STRENGTH OF MATERIAL

STRESS -STRAIN AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN STRENGTH OF MATERIAL :

a) Material is continous (no cracks & voids)
b) Material is homogenous & isotropic.
c) There are no internal forces in a body prior to loading
d) Principle of superposition is valid
(It states that effect of number of forces is equal to algebric sum of individual forces)
e) Self weight is ignored :
f) St. Venants principle is valid ( It states that except in the region of extreme ends of a bar carrying
direct loading the stress distribution over the cross section is uniform)
P

1---------2---------3--------- max = 1.387 avg

max = 1.0.27 avg

max = avg

STRESS
* It is the internal resistance offered by the body against external loading or deformation. Stresses are of
following types :
i) Direct or normal stresses which may be tensile or compressive

P
A

s = Resisting force against deformation

A = Area on which resistance is acting
P = Applied load
Unit - N/m2 or Pa
N/mm2 or MPa
ii) Shear or tangential stresses - Force acting tangential to surface is called shear force and corresponding stress is called shear stress
Resisting shear force
=
Area on which shear force is acting
iii) Transverse or bending stress
iv) Torsional or twisting stresses.

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Note : ** For direct stresses, if area under consideration is original area, then it is known as Engineering
stress or nominal stress. But, if area taken is actual area then stress is known as true stress.
Engg. or Nominal stress =

P
A0

True stress =

(A0 = original area)

(Ai = instantaneous area)

Ai

**Stress is a tensor quantity i.e. it has one magnitude and two directions.
STRAIN : It is defined as change in dimension per unit original dimension

B B

a) Normal or axial strain or direct strain : It may be tensile or compressive

b) Shear or tangential strain : It is angular distortion between two
planes at right angle (f). Expressed in radians.
c) Volumetric strain : Change in volume per unit original volume
change in volume
V
V = original volume = V

C C

change in dimension
original dimension

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A

Unit : Strain is a unitless quantity

Note : * Due to normal stress, there will be changes in dimensions & volume without distortion in shape.
* Due to shear, there will be only distortion, no change in dimension & volume
HOOKES LAW
Within elastic limit, Stress a strain
or

stress
strain

= const = E

i) Youngs modulus of elasticity (E)

E=

t
t

or

c
c

Elastic Constants for different materials :

Esteel = 200 GPa - for all steels irrespective of carbon
Ediamamond = 1200 GPa
EAl = 70 GPa
ECI = 100 GPa
Ebrass = 100 GPa
Etimber = 10 GPa
Ecu = 120 Gpa
EBronze = 80 GPa
Erubber = 10 GPa

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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
Note :
* Slope of - e diagram upto proportional limit is E
* More E - More elasticity
* Diamond is more elastic than steel, steel is more elastic than rubber.
* E is constant for a material under all circumstances and its value can be calculated by using slope within
proportional limit
ii) Modulous of rigidity or shear modulous (C, N or G) : G = shear stress =
shear strain

* G is also constant. For any material G < E

Significance : More G less deflection more stiffness
iii) Bulk modulous (K)
K=

Normal stress or spherical stress

n
=
volumetric strain
v

Significance : More K less change in dimension or less compressible

*V is also called dialation. K is called dialation const.
* E > K > G (for any isotropic, homogenous mtl)
LATERAL STRAIN : It is defined as change in lateral dimension per unit to original lateral dimension
>

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d

<

>
l

<

>

lateral strain =

change in diameter
=

original diameter

<

><

d-d

) or
POISSONS RATIO (

1
m

Lateral strain
d/d
=
(for cylindrical rod)
Linear strain
l/l
Note : Value of for any material varies from 0 to 0.5
=

Significance : more more ductility

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Value of for different materials
i) Cork (almosto) = 0
ii) Incompressible fluid = 0.5
iii) Clay = 0.5
iv) Paraffin wax = 0.5
v) Rubber = 0.5
vi) Isotropic matrial = 0.25 to 0.33
vii) Metals > 0.25
viii) Non metals < 0.5
ix) steel = 0.33
x) Concrete = 0.15
Note : There is no normal stress in transverse direction yet there is strain. This is due to poisson effect.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E, K & G

* E = 3K (1 - 2m)
* E = 2K (1 + m)
9 KG
3K + G
3K - 2G
*=
6K + 2G
*E=

Total number of elastic constants for different materials :Material

Total Elastic constant

Independent Elastic constant

i) Isotropic mtl
4. (E,K,G, m)
ii) Orthotropic
12
iii) Aleotropic or anisotropic

2 (E, m)
9
21

ELONGATION OF BARS
1) A bar of uniform cross section area

l =

P.l
AE

P
<

>
<

><

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>

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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
2) Non-uniform bar
l = P

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l1
A1E1

l2
A2E2

l3

l1A1E1

A3E3

l2A2E2

l3A3E3

P
3) Tapering bar of circular criss section whose diameter changes from d1 to d2

d2

P < d1

l =

> P

4Pl

d1 d2 E

4) Elongation due to self weight :

a) Bar of uniform section :
l =

Wl

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2 AE

b) Bar of tapering section : (Conical bar)

l =

Wl

6 AE

^
5) Bar of uniform strength :
* For a bar to have constant strength, the stress at any section due to external load & weight of the portion
below it should be constant
A

2
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A1 = A2 e

A1

6) Elongation of composite beam

P1

P3

P2 P4
1

l = l1 + l2 + l3 (algebrically)
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
7) Elongation of Compound bar :
P = P1 + P2
l1 = l2
Load shared by part 1
PA1E1

P1 =

A1E1 + A2E2

P 12345
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123456 1 12345
2 l
123456
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P

Load shared by part 2

PA2E2

P2 =

A1E1 + A2E2

Volumetric Strain for a rectangular bar sub to 3 mutually perpendicular

tensile stress

v =

V
V

y
=

1
E

( x + y +

z)

( 1 - 2)

x
When

x = y = Z =

=
v

3
E

( 1 - 2)

Volumetric strain of cylindrical rod sub to axial load :

v =

l
2d
+
l
d

Volumetric strain of sphere subjected to tensile force

V
V

=3

3d

d = strain in dia

Volumetric strain of rectangular body subjected to axial force :

V
V

P
btE

(1 2)

<P

P < ^
^
t

>

<

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> <

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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAMS :
1) For Mild Steel (Ductile Material)

^
E
C

D
A

>

A - Limit of proportionality
B - Elastic limit point
C - Upper yield point
D - Lower yield point - yielding begins at this point
DE - Strain hardening region (The mtl in this region undergoes change in its atomic & cyrstalline structure
resulting in increased resistance to further drformation. This portion is not used for structural design)
E - Ultimate stress point
E F - Necking region (strain softening)
F - Fracture point
Note : * The magnitude of stress correspending to upper yield poinst depends on cross section area,
shape of specimen & type of equipment used to perform the test. It has no practical significance so lower
yield pt is considered as true characterstic yield stress for M.S.
** Materials that undergo large strains before failure are classified as ductile. Advantage of ductility is
that visible deformation can occur before faiulure hence remedial action can be taken.

2) For Brittle Material

B
A = Ultimate Load point
B = Fracturer Point

e
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Generalised - curve

( Linear elastic )

fail
PL
><

Perfect
rigid

><

fail

Ideal fluid

>

( No Viscosity)

Residual strain : Loading beyond elastic limit causes residual strain or permanenet set

><
><
P.L.

E.L.

E.L.

P.L.

L=

><

Residual strain or permanent set

>

>

< L>

>

Stress Stain Diagram for different materials :

>

>

>

(a) Ideal plastic

(b) Elasto plastic or

linear elastic plastic

(c) Rigid strain hardening

Elastic
necking

>

(d) Elastic strain hardening

>

(e) Elastic strain softening

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>

(f) Rigid softening

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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
^

low carton steel

Al alloy
C.I.
wood

>

Tools steel

Low alloy high

strength steel

Low corbon
steel

Rubber

Concrete

C.J.

>

Engineering and True Stress Strain Curve

Engg. - curve in compression

True - curve in compression

True - curve in tension

Engineering
stress-stain cruve
in section

>

PROOF STRESS :
When a material such as Aluminium which doesnot have an obvious yield point & yet undergoes large
strains after proportional limit, the yield stress is determined by offset method.
A line parallel to initial linear part is drawn, which is offset by some standard amount of strain such as
0.2%. The intersection of the offset point (A) defines the yield stress which is slightly above proportionality
limit and is called proof stress.

A.

0.2% offset

>

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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES OF METALS
i) Ductility : It is the property by which material can be stretched
Eg. : M.S., Al, Cu, Mn, Lead, Brass etc.
ii) Brittleness : It is lack of ductility i.e. material cannot be stretched. For brittle materials, fracture point
& ultimate point are same. Materials with strain less than 5% at fracture point are regarded as brittle & those
having strains > 5% at fracture pt are called ductile
iii) Malleability : The property by which mateerial can be uniformly extended in a direction without
reputre.
iv) Toughness : This properti enables material to absorb energy without fracture. This property is very
desirable in case of cylic loading or shock loading.
Modulous of toughness : Area under entire stress -strain curve and is the energy absorbed by material
of the specimen / unit vol. upto fracture.
Mod. of toughness =

y + u
2

y = yield tensile strength

u = ultimate tensiel strength
f = strain at fracture pt
** Material having higher modulation of toughness will be very ductile.
Modulus of resilience : Maximum elastic engery / unit vol. that can be absorbed without attaining plastic
stage.
Mod. of resilience ( u) =

y 2
2E

** Higher u - Higher yield strength

** Higher toughness is desirable for gears, chains, crane hooks, etc, Higher resilience is destrable in
springs
v) Hardness : Reistance to indentation or scratching or surface abrasion.
vi) Fatigue : The behaviour of material under variable loads is referred as fatigue.
vii) Creep : Additional strains over a long peiod of time is called creep.
viii) Relaxation : A wire attached between two rigid supports after sometime stress in wire diminshes &
reaches constant value called relaxation of material.

---- - - - -- -

fig : creep in bar under constant load

>

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>

Fig : Relaxation
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STRENGTH OF MATERIAL
ix) Tenacity : ultimate strength in tension is called Tenacity.
Note : * Ductile materials are tough & brittle materials are hard. As carbon content increases ductility
decreases but ultimate strength increases.
* Ductile materials are strong in tension, weak in shear, moderate in comprression
* Brittle mtls are : weak in tension, strong in Compression, moderate in shear
* Theoritically, ductile materials are equally strong in tension & in compression but practically due to
buckling this materials are weak in compression & very weak in shear.
Factor of Safety (N)
Used to determine permissible stress. Permissible stress is used to get safe dimensions of a component
under strength critieria
Failure stress or critical or limiting stress

N=

Permissible stress or allowable or working or Design or safe stress

per =

Failure stress
FOS

For ductile per =

For brittle per =

y
N

u
N

Reasons for FOS :

i) Unknown loading conditions
ii) Imperfect workmanship
iii) Unknown environmental conditions
iv) Unreality of assumptions made in STM equation
v) Effect of true stress
vi) Effect of stress concentration
Margin of Safety = N - 1
Note : Margin of safety is reduced to 0 or less, structure fails.

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