Elements & Atoms:

All substances are made up of the most simple of

particles atoms.

All elements are made up of individual atoms, with all
the atoms of a particular element having the same
structure. They cant be broken into simpler substances.

The noble gases are the only substances that exist as
single, separate atoms in nature. All other atoms are
joined to other atoms of the same kind or of a
different kind. Noble gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr Xe, Rn

Atoms
1
Compounds:

When atoms of different elements combine in a
chemical reaction, compounds are formed consisting
of 2 or more atoms from different elements.

Compounds consist of a group of 2 or more different
atoms, attached together by strong forces or bonds in
definite, specific ratios.

Compounds may be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical means.

Particles of compounds exist as molecules or ions
depending upon the types of bonds formed.
Atoms, elements, molecules and compounds
2
Types of compounds
There are 2 types of compounds:

Molecular compounds in which the particles are
individual molecules often held together by
intermolecular forces or bonds.

Examples: H
2
O, SO
2
, CH
4
, CO
2

Ionic compounds when hundreds of + & - ions are
held together in a large crystal lattice.

Examples: NaCl, CuSO
4
, PbNO
3
, KMnO
4
Ionic & molecular compounds
3
Covalent Bonding sharing of pairs
Mostly between non-metals. Often diatomic
molecules are formed. eg H
2
O, Cl
2
Ionic Bonding transfer of ions formed
Between metals and non-metals. Positive
and negative ions are formed. eg NaCl, KF
Metallic Bonding + ions in sea of
Within metals. eg Na, Cu
Type of bonds determine physical & chemical properties
Ionic & covalent bonding
Covalent bond
4
H
2
molecule H
2
O
2
N
2
single double triple
covalent bonds sharing pairs

Other molecules containing covalent bonds:
Water H
2
O carbon dioxide CO
2
methane CH
4
molecules
These are
compounds
Elements
I
2
Shapes of molecules
5
When metals lose their outer (s) to non-metals, + & -
ions are formed. These ions hold together with
electrostatic (Coulomb) forces of attraction called ionic
bonds. These bonds are strong bonds & many ions are
held together in a giant crystal lattice.
Na
+
are cations, & Cl
-
are anions, NaCl formula unit
Ionic bond
6
Consider copper wire:
= dislodged
= + Cu ions
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
Metallic bonding is set up between the + Cu
ions and the dislodged in the wire.
Metallic bond
7
Metallic bonding
8
Forces between atoms within molecules are called
chemical bonds eg ionic & covalent bonds.
These kinds of bonds (within molecules) are called
intramolecular forces.
Examples: Covalent, ionic & metallic
Forces between molecules are called intermolecular
forces.
Examples: hydrogen bonds
& van der Waals forces
van der Waal's forces
9
O
H
H
O
H
H
_
_
+
+
Intramolecular force
(covalent bond strong)
Intermolecular force
(weaker) called
hydrogen bond
These respective forces and shapes explain why
water is a dipole and how it is possible to float a pin
on water even though its density is greater.
H
2
O molecules
in water
Hydrogen bonds
H bonding in water
10
Allotropes are merely atoms of the same element,
combined in different ways/ratios and this gives
rise to different properties.

Diamonds and graphite are allotropes of carbon.

Diamonds are hard, non-conductors of electricity

Graphite is soft & conducts electricity by means of
free .

These are called covalent network structures &
also apply to quartz & sulphur.
Allotropes of C
11
Diamonds are made of carbon atoms that have
been covalently bonded in a very large, strong
crystal lattice, in which each atom is bonded to 4
others.
The resulting structure
makes it the hardest
material of all.
The pattern gives rise to
the sparkling facets.
Since there are no lose it
does not conduct
electricity.
Diamond & graphite
12
Like diamonds, graphite is also composed of carbon
atoms. Here each C atom is covalently bonded to 3
others in a plate-like structure.
The flat sheets are weakly bonded to one another & can
easily be rubbed off as in the case of pencils.
plate
Weak
forces
between
plates
Graphite & diamonds
13
Here 60 carbon atoms are joined with each atom
bonded to 3 other carbon atom to form a shape
like a soccer ball.
Buckyball
14

Particles
Small, strong
covalent bonds,
weak attraction,
easily vaporised
Strong bonds in
giant structure

Properties
Low M.P. & B.P.
Dont conduct
heat or
electricity.
High M.P. & B.P.,
hard, graphite
conducts electricity
others not

Example
H
2
N
2
I
2
Diamond (carbon)
Graphite (carbon)
Metals, limestane
Simple
molecules
Giant
molecules
Giant molecule
15
These are usually solids, often in crystal form with
high melting points as a result of the strong ionic
bonds that need to be broken in order to melt.

They are brittle & can be made finer by crushing.
M.P. = 800
0
C
B.P. = 1413
0
C
- As a result of strong
ionic bonds between
ions
Properties of ionic compounds
16