipules.
Flowers ~ The flowers are regular, with a calyx of four or five free or joined lobes. There are
also bracts under the flowers, particularly in Dianthus. The flowers have four or five free petals,
often notched or deeply cut. There are usually twice as many stamens as petals.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and the fruit is a capsule containing many seeds. The seeds are
variable. In some species they are round balls, and in others they are more like flat discs.
Members of this Family usually have:
Swollen leaf joints
Simple undivided leaves
A calyx with five lobes
No stipules
Flowers with four or five petals
White, pink or red flowers - rarely yellow, but never blue and are usually short annual or
perennial herbs


CLUSIACEAE (formerly Guttiferae) - The St. John's Wort Family
This is a Family of about 1000 species of trees and shrubs occurring throughout the world,
mostly in tropical regions. It has many species of economic importance, ranging from large trees
grown for their timber, those grown for drugs, dyes, resins, and essential oils used in cosmetics,
to edible fruits, including Garcinia mangostana , (Mangosteen) and Mammea americana
(Mammey Apple). Many species of St. John's Wort have a long history of use in traditional
medicine.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems are usually woody and the leaves are simple and
undivided, usually opposite, with no stipules. The stems and leaves, and also the flowers, have
glands producing essential oils, fats and resins.
Flowers ~ The flowers have four or five sepals and four or five petals. They may be single or in
groups. Sometimes they are bisexual, and sometimes male and female flowers are borne on
separate plants. There are two whorls of five bundles of stamens. The outer ring is usually
sterile.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and the fruit is usually a capsule. Sometimes the seeds have
wings or an aril.
Members of this Family usually have:
Undivided leaves occurring opposite one another
Glands on the leaves
Five sepals and five petals
Many stamens
and are mostly woody shrubs and trees
CONVOLVULACEAE - The Bindweed Family
This is a Family with about 1800 species in 50 genera found in temperate and tropical regions of
the world. In dry Mediterranean or semi-desert climates, they are mostly woody shrubs, and in
rich, bushy vegetation or open, drier places, they are usually climbers with long trailing or
twining stems. There are one or two trees, and some species grow in almost pure sand on
tropical beaches. They are often weeds, e.g. Hedge Bindweed (Calystegia sepium) and Field
Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), and sometimes parasitic, e.g. Common Dodder (Cuscuta
epithymum). Plants which may be weeds in their native country are sometimes grown as
ornamentals, and there are now many hybrids of Ipomoea purpurea grown in gardens. The
Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) is an important food plant in the tropics, and some species
have medicinal uses.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ In parasitic species, the stems are soft and stringy and produce roots
that grow into the host plant to gain nutrients. The parasitic species have no green pigment and
no leaves. The stems of shrubs may be woody, and the stems of climbing species may reach
several feet. Roots are often swollen or stringy rhizomes, and it is because these are able to
regenerate new plants from small pieces that the plant is able to spread so easily, especially in
cultivated ground. The leaves are alternate and very variable in shape, but are usually simple
and heart-shaped. The Sweet Potato is a tuber produced at the nodes of the creeping stems of
the plant, and can weigh as much as 3kg.
Flowers ~ The flowers are regular and often have an involucre of bracts under them. The
flowers are borne in the leaf axils, often singly, but in a spike in Spanish Flag (Ipomoea lobata),
where they also differ in shape. There are five free sepals forming the calyx, and the flowers
have five petals usually joined to form a trumpet. There are five stamens joined to the base of
the tube.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and the fruit is a capsule, usually dehiscent. It often contains five
large woody seeds. Sometimes, the seeds may be hairy.
Members of this Family usually have:
Trumpet-shaped flowers with five fused petals
Five stamens fused to the base of the trumpet
Simple leaves growing alternately up the stem
Superior ovary and are often trailing or climbing weeds
ERICACEAE - The Heath Family
This is a family of around 3000 apecies in 100 genera, found all over the world except Australia.
Almost half of them are in the genus Rhododendron, coming mainly from China, and there are
around 500 species of Erica, most of them from Southern Africa. This is a family mainly of
shrubs or climbers, and almost all of them are found in acidic habitats, and are dependent on
fungal mycorrhiza. Most are grown for ornament, often as hedges, including Gaultheria and
Pernettya, although the leaves of Kalmia species are poisonous to stock and humans. In Britain,
acidic moorlands are often covered in wild heather (Calluna and Erica species). The fruits of a
few species, e.g. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and Bog Whortleberry (Vaccinium uliginosum)
are edible, but only the Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) is cultivated for this purpose.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Many members of this Family are evergreen shrubs or climbers, with
woody stems. The leaves are simple without stipules, usually alternate, and are often thick,
leathery and shiny. Species growing in dry conditions often have thin needle-like leaves.
Flowers ~ There is a calyx or four or five sepals joined at the base. The flower has four or five
petals, usually joined to form a tube or trumpet. There are usually twice as many stamens as
petals, and they are not attached to the corolla. There is a single style. The flowers are usually
in clusters or spikes, but may be solitary.
Seeds ~ The ovary is usually superior but may be inferior. The fruit is usually a capsule or a
berry.

Members of this Family usually have:
Woody stems
Simple evergreen leaves growing alternately
Clusters of flowers
Flowers with 4 or 5 petals forming a tube or trumpet
Stamens not attached to the flower tube and are found in acidic conditions.
GERANIACEAE - The Cranesbill Family
Not surprisingly, this family contains the hardy perennial Geraniums. It also includes
Pelargoniums and Erodiums. They are found throughout the temperate and subtropical regions
of the world. They are all relatively short plants, mainly grown for ornamental, sometimes with
scented leaves, and some are grown for oil of geranium which is used in making perfume.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems are often jointed, and may be reddish. The leaves
areeither opposite one another or alternate, and may be undivided or lobed or made up of
several leaflets. They are often covered with hairs and may have scent glands. Some are
evergreen and others are deciduous.
Flowers ~ The flowers of the Geranium family have five sepals and five petals. They are
coloured in shades of pink,, red, purple, mauve, blue and white, but not yellow.
Seeds ~ It is the seeds that give this family its name. Geranos is the Greek word for a crane,
and the seeds of most members of the family have a long pointed 'beak' in the centre of the
seed capsule. There are usually five seeds (although sometimes two seeds may be produced in
a single husk), and they are joined together in a circle with the 'bill' in the centre. When the
seeds are ripe, the five chambers separate from one another explosively, held on to the 'bill' at
their tips, and the seeds are flung from the seed capsule.
The threads which held the chambers together later curl up like springs, and one type is used to
make hygrometers, instruments which measure moisture. They curl and uncurl, depending on
the volume of moisture in the air.
Members of this Family usually have:
Blue, mauve, red, pink or white (not yellow) flowers with five petals
Beaked seed capsule and are short annual or perennial plants
GESNERIACEAE - The African Violet Family
This is a family of around 2000 species in 125 genera, most of them tropical herbs and shrubs,
rarely trees, with a few occuring in temperate areas of the world. They are grown for ornament,
most of them as houseplants in temperate regions. The most well-known species are
Aeschyanthus, Columnea, Episcia, Gesneria, Gloxinia, Kohleria, Saintpaulia (African Violet),
and Streptocarpus. A few of the hardier species are grown in gardens, notably Ramonda,
Jankaea and Mitraria. Some are used in local medicines in tropical areas.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The roots are usually fibrous, or woody tubers or scaly rhizomes.
Some have aerial stolons. The leaves are usually opposite or alternate, simple, and may be
toothed. The leaves are often softly hairy. On rare occasions, they are pinnatisect, or there may
be only one leaf, and there are sometimes basal leaves. There are no stipules. The stems are
often fleshy, and may be brittle.
Flowers ~ The flowers are irregular, and have five sepals and five petals, which may be fused
into a tube at the base. They may be single, or in racemes, and are often softly hairy. There are
2-4 stamens, and the ovary may be superior or inferior.
Seeds ~ There are many small seeds, contained either in a rounded or elongated capsule, or
rarely in a berry.
Members of this Family usually have:
Underground fibrous roots, tubers or scaly rhizomes
Irregular flowers with five sepals and five petals
Many small seeds in a capsule and are usually tropical herbs or shrubs (rarely trees)
HYDROPHYLLACEAE - The Waterleaf Family
This is a small Family of about 250 species, distributed around the world but perhaps mainly
coming from the Americas. They are all annual or perennial herbs or undershrubs. Most are
grown as ornamental plants, with no economically useful plants in the Family. Some of the most
popular and well-known plants are Nemophila and Phacelia species, while tropical plants from
North America include Wigandia and Nama.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves are usually hairy or with glands, simple or compound, with
no stipules. They are mainly alternate, rarely opposite.
Flowers ~ There are five free sepals and five petals fused at the base. The flowers are most
often blue or purple, often wheel, bell or funnel shaped, and are usually borne in cymes. There
are five stamens at the base of the corolla tube.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and the fruit is a capsule containing many seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Blue or purple flowers
Hairy leaves without stipules
Seed capsule containing many seeds and are annual or perennial herbs or small shrubs (not
climbers or trees)


IRIDACEAE - The Iris Family
There are about 1800 species in this family, which occur in both tropical and temperate regions,
but particularly around the Mediterranean, in South Africa and Central America. They are mostly
grown as ornamental plants (Iris, Crocus, Gladiolus).
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The members of this family are herbaceous and have storage organs
(rhizomes, corms or bulbs). The leaves are long and thin, usually arranged in two rows and
forming a fan shape.
Flowers ~ The flowers may be single and almost stemless (Crocus), or they may occur as
spikes at the top of a branched or unbranched stem. There are six petals in two rings of three.
Each ring or whorl may be composed of petals of the same or different shape and size. The
typical Iris flower has three outer petals spreading horizontally, while the inner three petals
stand upright. There are three stamens opposite the three outer petals.
Seeds ~ The seed pod in this Family forms behind the flowers, on the stalk side. It is composed
of three chambers each with two rows of fairly large seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Bulbs or other storage organs
Long, thin leaves
Six petals in two rings
Three stamens
Seed capsule which forms behind the flower
Note: Members of this Family have several things in common with other bulbous plants in the
Lily and Amaryllis Families. Here are some points of difference which might help tell them apart:
Liliaceae ~ 6 stamens, superior ovary (inside the flower)
Iridaceae ~ 3 stamens, inferior ovary (behind the flower)
Amaryllidaceae ~ 6 stamens, inferior ovary (behind the flower)
LAMIACEAE (formerly LABIATAE) - The Mint Family
This is a large plant family of mostly shrubs and herbs, distributed all over the world. It includes
many well-known herbs (Mint, Sage, Thyme, Basil), ornamental plants (Coleus, Leonotis) and
weeds (Henbit, Ground Ivy, Self-Heal).
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems of this family are very often square. The leaves are simple
and not divided, in pairs up the stem, each pair at right angles to the last, and they are
frequently hairy or with scent glands.
Flowers ~ It is the flowers which give this plant family its original name of Labiatae. They have
two lips, one more protruding than the other (labia is the Latin for 'lip'). Generally, the upper lip
has two lobes and forms a hood over the lower lip, and the lower lip consists of three lobes
which form a landing platform for pollinating insects. The flowers occur in whorls or circles round
the stem, and each flower protrudes from a pointed calyx.
Recently, the international panel of botanists who rule on these things decided that all plant
families ought to have the same ending (-aceae), and be named after a plant typical of the
family, so the family is now called Lamiacae, after the type plant, Lamium (Dead Nettle).
Seeds ~ Each single flower can produce four seeds. They form at the base of the flower and
develop inside the calyx. There is no seed pod. When the seeds are ripe, they simply roll out of
the calyx.
Members of this Family usually have:
Square stems
Leaves in pairs up the stem
Flowers in circles round the stem
Flowers with hood at the top and lip at the bottom
Aromatic foliage
LILIACEAE - The Lily Family
This is one of the largest plant families, with about 3500 species distributed throughout the
world. They are mainly ornamental plants, but include vegetables of the onion family (Onion,
Garlic, Leek, Chives) and Asparagus, and some species have been used medicinally. The
majority are herbaceous with a swollen storage organ, but there are also evergreen succulents
(Aloe) and woody evergreen climbers (Lapageria).
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of this family are often long and thin with parallel veins
arising from the base (Ornithogalum, Eremurus), or oval with net veins arising along the stem,
as in Trillium. In extreme cases, they have been reduced to scales (Asparagus) or modified to
extend into tendrils (Gloriosa). or even needles (Borya). Many members of the family are
perennial and have storage organs such as bulbs, corms or rhizomes. The Liliaceae are
monocotyledons, that is, they have only one seed leaf.
Flowers ~ The flowers are often borne in racemes, although they may also be solitary as in the
Tulip. They usually have six petals which may be joined to some degree, may form a tube
(Kniphofia), may be of different sizes (Calochortus) or may all be of equal size and shape. There
are nearly always six stamens.
Seeds ~ The ovary (seed pod) in this Family is usually superior (inside the flower) with three
chambers, with the seeds arranged in two rows in each chamber. Seeds of many species are
round, flat and papery, although they may also be black and round.
Members of this Family usually have:
Bulbs or other storage organs
Long, thin leaves
Six petals
Six stamens
Seed capsule which forms inside the flower
Note: Several groups of plants in the Family Liliaceae have now been given their own Family
status. These include Alliaceae, Alstroemeriaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae,
Asphodelaceae, Aspidistraceae, Calochortaceae, Colchicaceae, Convallariaceae,
Fritillariaceae, Hemerocallidaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Trilliaceae, and Zephyranthaceae.
Even before these changes, it was difficult to know whether a plant belonged to the Lily Family,
the Iris Family, or the Amaryllis Family. Here are some points of difference which might help:
Liliaceae ~ 6 stamens, superior ovary (inside the flower)
Iridaceae ~ 3 stamens, inferior ovary (behind the flower)
Amaryllidaceae ~ 6 stamens, inferior ovary (behind the flower)
MALVACEAE - The Mallow Family
The Mallow Family contains over 1000 species, found mainly in South America. They are
herbaceous plants, shrubs or trees. The species of most economic importance is Cotton, the
fruits of Hibiscus esculentus (Okra) are eaten, and many (Hibiscus, Abutilon, Hollyhock) are
grown as garden flowers.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves are alternate, with leafy growths where they join the stem,
and they are often hairy. The calyx is composed of five sepals, sometimes joined, with another
row of false sepals beneath them. The leaves are often palmate and lobed or divided
(Hollyhock), or undivided and toothed (Hibiscus).
Flowers ~ The flowers of this family are large and composed of five separate petals, usually
rolled up together in bud or dying. The stamens and style form a long tube protruding from the
centre of the flower, and the stigma at the end of the tube is divided.
Seeds ~ The seed capsule is inside the flower, with five or more parts joined together. The
seeds may be hairy (Cotton), rounded (Hibiscus), flat discs (Hollyhock) or even a berry
(Malvaviscus).
Members of this Family usually have:
Large flowers with five unjoined petals
Stamens and divided style protruding from the centre of the flower
Calyx of five parts with another false calyx below it
MUSACEAE - The Banana Family
This is a small family of only about 40 species in two genera (Musa and Ensete) found in wet
tropical lowlands, although recently one or two species have been found in higher latitudes.
They are grown mainly for their fruit, the Banana, and for their fibres, manila and hemp, used for
making rope. They are also grown as ornamental plants.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Members of this Family are not woody plants. They are herbaceous
plants, with thick pseudostems formed from the leaf sheaths. The leaves are very large,
sheathing the stem, and arranged spirally. There is a thick oval midrib, with veins running from
the midrib to the leaf margin. The leaves are entire at first, but torn by the wind. The genus
Musa produces new plants from rhizomatous roots and is perennial, while plants in the genus
Ensete are unbranched and monocarpic.
Flowers ~ The flowers are surrounded by bracts and are terminal, produced from the growing
points of the basal corms. The flowers are irregular and unisexual, the female flowers in clusters
('hands'), while the male flowers are on the end of the flower spike of the same plant. There are
two whorls of three petal-like segments, and five stamens. Pollination is often by bats or lizards.
Seeds ~ The ovary is inferior (underneath the flower), and the fruit is a fleshy berry with many
stony seeds, although the edible Banana is a hybrid and does not produce seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
A pseudostem formed from the leaf sheaths
Very large leaves
Leaves with a thick midrib and parallel veins
Separate male and female flowers on the same plant
Flowers and fruit in dense bunches
Fleshy fruit with several hard stony seeds
OXALIDACEAE - The Wood Sorrel Family
This is a family of around 90 species (or around 900 according to some classifications), mainly
of annual or perennial herbs, found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world,
although some occur in temperate regions. They are mainly grown as ornamental plants,
although the tubers and leaves of some species are used as food, and some are considered
weeds. The family includes the well-known tropical ground-cover, Oxalis pes-caprae, the
Bermuda Buttercup, and Oxalis corniculata, a weed of temperate gardens.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of Oxalidaceae are alternate with no stipules (small leafy
growths at the leaf nodes), simple or compound, and often trifoliate like a clover leaf in species
of Oxalis. In some species the leaflets fold down at night or in cold weather. The root is fleshy
and is sometimes eaten. Some produce bulbils in the leaf axils.
Flowers ~ The flowers have five sepals and five petals, which are sometimes joined at the base
and sometimes separate. There are ten stamens in two whorls of five, and five styles, each with
an ovary at the base. The flowers may be solitary or in clusters.
Seeds ~ The seedpod forms inside the flower (a superior ovary), and is composed of five
sections, each containing several seeds. The seeds of some species have a fleshy aril at the
base. To disperse the seed, the inner cells of the aril turn inside out suddenly and separate from
the seedcoat, and the seed is catapulted from the plant.
In cold conditions, the European species Oxalis acetosella (Wood Sorrel) may be cleistogamous
(can produce viable seeds without opening).
Members of this Family usually have:
Flowers with five petals
Ten stamens in two rings of five
A superior seed capsule with five parts
No stipules
They often have a fleshy aril to fling the seed from the pod
Often have folded leaflets and are mostly tropical and subtropical annual and perennial herbs
PAPAVERACEAE - The Poppy Family
This is quite a small family, with about 250 species found mainly in the northern temperate
regions of the world. Many are familiar garden plants - Poppies, Meconopsis, Californian
Poppies, Argemone and Dendromecon. Few are of economic importance, although the Opium
Poppy (Papaver somniferum) is the source of opium and heroin, and its seeds are used in
baking. Other species yield oils used in making soap. Most members of this Family are
herbaceous annuals or perennials, but there are also a few shrubs.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of plants in this family are entire, but often deeply cut, and
arise alternately up the stem. The stem may be smooth, hairy, or prickly. The sap is a milky
latex, and it is this which gave the family its name - pappa is the Latin for food or milk. Instead of
the normal calyx, members of this Family have two large sepals which enclose the flower bud,
and these fall off when the bud opens.
Flowers ~ There are two rings of two large, rounded petals, except in Macleaya (Plume Poppy)
and some tropical species. The petals are often crumpled inside the bud. There are many rows
of stamens.
Seeds ~ The seeds develop inside a rounded capsule with one chamber, which opens by small
holes around the lid.
Members of this Family usually have:
Two sepals enclosing the flower bud, which fall off when it opens.
Four brightly-coloured petals
Many stamens
Rounded seed pod forming inside the flower


PLUMBAGINACEAE - The Leadwort Family
This is a family of about 560 species in 10 genera found all over the world. They are annual or
perennial herbs, shrubs and climbers. The type plant, Plumbago, the Cape Leadwort, has large
enough flowers for the characteristics to be visible, but many species in temperate regions, e.g.
Thrift (Armeria) and Sea Lavender (Limonium), have small flowers in dense clusters. They are
generally grown for garden decoration or as cut flowers, either fresh or dried, and medicinal
extracts are obtained from some species.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves are simple and undivided, and may be arranged in a
basal rosette or alternately on aerial branching stems.
Flowers ~ The flowers are regular and bisexual, with parts in fives. There are five persistent
sepals fused together to form a tube, which is often papery, coloured or ribbed. There are five
petals also fused at the base to form a long tube, and the flowers are in dense clusters. There
are five stamens.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior, and contains one seed.
Members of this Family usually have:
A calyx with five joined sepals.
Flowers in dense clusters
Flowers with five petals
Superior ovary containing one seed
POLEMONIACEAE - The Phlox Family
This is a family of only about 300 species, mainly from North America, but also from other parts
of the northern hemisphere and the east of South America. It includes plants of all types and
sizes, from trees to small annuals. Several species are grown as garden plants, including Phlox,
Polemonium and Gilia.
The tropical members of this family (Cantua, Cobaea, Huthia, Loeselia, Bonplandia) are mostly
woody plants with large flowers and winged seeds. Those from the temperate regions are
mostly herbaceous with small flowers and wingless seeds.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THIS PLANT FAMILY:
Leaves, Stem & Roots: ~ Leaves are alternate or opposite, and may be undivided or
compound (made up of many leaflets). The calyx is made of five parts, fused into a tube. The
leaves are sometimes covered in short hairs, making the leaves appear sticky.
Flowers: ~ There are five petals, joined to form a flat round or bell shaped flower, and five
stamens joined to the flower tube. They may be single or in small clusters, either from the leaf
joints or at the end of the stem.
Seeds: ~ The seed pod forms inside the flower. It usually has three parts joined to form a
pointed capsule which splits into three parts to release the seeds. There may be one or many
seeds, and they are often sticky when wet.
Members of this Family usually have:
Five joined petals
Five stamens
Calyx made of five parts joined into a tube
Alternate or opposite leaves
Seed pod with three chambers forming inside the flower
Sticky seeds and are perennial or annual deciduous plants
PRIMULACEAE - The Primrose Family
There are about 1000 members of this family, found in the temperate areas of the world, mainly
in the northern hemisphere. They are mostly grown for ornament, and include the familiar
Primrose and Cyclamen. They are all perennial or annual herbs, not trees or shrubs.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Most members of this family have some sort of storage organ to
enable them to overwinter. This may be obviously enlarged, as in the Cyclamen tuber (corm), or
just thickened roots with a resting bud, as in the many species of Primula.
The leaves are opposite or alternate, or form a rosette at the base of the stem, and are usually
undivided. The leaves and stem may be hairy. The calxy is formed of five parts joined into a
tube which remains after the flower dies, and inside which the seed pod develops.
Flowers ~ The flowers have five petals, joined into a tube at the base, and sometimes the ends
are turned back. They are often on long leafless stalks, either singly or in groups. There are five
stamens joined to the flower tube opposite the petals. In the genus Primula, there are two
distinct arrangements of the style and stamens: Pin-eyed flowers are those in which the style is
longer than the stamens and you can see the round stigma like a pin in the mouth of the flower
tube, and Thrum-eyed, in which the stamens (the thrums) are longer and are visible at the
mouth of the flower tube.
Seeds ~ The seed pod forms inside the calyx and is composed of five parts joined into a single
chamber. There are usually many small seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Winter storage organs
Five petals joined in a tube
Five stamens joined to the tube opposite the petals
Calyx of five parts joined in a tube
Undivided leaves
Seed pod with one chamber forming inside the calyx and are annuals or perennials, but not
trees or shrubs
RANUNCULACEAE - The Buttercup Family
There are around 1800 species in this family, which is found mainly in the colder regions of the
world. Most of them are well-known wild flowers or garden flowers, including Buttercups,
Anemones, Delphiniums, Aquilegias and Clematis. Some species, particularly Aconitum, are
poisonous. Nearly all members of the family are herbaceous, with Clematis being the only
woody species.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves of this family are usually divided or lobed, but are heart-
shaped in Ranunculus ficaria (Lesser Celandine) and narrow and undivided in some species of
Ranunculus. They usually arise from the base of the plant, or alternately up the stem, but in
Clematis they are opposite. The perennial species form a small rhizome or tuber which
develops new roots each year.
Flowers ~ The flowers may be solitary, but they are frequently in clusters or spikes. In many
species, there are no proper petals, and it is the brightly coloured calyx which forms the 'flower'.
There are usually five sepals, although there may be many, and they come in a wide variety of
shapes. Those in the genus Ranunculus, the Buttercups, are the only ones which have a true
calyx and petals. There are many stamens surrounding many fused carpels.
Seeds ~ The seeds are carried in several different types of fruit. In Actaea (Baneberry), it is a
berry; in Clematis, each seed develops a hard woody coating and a fluffy tail, but in most
species the seeds develop either as a globe from which they separate when they are riper or
inside a (usually five-sided) capsule which splits at maturity to release them (as in Aquilegia).
Members of this Family usually have:
Five coloured sepals instead of petals (except Buttercups)
Divided leaves
Non-woody tissue (except Clematis)
ROSACEAE - The Rose Family
This is a family with around 3350 species in 122 genera, found mainly in north temperate
regions of the world. They are woody and herbaceous plants, mainly perennial, but including a
few annuals. The Family includes some of the most well-known garden trees and shrubs,
including the Rose, Cotoneaster, Pyracantha, Exochorda and Kerria, and British native species
such as Hawthorn and Rowan. Other garden plants include the Geums and Alchemilla. The
Family also includes many fruits of temperate regions, including Apple, Pear, Cherry, Plum,
Peach, Raspberry and Strawberry. Rosa damascena is cultivated for the production of Attar of
Roses, used in the perfume industry.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The stems are very variable. In the trees, shrubs and climbers, the
stems are often woody, frequently with thorns or prickles. In the lower-growing herbaceous
species, the stems are often soft and extend into runners, forming roots at the nodes or tips.
The leaves are often evergreen, alternate (rarely opposite), either simple or compound, usually
with a pair of stipules at their base.
Flowers ~ There is a calyx of five sepals, and often another smaller whorl of five sepal-type
parts below the calyx (an epicalyx). The flowers are often large and showy, but sometimes small
and individually fairly inconspicuous (e.g. Alchemilla and Filipendula). They may be borne
singly, in small clusters or in spikes. There are usually five petals (but there may be four or six),
and in cultivated hybrids there may be many more petals. There are many stamens.
Seeds ~ There are many different types of fruit in this Family. The fruit may be a drupe
containing one large woody seed (Plum, Peach, Cherry), an aggregation of drupes, containing
several seeds (Raspberry, Blackberry), a pome, the swollen stem under the flower, containing
one or several seeds (Apple, Hawthorn), a hip, a fleshy fruit containing several achenes (Rose),
a Pseudocarp, a fleshy fruit with achenes on the outside (Strawberry), or clusters of achenes
with or without feathery tails (Geum), and the number of seeds varies from a single large stone
(Plum) to millions of dust-like seeds (Filipendula, Aruncus) .
Members of this Family usually have:
Woody stems, often with prickles, or trailing stems with runners
Simple or compound leaves, often evergreen
Stipules at the base of the leaf
Large flowers with five petals or clusters of tiny flowers with five petals
Many stamens and are usually woody trees, shrubs or climbers
RUBIACEAE - The Bedstraw Family
This is one of the largest flowering plant families, with around 7000 species, most of them
occuring in tropical regions of the world, where they are mainly woody trees and shrubs. A few
occur in temperate regions, when they are herbaceous. In the tropics, many have economic
uses - Coffee (Coffea arabica), Quinine (Cinchona), or are conspicuous ornamentals (Ixora,
Gardenia), but in temperate areas, they are often small plants with inconspicuous flowers, or
even weeds (Asperula, Galium). Some members of the Family are grown for use as medicine
(ipecacuanha) or dyes.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ In many tropical species, the plants are woody and evergreen. The
leaves are simple and usually entire, occurring opposite one another or in whorls. The presence
of stipules is a characteristic of this Family. In temperate regions, plants are herbaceous, and
may have 4-angled, prostrate or prickly stems and leaves (especially in the temperate species
Galium). Some species have calcium oxylate in the leaves.
Flowers ~ There are usually four or five unjoined sepals, and four or five joined petals, usually
borne in panicles or in congested heads. There are four or five stamens. In temperate species,
the flowers are often small and insignificant, in pale colours, but in tropical species they are
often large and brightly coloured.
Seeds ~ The ovary is usually inferior, and the fruit may be a capsule, berry, drupe or
schizocarp. Sometimes, the seeds are winged.
Members of this Family usually have:
Many small flowers in dense clustered heads
Leaves opposite or in whorls
Stipules
Inferior ovary and are usually woody trees and shrubs in tropical areas, or small herbaceous
plants in temperate zones
SCROPHULARIACEAE - The Figwort Family
This is a large plant family, with around 3000 species in around 200 genera, mainly found in the
northern temperate regions of the world. Most of them are herbaceous, with a few shrubs and
climbers, with one genus of trees (Paulownia). Some of them are semi-parasitic (Hay Rattle,
Lousewort).
Many of the plants in this Family are popular garden plants - from tiny alpines like Erinus,
through Snapdragons (Antirrhinum) and Foxglove (Digitalis) to the Mulleins (Verbascum), and
several are well-known weeds - the Speedwells (Veronica), Eyebright (Euphrasia) and the
Toadflaxes (Linaria). Other plants in this family grown for ornament include Mimulus,
Penstemon, Hebe, and Calceolaria. One or two are grown for the production of drugs, notably
Digitalis (Foxglove) for digitalin.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Generally, the leaves are opposite or alternate, without stipules, and
may be evergreen. Sometimes, they are lobed or cut.
Flowers ~ The calyx under the flowers has five lobes, and the flowers are usually borne in
spikes. There are two main flower shapes. Some species (e.g. Veronica), have four petals, but
many have irregular shaped flowers with five petals, often joined to form a bell or tube,
sometimes with two lips. In some species (e.g. Linaria), there is a long hollow spur with honey to
attract pollinators. There are two long and two short stamens attached to the petals.
Seeds ~ The seed capsule in this Family is inside the flower (superior), and has two parts, each
with many small seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Opposite or alternate leaves
Flowers in spikes
Irregular flowers with four or five petals and are mostly short herbs
SOLANACEAE - The Potato Family
This is a large Family with around 2000-3000 species in 90 different genera, found in most
temperate and tropical regions, with a large number coming from Australia and Central and
South America. It is a family mainly of herbs, with a few shrubs and trees, and contains many of
our most well-known food plants, including Potatoes, Tomatoes, Aubergines and Peppers. It
also contains many popular garden ornamental plants, including Petunias, Browallia and
Salpiglossis. There are several poisonous species, including Deadly Nightshade (Atropa
belladonna), Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and Thorn Apple (Datura stramonium), and the
family also contains the important economic plant, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), which
contains the highly toxic alkaloid nicotine.
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Members of this Family are often climbers or at least scrambling
plants, often with hairy stems and leaves. The leaves are variable, and may be entire or
dissected, without stipules, and are usually alternate. The calyx has five parts, which may be
joined, and it often remains and enlarges around the fruit, as in Cape Gooseberry (Physalis) or
the Shoo-Fly Plant (Nicandra).
Flowers ~ The flowers have five petals and are generally regular in shape. They may be round
and flat or star-shaped, but are often bell shaped or tubular. They usually occur in groups in the
leaf axils, although they may be solitary. There are five stamens attached to the corolla tube.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior (inside the flower), and the fruit is either a berry or a capsule,
often containing many light brown disc-shaped seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Regular flowers with five petals
Alternate leaves
Five stamens attached to the corolla tube
Superior ovary containing many yellowish disc-shaped seeds
VIOLACEAE - The Violet Family
This is a family of about 900 species, mainly of temperate regions, where they are usually small
perennial plants of the Viola type, and herbs, shrubs and trees from tropical regions whose
flowers are significantly different from the familiar violet. As the Violas and Pansies (Viola x
wittrockiana hybrids) are those most usually encountered by gardeners, the information here
refers only to these members of the family
Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ The leaves are often heart shaped, sometimes toothed, or they may
be finely cut. In some alpine species (Rosulate Violas), the leaves are almost succulent and
round and form a dense ball or cushion, often looking more like a cactus or a pine cone than a
violet, but these are not often seen.
Flowers ~ The flowers arise singly on long stems from the leaf axils. They have five petals of
unequal size, with the lower ones forming a spur at the back of the flower which contains nectar.
There are honey guidelines directing insects into the spur to pollinate the flower. Wild violets
and violas are often blue, white, purple (violet) and yellow, but larger hybrids have been bred in
all colours.
Seeds ~ The seed capsule has three parts fused to form one chamber. In some species, this is
pointed and triangular, and in others it is rounded. Species may sometimes be identified by the
shape and colour of the seed pod. The seeds are dispersed when the capsule splits into three,
forming a three-pointed 'star'. Seeds are yellow or brown and rounded.
Many members of this family produce incomplete flowers on short stems after the main
flowering period. These do not open properly and are self-pollinating; they are called
cleistogamous flowers, and they set viable seed.
Members of this Family usually have:
Alternate leaves with small leafy growths
Flowers like violets with five unequal petals and a spur
Calyx of five parts
Three part seed capsule and may have cleistogamous flowers



PLANT FORMULA
Chemical Formula for Plant Respiration
There are two kinds of respiration, so there are two different equations.
1) Aerobic respiration is respiration which uses oxygen:
glucose + oxygen = water + carbon dioxide + ENERGY C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6H2O +
6CO2 + ENERGY Aerobic respiration is the same in animals and plants.
2) Anaerobic respiration is respiration without using oxygen. This is different in plants and
animals. In plants:
glucose = carbon dioxide + ethanol (alcohol) + ENERGY C6H12O6 = 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
+ ENERGY In animals: glucose = lactic acid + ENERGY C6H12O6 = 2C3H6O3 +
ENERGY
Chemical Formula for Plant Photosynthesis
Listing all reactants and products, photosynthesis can be described as:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
But because water is both a reactant and a product, the equation can be simplified accounting
for net water consumption, which is:
6 CO2+ 6 H2O C6H12O6+ 6 O2 Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy Glucose +
Oxygen
Photosynthesis is a lot more complicated than the simplified diagram above. Actually,
photosynthesis doesn't actually produce glucose; rather, it produces a 3-carbon compound
which is a precursor to glucose. In addition, there are a couple different chemical pathways that
plants utilize in different situations (see C3, C4, and CAM plants).
In autotrophs, there are organelles within each plant cell called chloroplasts. Chlorophyll is a
protein associated with a metal (magnesium). Chlorophyll absorbs energy (photons) from the
sun and combines ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) with a phosphate group to form ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) in a process called phosphorylation. ADP + Phosphate + energy
ATP This ATP has more energy than ADP. This extra energy is used by a number of other
enzymes which build glucose molecules (C6H12O6 above) via the Calvin cycle of
photosynthesis.
Floral Formulas
A floral formula is a convenient way to store and retrieve information about plants. There is no
one correct method for writing a floral formula. We will use a version that is modified from one of
my graduate school mentors at the University of Illinois, Dr. David A. Young. This version is
similar to that of Hickey and King (1999).
The basic floral formula summarizes the following features (in order):
1. Floral Symmetry
Is the flower actinomorphic (symbolized by an asterisk, *) or zygomorphic (z)?

2. Sex/breeding system.
The sexuality of the flower is represented by the standard symbols for males () and
females (). Thus a species with imperfect flowers plant would be symbolized ( ) and
a perfect flower is symbolized by (c = combined symbol, can't figure out how to draw it
yet) which represents the merger of the symbols for a male and a female. If the flower is
imperfect the breeding system can be specified by using an "M" for a monoecious
system and "D" when dioecious. Other abbreviations include polygamomonoecious (PM)
and polygamodioecious (PD).
3. Calyx.
Symbolized by the letter "K". The number of sepals in the calyx is give following the K.
The degree of fusion of the sepals can be indicated by circling the sepal number. Thus,
a flower with five separate sepals would be symbolized K 5. A flower with five basally
connate sepals would be K 5. If the five is completely circled, then the sepals are
completely fused.
4. Corolla.
Symbolized by the letter "C". The number of petals and degree of fusion is
represented as above. The symmetry of the corolla is assumed to be regular
(actinomorphic). If irregular (zygomorphic), this is represented by a "z". As an example,
an irregular corolla of five basally-connate petals would be symbolized: Cz 5.
5. Androecium.
Symbolized by the letter "A". The number of stamens and degree of fusion can be
represented as described for the calyx. In addition, if the stamens are epipetalous, a line
can be drawn connecting the K and A. For example, a petunia has five epipetalous
stamens. This would be represented C 5; A 5.
6. Gynoecium.
Symbolized by the letter "G". The number of carpels and degree of carpellary fusion is
expressed in a similar fashion to sepals. The ovary insertion (inferior, superior) can be
represented by a line drawn above or below the "G". For example, a unicarpellate
gynoecious with a superior ovary would be symbolized G 1. An apocarpous gynoecious
comprised of 3 separate carpels and a superior ovary would be represented G 3. A
syncarpous gynoecious comprised of four carpels with an inferior ovary would be G 4
(imagine a short line above the G and the 4 in a circle Im still trying to figure out how
to do that on the computer. If it is highlighted in yellow imagine a circle around the
numbers).
7. Fruit Type.
The floral formula includes an abbreviation for the type of fruit (for example, ach. =
achene, b. = berry, cap. = capsule, dr. = drupe, hesp. = hesperidium, sam. = samara,
foll. = follicle).
8. Miscellaneous.
Any unique information about the plant can be included at the end. For example, it
may have a milky sap, or stinging hairs, or be a vine. If the condition occurs sometimes
it is put in parentheses
Summary:
The features listed above are written out separated by a semicolon. If the feature is
sometimes present it is included in parentheses. Numerous parts are indicated with the infinity
symbol. Here are a few examples.
Floral Formula #1: *; c ( , D); K 5; C 5 (0); A 5-10 (5-10); G 2-5 ; cap., (ach)
Interpretation: Fls. actinomorphic; bisexual (rarely unisexual and then the plants dioecious);
calyx of 5 basally connate sepals, corolla of 5 distinct petals (or rarely apetalous), stamens 5-10
and distinct (or rarely 5-10 and basally connate), gynoecium syncarpous with 2-5
carpels (imagine a circle around the 2-5), ovary superior; fruit a capsule (or rarely an achene).
Floral Formula #2:
*; , M fls.: K 3-6; C 3-6 (3-6); A 3-5; G 0
fls.: K 3-6; C O, G 5-9; ach
Interpretation: Fls. actinomorphic; unisexual and the plants monoecious; staminate fls. with a
calyx of 3-6 basally connate sepals, corolla of 3-6 free or sometimes connate petals, stamens 3-
5 and distinct; pistillate fls. with a calyx of 3-6 basally connate or free sepals (imagine a dotted
line under the 3-6), corolla absent (=apetalous), gynoecium apocarpous with 5-9 carpels, ovary
superior; fruit an achene.
Floral Formula #3:
, M (D) fls.: P 0; A 1; G 0
fls.: P 0; A 0; G 3; samara-like nut
Interpretation: Fls. unisexual and the plants typically monoecious or sometimes dioecious;
staminate fls. without a perianth (naked) and with a single stamen; pistillate fls. naked,
gynoecium syncarpous with three carpels (imagine a circle around the 3), ovary superior; fruit a
winged samara-like nut.
Floral Formula #4: z; c; K 5, 5; C 5; A 5 (5); G 2; 2 foll
Interpretation: Fls. zygomorphic; bisexual; calyx of 5 free or basally connate sepals; corolla of 5
connate petals, stamens 5 and distinct or sometimes connate, gynoecium apocarpous with 2
carpels that are apically fused (imagine a line over the 2), ovary superior; androecium adnate to
gynoecium (imagine a line drawn over the A and G); fruit of 2 follicles.