04b

Threeposition torque arm
Driving mechanism, 720 ratio

0 Hand crank
- Ball bearing, guide coupling
& Ball bearing, guide coupling
6
&Drive shoe
Figure 4.18 Vane shear test arrangement (Acker Sampling Catalogue and Design
Manual NAVFAC DM 7.1, 1982).
145
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Copyright 1990 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
146 SOIL PARAMETERS FOR PILE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
equipment description are also provided in ASTM D 2573 ( ASTM ANNUAL
Book 1989).
The main features of this test procedure are to push a four-bladed vane
attached to the end of a rod into the undisturbed clay below the bottom of a
boring. The vane is then turned by applying a torque at the top by turning the
crank at a uniform rate. According to the ASTM D 2573 procedure, the torque
applied to the vane should not exceed O.l"/s. The failure mode around a vane is
complex. However, test interpretation based on simplified assumptions of a
cylindrical failure surface corresponding to the periphery of the blade and of a
uniform strength mobilization on that surface can be made (Aas, 1965). Based on
these assumptions, the undrained shear strength, c, = S,, of a clay for a measured
torque T can be obtained from the following relationship:
T
c, = -
k
where
c, = undrained shear strength of clay, lb/ft2 (kN/m2)
T = torque 1 b-ft (N-m)
k = constant, depending on dimensions and shape of vane, ft' (m')
I 1 I 1 I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Plasticity index, Zp
0.4 I
Figure 4.19 Vane correction factor as a function of plasticity index (Bjerrum, 1973).
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR STATIC DESIGN 147
For a length-to-width ratio of vane of 2: 1,
k = 0. 0021D3 in in.-lb units and
k = 0.00000366D3 in metric units (ASTM D 2573, 1988).
D = measured diameter of vane in inches (or centimeters).
Since the undrained shear strength of clays is known to be time dependent, the
vane test results must be corrected for time effect factor, p, as shown on
Figure 4.19 (Bjerrum, 1973).
As for cone penetration tests, vane shear tests should also be combined with
borings so that soil samples can be recovered for laboratory testing and
Control
unit
Figure 4.20 Schematic representation of the Menard-type prebored pressuremeter
(Robertson, 1986).
correlations. This test is very useful for soft sensitive soils that cannot be sampled
for laboratory testing.
Pressuremeter Tests As indicated in Table 4.4, the pressuremeter test method is
a highly rated test. This device essentially consists of an expandable cylindrical
tube placed at the bottom of a borehole. This cylinder is then expanded under
controlled conditions against the surrounding soil. Existing pressuremeters can
be divided into three main groups: prebored, self-bored, and full displacement.
The prebored pressuremeter test is performed in a predrilled hole, the self-bored
pressuremeter is self-bored into the soil to minimize soil disturbance, and the full
displacement pressuremeter is pushed into the soil with a solid tip (Robertson,
1985).
The most widely used pressuremeter was developed by Menard (1956). This is
a prebored type pressuremeter as shown in Figure4.20. This instrument is
expanded by applying air pressure to a liquid filling the lines and the instrument.
The volume expansion is measured by measuring the amount of liquid forced into
the expanding central section, which is protected by two guard cells, one above
and one below it. A typical pressure-volume increase curve is shown in
Figure 4.21 in which A refers to the initial volume of the pressuremeter V,. B
Volume increase, cm
Figure 4.21
meter test (Robertson, 1986).
Idealized pressure-expansion curve from Menard-type prebored pressure-
defines the upper limit of the linear diagram. V, is the mean of volumes Vo and V,.
The corresponding pressures are Po, P,, and P, respectively.
The undrained shear strength, S,, of clays can be estimated from the following
semiempirical relationship (Robertson 1986).
PL. - Po
S" =-
5.5
(4.7)
P, defines the maximum pressure and the corresponding volume is V,
(Figure 4.21). The pressuremeter modulus, E,,,, is obtained from the slope of the
linear portion of the pressure-volume increase curve (Figure 4.21) as follows:
E, = 2.66 ( Vo + V,)( P/ u)
(4.8)
where
V, = initial volume of the measuring cell,
Po = Pressure corresponding to initial volume V,.
V,,, = volume change read on the volumeter at a pressure corresponding to
the mean pressure in the pseudoelastic range
P/ u = slope of the pressure volume curve (AB).
In the absence of experimental data, the values of E, for preliminary design
may be estimated with the help of Table 4.5 for different soils.
Based on French experience on the Menard type pressuremeter, empirical
design procedures have been developed for both the shallow and deep foundation
(Baguelin et al., 1978; Mair and Wood, 1987). The pressuremeter is a useful tool
for investigation and design of foundations when dealing with soils that are hard
TABLE 4.5 Typi cal Menard Pressuremeter Values
(Canadian Foundarion Engineering Manual, 1985)
Type of Soil
Soft clay
Firm clay
Stiff clay
Loose silty sand
Silt
Sand and gravel
Till
Old fill
Recent fill
P L
Limit Pressure
(kPa)
50-300
300-800
600-2500
100-500
200- 1500
1200-5000
1000-5000
400-1000
50-300
&IP,
10
10
15
5
8
I
8
12
12
to investigate by conventional methods (e.g., granular soils, till, soft rock, and
frozen soil).
Laboratory Testing Laboratory testing is carried out to classify the soils and to
provide soil parameters for design. The type and number of soil tests will depend
on a number of factors such as:
1. Degree of variation of soils at the site
2. Soils information available from previous explorations in the area on
3. Character of soils
4. Requirements of structure such as importance of differential settlements
similar soils
Following is a brief description of these tests. For details, consult testing
manuals and other relevent publications such as Lambe (1951), Terzaghi and
Peck (1967), Prakash et al. (1979), and Annual Book of Standards, ASTM (1989).
A tterberg Limits Determination of Atterberg limits for engineering purposes
according to ASTM Designation D 4318-83 requires obtaining the liquid limit,
plastic limit and plasticity index of soils.
0.01 2 3 4 5 6 8 0 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 . 0 2 3 4 5 6 8 1 0 20 406080100
Preconsolidation pressure (TSF)
Figure 4.22 Preconsolidation pressure vs. liquidity index (Design Manual NAVFAC
DM 7.1, 1982).
The liquid limit (LL) of a soil is the limiting water content of a saturated soil
beyond which the soil will attain a liquid state. The soil has infinitesimal strength
at liquid limit.
The plastic limit (PL) is the percent water content of a wet soil below which it
does not exhibit any plasticity. Thus, plastic limit defines a boundary between the
plastic and nonplastic states.
The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and plastic
limit (PI = LL - PL) and signifies the range of water content over which the
soil remains plastic.
As wepresent in the following paragraphs, these soil characteristics (e.g., LL,
PL, and PI) can be empirically related with certain engineering soil properties.
Unconfined Compressive Strength The unconfined compression test is carried
out on clay samples (undisturbed or remolded) to determine shear strength, S,,
under undrained conditions. ASTM D 2166-66 (1989) describes its detailed test
procedure. The undrained strength, S,, is then obtained by dividing the
unconfined compressive value, q,, by 2.
Approximate values of the unconfined compressive strength, q., can also be
obtained from the following relationship (Design Manual NAVFAC DM 7.1,
( 1 982).
qu = 2S, = 2pc(0.1 1 + 0.0037 PI)
(4.9)
where
p, = preconsolidation pressure (i.e., the maximum past effective normal
stress at which the soil deposit has been consolidated), This can be
obtained from consolidation test or can be approximated 'from
Figure 4.22.
PI = plasticity index as discussed above
Consolidation Parameters One-dimensional consolidation tests as per ASTM
D 2435-80 are conducted to determine compression (or settlement) character-
istics of fine-grained cohesive soils under applied loads. The soil parameters
determined by this test are compression index, C,, coefficient of consolidation, C,,
and the preconsolidation pressure, a,.
The typical void ratio ( e) versus log a: plot, obtained from consolidation test
ASTM D 2435, is shown schematically in Figure 4.23. In this figure e, is the initial
void ratio, j j c is the preconsolidation pressure, C, is the recompression index, and
C, is the virgin compression index. For further details, standard textbooks on soil
mechanics, such as Terzaghi and Peck (1967) should be referred to.
The preconsolidation pressure P, is the maximum normal effective stress to
which the material in situ has been consolidated by a previous loading. If the
existing effective overburden pressure, &, is larger than pC then the soil is called
under consolidated, if a:,, = j , then the soil is called normally consolidated, and if
Recompression
zone
Effective normal 0;
pressure (log scale)
Figure 4.23 Typical void ratio vs. logo: curve from consolidation test.
abo is less than j j c then the soil is called ouerconsolidated. The ratio @&, , ) is called
the ouer consolidation ratio (OCR). If OCR is between 1 to 4, then the soils are
called lightly overconsolidated while if this ratio is greater than 4, they are called
heavily overconsolidated. These concepts and terms are later used in settlement
calculations in Chapter 5 (Section 5.1.10).
Approximate values of compression index, C, can also be obtained from
following relationships (Design Manual NAVFAC DM 7.1 1982). Similar other
relationships have been proposed by Nishida (1956), Hough (1969) and Sowers
( 1979).
1. C, = 0.009 (LL - 10 percent)
2. C, = 0.01 15 w, for organic soil
3. C, = 1.15 (e, - 0.35) for all clays
4. C, = (1 + e,)(0.1 + (w, - 25p.006) for varved clays where LL is the liquid
for inorganic soils with sensitivity less than 4
limit, w, is the natural moisture content and, e, is the initial void ratio.
Shear Parameters The direct shear tests are carried out as per ASTM test
procedure D 3080-72 (1979) on cohesionless soils to determine the angle of
internal friction, &. The triaxial test is generally not used to determine shear
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR STATIC DESIGN
153
400
350
c 5
$ 300
a
5:
b n
5 250
v1
c
.-
<
g 200
.- 4
v1
e!
8
5 150
4
3 100
.-
E
3
50
parameters for design of piles. The shear parameter c = c, = S, for 4 = 0 for
cohesive soils determined from unconfined compressive strength test has
previously been discussed.
-
/ -
Kahl, et al. (1968)
A Muhs and Weiss (1971)
Y
-
g- 0 Ker i sel (1961) e
V
O J .
-$- X Mel zer (1968) ? c % -+
/
I
I
I 1/
2
s
E
-g
- ..
+
x' ::
e
-
5
7 ~~
" /A
0 [Very loose A
/IX
LJ 0
4.1.3 Design Parameters
This section presents the info.mation on strength parameters, soil-pile adhesion,
and elastic soil parameters both for the cohesionless and cohesive soils that are
required for static pile design.
Strength Parameters The two commonly used strength parameters in pile
design are the angle of internal friction (6') for cohesionless soils and the
undrained shear strength (S,) for cohesive soils.
friction
The angle of internal friction can either be obtained from laboratory testing
(Section 4.1.2) or from the correlations established with field penetrometer test
values (e.g., N or qc). Figure 4.24 presents a relationship between the static cone
penetration test (CPT) values, qc and the angle of internal friction, @, values.
Meyerhof (1976) recommends the use of this relationship for pile design. If only
standard penetration test values, N are available at a site, then Figure 4.15 should
be used to first obtain the equivalent qc values. Figure 4.24 can then be used to
obtain Cp' values.
Another method of obtaining the angle of internal friction, as recommended in
Design Manual NAVFAC, DM 7.1 (1982), consists of the following:
1. Obtain the relative density, D,, for the field measured, N, values from
Figure 4.25.
2. Then from Figure 4.26, for the known soil or dry density (or void ratio
or porosity) and D, from (1) above, obtain the angle of internal friction, 4' ,
Example 4.1 explains the use of both the foregoing methods to estimate the 4'
value from field test data for cohesionless material. The first method using the
qc/ N relationship and then the use of qc versus 4 relationship yields Cp' = 36"
while the use of the N, D,, and 4' relationship yields 4' = 35".
Standard penetration resistance, N blows/ft
Figure 4.25 Correlations between relative density and standard penetration resistance in
accordance with Gibbs and Holtz (1957) (NAVFAC Design Manual DM 7.1, 1982).
45
Angle of internal friction
vs dens0
(for coarse-grained sods)
40
-
ln Q)
M aJ
2!
3
-e 35
effective stress
failure envelopes
Approximate correlation
is for cohesionless
materials without
plastic fines
c
0
.&0
.-
L -
-
m
E
5 30
-
0
0)
-
3
25
2075 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Example 4.1 During a site investigation work, borehole logs indicated the SPT
value of 20 at a depth of 25 ft in sand. Laboratory grain size analysis indicated
that the sand had mean grain size, D, , = 0.004 in. (0.1 mm). The density of the
overburden soil was estimated to be 125 Ib/ft3 and dry density of this sand was
estimated at 1 101b/ft3. No groundwater table was observed in the borehole.
Estimate the angle of internal friction for the sand.
SOLUTION
Method 1
qc = 3.8 x 20 = 76bar for N = 20
From Figure 4.24, for qc = 79 tons/ft2, 6' = 36"
From Figure 4.15, q, / N = 3.8 for Ds0 = 0.1 mm
= 760 kPa = 79 tons per square foot
Method 2 Vertical effective stress = a: = 125 x 25 = 3125 lb/ft2 = 3.125 kips/ft2
From Figure 4.25 for N = 20, a: = 3.125 kips/ft2, D, = 64 percent
From Figure 4.26 for Yd = 110 psf, D, = 64%, 6' = 35"
The undrained shear strength, S,, of a cohesive soil can either be obtained from
laboratory testing of undisturbed soil sample or by field vane shear tests,
equation (4.6), on soft cohesive soils and pressuremeter tests, equation (4.7), on
stiff soils.
TABLE 4.6 Guide for Consistency of Fine-grained Soils (Terraphi and Peck, 1967,
Design Manual NAVFAC, DM 7.1, 1982, Canadan Foundation Engineering Manual,
1985)
Estimated Range of S, = c,
SPT Penetration
N Values* Estimated Consistency k Pa kips/ft2
< 2 Very soft (extruded < 12 < 0.25
between fingers when
squeezed)
finger pressure)
strong finger pressure)
by thumb but penetrated
only with great effort)
indented by thumbnail)
difficulty by thumbnail)
2-4 Soft (molded by light 12-25 0.25-0.50
4-8 Firm or medium (molded by 25-50 0.50- 1 .OO
8-15 Stiff (readily indented 50-100 1.00-2.00
15-30 Very stiff (readily 100-200 2.00-4.00
> 30 Hard (indented with > 200 > 4.00
' The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual does not recommend the relationship with N.
0.7
0.6
< 0.5
0.4
?
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
For normally consolidated natural deposits, S, can also be estimated by the
following relationship (Skempton, 1948; Bjerrum and Simons 1960).
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I 1 I I , I
-
S, = C, = aL(O.1 + 0.004PI) (4.10)
where ai is the effective vertical overburden pressure and PI is the plasticity
index. This equation is similar to equation (4.9) except that j c has been replaced
with a: for normally consolidated soils Le., u: = j c. Equation (4.9) is applicable
for both the normally and overconsolidated soils and therefore is generalized
form of equation (4.10). However, both equations would yield similar results for
normally consolidated soils.
Consistency of cohesive soils and the approximate relationships with N and S,
can be obtained from Table 4.6. Since these relationships are approximate, they
0.9
lO i
Very Soft Firm Stiff Very stiff Hard
soft
Figure4.27 Variation of cdS, with c, for different pile materials for driven piles
(developed from data in Tomlinson, 1963).
should only be used in the preliminary design. For final design, field and/or
laboratory determined S, values should be used.
Soil-Pile Adhesion (c,) Estimation of soil-pile adhesion (c,) is complex. It
depends on factors such as (1) soil consistency, (2) method of pile installation,
(3) pile material, and (4) time. Reliable values of c, can only be obtained by
performing full-scale pile load tests in the field. Figure 4.27 can be used as a
guide for estimating c, values for driven piles in clay with different consistency
(Tomlinson, 1963). These values have also been recommended by Tenaghi and
Peck (1967). The soil-pile adhesion value c, is also termed as side friction. For
drilled piles or piers, c, can be estimated from Table 4.7.
TABLE 4.7 Design Parameters for Side Friction for Drilled Piers i n Cohesive Soils
(NAVFAC Design Manual, DM 7.2, 1982)
Limit on Side
Side Resistance Design Category ca/cu Shear-tsf Remarks
A. Straight-sided shafts in either
homogeneous or layered soil
with no soil of exceptional
stiffness below the base
1. Shafts installed dry or by 0.6 2.0
the slurry displacement
method
drilling mud along some
portion of the hole with
possible mud entrapment drilled dry
B. Belled shafts in either homo-
geneous or layered clays with
no soil of exceptional stiffness
below the base
2. Shafts installed with 0.3(a) O.S(a) (a) CJC, may be increased
to 0.6 and shear increased to
2.0 tons per sq. ft. for segments
1. Shafts installed dry or by 0.3 0.5
2. Shafts installed with 0.1 5( b) 0.3( b) (b) CJC, may be increased to
the slurry displacement
methods
drilling mud along some
portion of the hole with
possible mud entrapment drilled dry
0.3 and side shear increased to
0.5 tons per sq. ft. for segments
C. Straight-sided shafts with base 0 0
D. Belled shafts with base resting 0 0
resting on soil significantly
stiffer than soil around stem
on soil significantly stiffer than
soil around stem
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DYNAMIC DESIGN 159
Elastic Soil Parameter The most common elastic soil parameter required in pile
design is the modulus of elasticity, E,. In cohesionless soils, the static elastic
modulus, E, may be estimated from empirical methods using relations of E, with
SPT N values or with static cone penetration qc values. Many studies relating N
values with E, indicate that such relationships are of little use because the
relationships vary significantly and the ratio of predicted to observed settlements
based on these E, values may range between 0.12 to 20 (Talbot, 1981; Robertson,
1986). This is due to the fact that E, depends on a large number of variables as
explained in Section 4.2. Therefore, these relationships should not be used unless
local experience supports them. A value of E, can, however, be estimated from
results of the static cone penetration test, qc, as follows (Schmertmann, 1970).
E, = c,qc (4.1 1)
where C, is a constant and depends on the soil compactness as follows (Canadian
Foundation Engineering Manual, 1985):
Silt and sand C1 = 1.5
Compact sand C, = 2.0
Sand and gravel C1 = 4.0
Dense sand Ci = 3.0
For cohesive soils, the values of E,, as recommended by the Canadian Foundation
Engineering Manual (1985) can be estimated from the following relationship.
E, = CZDC (4.12)
where pc is the preconsolidation pressure and C2 is a constant such that C, = 80
for stiff clays, C, -60 for firm clays, and C, =40 for soft clays. These
relationships are approximate at best and may be used only in preliminary
design.
4.2 SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DYNAMIC DESIGN
Several problems in engineering practice require a knowledge of dynamic soil
properties. In general, problems involving the dynamic loading of soils are
divided into small- and,large-strain amplitude responses. I n a pile foundation, the
amplitudes of dynamic motion and, consequently, the strains in the soil are
usually small for machine foundations whereas during an earthquake or blast
loading, large strains may occur. A large number of field and laboratory methods
have been developed for determination of the dynamic soil properties. The
principal properties that are used in dynamic soil-pile analysis include dynamic
moduli, such as Youngs modulus E and shear modulus G, with corresponding
spring constants; damping; and Poissons ratio. The first two are dependent on
1
6
0

S
O
I
L

P
A
R
A
M
E
T
E
R
S

F
O
R

P
I
L
E

A
N
A
L
Y
S
I
S

A
N
D

D
E
S
I
G
N

Figure 4.28 Dynamic shear modulus vs. shear strain y (after Prakash and Pun, 1980; Prakash,
198 1).
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR DY NAMI C DESI GN 161
Dynamic shear strain yo
Figure 4.29 Normalized shear modulus (G/G,,,,J vs. shear strain, ye.
strain amplitude ( y e) since behavior of the soil is nonlinear (Figure 4.28). In
Figure 4.29, the plot of G vs. ye (in Figure 4.28) has been normalized by dividing
the ordinate with G,,,, the value of G at small strain
In this section, a brief discussion of the laboratory and field methods used to
determine dynamic soil moduli is presented along with typical values of dynamic
soil moduli and damping.
or smaller).
4.2.1 Elastic Constants of Soils
The behavior of a soil is nonlinear from the beginning of stress application. For
practical purposes, the actual nonlinear stress-strain curves of soils are
linearized. Therefore, a modulus and a Poisson's ratio are not constants for a soil
but depend on several parameters as will be explained further. Two moduli used
in dynamic loading are Young's modulus and shear modulus.
If a uniaxial stress 6, is applied to an elastic cylinder that causes axial strain E,,
then Young's modulus E is defined as
" 2
E = -
&,
The lateral strains E, and E,, are
(4.13)
E, = Ey = - VE,
where v is Poisson's ratio.
(4.14)
Tangent
modulus
0
Y) Y)
E!
;j
Strain t
Figure 430 Definitions of secant and tangent modulus.
If shear stress, 5, is applied to an elastic cube, there will be a shear distortion, ye,
and shear modulus G is defined as
5 7
G=- or ye =-
Y O G
(4.15a)
Of the three constants (E, G, and v), only two are needed, because they are related
as follows:
E = 2G(1+ V ) (4.15b)
The Youngs modulus E and shear modulus G may be measured in terms of
either tangent modulus or secant modulus. Tangent modulus is the slope of the
tangent to a stress-strain curve at a particular point on the curve and is strain
dependent (Figure 4.30). Secant modulus is the slope of a straight line connecting
two separate points of a stress-strain curve. Based on a linear stress-strain
relationship, the above elastic constants have been defined.
4.2.2 Factors Affecting Dynamic Modulus
Based on the study of dynamic elastic constants, the factors on which these
depend are (Hardin and Black 1968):
1. Type of soil and its properties (e.g., water content and yd) and state of
2. Initial (sustained) static stress level or confining stress
disturbance.
3. Strain level
4. Time effects
5. Degree of saturation
6. Frequency and number of cycles of dynamic load
7. Magnitude of dynamic stress
8. Dynamic prestrain
Type of Soil, its Properties and Initial Static Stress Level Since the soil modulus
is strain dependent (Figure 4.30), more than one method is needed to determine
the variation of modulus with strain.
The large amount of data on the values of soil constants that had been
collected was analyzed by Hardin (1978), who developed a mathematical
formulation of soil elasticity and soil plasticity in terms of effective stresses. On
this basis, the maximum value of the shear modulus, G,,,, (at low shear strain of
is expressed by equation (4.16a) (Hardin and Black 1969):
(2.973 - e)2
(1 + e )
G,,, = 12300CR' (50)0. 5
(4.16a)
in which OCR is the overconsolidation ratio, e the void ratio, and k a factor that
depends on the plasticity index of clays, Table 4.8, and do the mean effective
confining stress in psi, equals
or
50 = (51 + 5 2 + 53)/3
do = (6, + 5), + 5,)/3.
(4.16b)
(4.16~)
If the shear modulus is determined at a mean effective confining pressure of
can be ( ~7 ~) ~, its value at any other mean effective confining pressure
determined from equation (4.17)
(4.17)
Effective overburden pressure (3, may be used in place of bo in equation (4.17).
TABLE 4.8 Values of k after Hardi n and Drnevich, 1972
Plasticity Index PI k
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
0.18
0.30
0.4 1
0.48
0.50
Magnitude 01 strain
Phenomena
10-6 1 0 - ~ 104 104 10" lo-'
I I I 1
Slide,
Cradu, di fferenw compaction,
liquifacation
romement
Wave propagatbn, vibration
I
Mechanical
&aracleristics
Elastic I Elastic plastic I Failure
I I I
I
Angle of
Constants Shear modulus, Poisson's ratio. damplng ratio Internal friction
I I cohesbn I
Seismk wave
method
3 vibration t est
8 Repealed
loading test
-
~~~~ ~~
Wave propagatlor
Resonant
column test
Repeated
loading test I
Figure 4.31
Ishihara, 1971).
Strain level associated with different in-situ and laboratory tests (after
Struin Level Figure 4.3 1 shows strain levels associated with different pheno-
menon in the field and in corresponding field and laboratory tests. Typical
variations of G versus shear strain amplitude for different types of in-situ tests are
shown in Figure4.28. The soil modulus values may vary by a factor of 10,
depending on the strain level.
It is customary to plot a graph between normalized modulus (defined as G
value at a particular strain, divided by G,,, at a strain of and shear strain
(Figure 4.29).
The shear strains induced in soil may not be precisely known (Prakash and
Puri, 1981). In the case of wave propagation tests, the shear strain amplitudes are
low and are assumed to be of the order of The shear strain induced in soil
essentially depends on the amplitude of vibration or settlement, which in turn
depends on superimposed loads, the foundation contact area, and soil character-
istics. The measured values of amplitude or settlement take care of the factors
affecting them. In vertical vibrations, the shear strain amplitudes, Ye , is equal
to the ratio of the amplitude or settlement to width of the oscillating footing
for all practical purposes, both at low and high strains (Prakash, 1975; Prakash
and Puri, 1977; Prakash and Puri, 1988). For values of and v , in the range
of interest, it is reasonable to assume, therefore, that Y e 2 E,.
Time EHects The effect of duration of confinement at a constant pressure on the
magnitude of shear moduli is well established both in natural and prepared soils
(Anderson and Stokoe, 1977; Prakash and Puri, 1987; Richart 1961).
In Figure 4.32, the time-dependent behavior at low strain levels can be
characterized by an initial phase when modulus changes rapidly with time,
followed by a second phase when the modulus increases almost linearly with the
logarithm of the time. For the most part, the initial phase results from the void
ratio changes and increase in effective confinement during primary consolidation.
The second phase-in which the modulus increases almost linearly with the
logarithm of time-is probably due largely to the decrease in void ratio and
changes in the soil structure due to a strengthening of the physicochemical bonds
in the case of cohesive soils and to an increase in particle contact for cohesionless
soils. This increase in modulus proceeds at a constant confining stress and is
referred to as the long-term time eflects and represents the increase in the modulus
with time that occurs, after primary consolidation is completed.
The long-term time effects may be described as:
1. Coefficient of shear modulus increase with time, IC.
in which t, and t , are the times after primary consolidation, and AG is the
change in low-amplitude shear modulus from t , to t , (Figure 4.32).
Duration of confinement (log scale)
Figure
1977).
432 Phases of modulus-time response in soils (after Anderson and Stokoe,
TABLE 4.9 Typical valws of 1, and NG
Confining Low-Amplitude Typical Typical
Pressure Shear Modulus I., N:
Soil Type Specimen Type (kN/m2) G,o0o(kN/m2) (kN/m2) E) Reference
EPK kaolinite
Ottawa sand
Quartz sand
Quartz silt
Dry clay
Kaolinite
Bentonite
Agsco sand
Ottawa sand
Airdried EPK
Kaolinite
Saturated EPK
Kaolinite
Silty sand
Sandy silt
Clayey silt
Shale
Vacuumextruded 200-300 14O,OOO-l90,OOO 24,000-35,000
Compacted by 70-280 50,OOO- 180,OOO 1,400-5,500
raining and
tamping
Vacuumextruded 70-550 4,000-170,OOO 1,ooO-8,500
Compacted by 70-280 so,o0o-11o,OOO 2,000-10.000
raining and
tamping
Vacuumextruded
Undisturbedd 70-220 80,OOO-2,6W,OOO 2,000-22,9M
17-18
1-11
5-25
1-17
1-14
Hardin and Black (1968)
Afifi and Woods (1971)
Marcuson and Wahls (1972)
Afifi and Richart (1973)
Stokoe and Richart (1973a, b)
Boston blue clay Undisturbedd
9 Clays Undisturbedd
1 Silt
Clay fills Undisturbedd
Decomposed marine Undisturbedd
San Francisco Undisturbedd
Dense silty sand Undisturbedd
Stiff OC' clay Undisturbedd
limestone
Bay mud
70-700 32,500-54.000 5 7,000 15-18 Trudeau et al. (1974)
35-415 13,000-235.000 26,000-23,500 2-40 Anderson and Woods
35-70 SO,Ooe200,000 4,200- 15,000 7- 14 Stokoe and Abdel-razzak
325-830 365,000- 1,300,MMl28,000-102,000 3-4 Yang and Hatheway (1976)
(1975,1976)
(1972)
17-550 7,600-150,000 725-32,000 8-22 Lodde (1977)
220-620 45,000-180.000 5,000-17,000 4-10 Fugro, Inc. (1977)
1,280- 1,300 300,000-320,000 14,000-26,ooO 4-8 Fugro, Inc. (1977)
~~~ ~ ~
Source: Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.
' I , defined byequation. 4.18a.
bN, defined byequation. 4.18b.
E 1 kN/m2 =0.145psi.
dNorninally undisturbed.
'Overconsolidated.
Numerically, I, equals the value of G for one logarithmic cycle of time.
2. Normalized shear modulus increase with time, N,.
in which Glooo is the shear modulus measured after lo00 minutes of
constant confining pressure (after completion of the primary con-
solidation).
The duration of primary consolidation and the magnitude of the long-term
time effect vary with such factors as soil type, initial void ratio, undrained
shearing strength, confining pressure, and stress history. Typical values of IG and
N G are given in Table 4.9
The results of a number of tests show that long-term modulus increases occur
at low to intermediate strain levels (0.001 to 0.1 percent) for stiffer clays (Lodde,
1977). Preliminary results from a long-term modulus increases occur in clean, dry
sands at strain amplitudes up to 0.1 percent as well.
Because of the general similarity between the increase in moduli with time at
low- and high-shearing strain amplitudes, it seems reasonable to conclude that
many of the factors that affect the low-amplitude modulus-time response also
affect the high-amplitude modulus-time response (at the start of high-amplitude
cycling) (Anderson and Stokoe, 1977). Anderson and Stokoe also proposed a
method that can be used to predict the in-situ shear moduli from laboratory tests
after allowing for time effects.
Degree of Saturation Biot (1956) showed that the presence of fluid exerts an
important influence on the longitudinal wave velocity. However, shear wave
velocity change was very small. The fluid affects the shear wave velocity only by
adding to the mass of the particles in motion. Therefore, for an evaluation of V, or
G in cohesionless soils, the in-situ unit weight and the effective pressure are
considered.
Frequency and Number of Cy c h of Dynamic Load Hardin and Black (1969),
found that for number ofcycles between 1 and 100, the dynamic shear modulus of
dry sands increased slightly with number of cycles whereas for cohesive soils the
modulus decreased. Low strain shear modulus was found to be practically
unaffected by the frequency of loading.
Magnitude of Dynamic Stress The magnitude of dynamic stress controls the
shear strain levels induced in the soil, and hence the dynamic shear modulus
should be expected to decrease with increase in the dynamic stress.
Dynamic Prestrdn The test data of Drnevich, Hall, and Richart (1967) from
torsional vibration type resonant column equipment show that the value of the
50
45
40
35
- 30
E 25
2
J
.-
3
3
8 20
15
10
lo, 104 105 106 107
Cycles of high-amplitudc torsional vibration
Figure 433 Effect of number ofcycles of high-amplitude vibration on the shear modulus
at low amplitude (C-190 Ottawa sand, eo = 0.46, hollow cylindrical specimens) (after
Drnevich, Hall, and Richart, 1967).
dynamic shear modulus generally increased with the number of prestrain cycles,
as shown in Figure 4.33. The soil samples were first subjected to high-amplitude
vibrations (dynamic prestrain) for a predetermined number of cycles and then the
low-amplitude vibration modulus was determined. No data are available on the
effect of dynamic prestrain on the dynamic shear modulus of clays and silts.
There are several laboratory and field methods for determination of dynamic
soil properties that are described briefly as follows.
4.23 Laboratory Methods
The following laboratory methods are used to determine the dynamic elastic
constants and damping values of soils:
1. ,Resonant column
2. Cyclic simple shear
3. Cyclic torsional simple shear
4. Cyclic triaxial compression
The resonant column test for determining the modulus and damping
characteristics of soils is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic
rods (Richart et al., 1970). Either compression waves or shear waves can be
propagated through the soil specimen so that either the Youngs modulus or
shear modulus is determined.
In such a test, more often a soil sample is subjected to vibrations at the first-
mode resonance at which the material in a cross section at every elevation
vibrates in phase with the top of the specimen. The shear wave velocity and shear
modulus are then determined on the basis of system constants and the size, shape,
and weight of the soil specimen (Drnevich et al., 1977). In a resonant column test,
different end conditions can be used to constrain the specimen (Figure 4.34). Each
configuration requires a slightly different type of driving equipment and methods
of data interpretation. In the fixed-free apparatus (Figure 4.34a) the distribution
of angular rotation, 8, along the specimen is 4 sine wave, but by adding a mass
X
Rigid mass ($I1;;
Weightless spring
Driving f one
(C)
Driving force- ,
e a t )
0.5
Specimen, nonrigid
distributed mass
(d)
Figure 4.34 Schematic of resonant column end conditions (after Hardin, 1965, 1970;
Drnevich, 1967). (a) J / J o = 03, (b) J / J o = 0.5, (c) free-free (d) fixed base-spring top.
with polar mass moments J,. at the top of the specimen (Figure 4.34b) the
variation of ye along the sample becomes nearly linear. Later models of the fixed-
free device (Drnevich, 1967) take advantage of end-mass effects to obtain
uniform strain distribution throughout the length of the specimen. In
Figure 4.34d, the sample has a fixed base and a top cap partially restrained by a
spring, which in turn reacts against an inertial mass. If the spring in Figure 4.34~
is weak compared to the specimen, this configuration could be calledfree-free. In
such a case, a node will occur at midheight of the specimen, and the rotation
distribution would be a sine wave. By adding end masses, the rotation
distribution can also be made nearly linear. For K O = 1.0 tests, the inertial mass is
balanced by a counterweight, but if one changes the counterweight, an axial load
can be applied to the specimen.
In Figure 4.35, a hollow cylinder is used for test so that the shearing strain is
Taring spring -
Rot. LVDT
Vert. accelerometer
Membranes
Drive
/
coils
O-ring
k
/
Pnuun
Figure 435 Hollow specimen resonant column and torsional shear apparatus
Drnevich, 1972).
(after
-z
A
Figure 436 Idealized stress conditions for element of soil below ground surface during
an earthquake.
Shearing chamber
Plan view
Soil sample
Soil deformation
Elevation
Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram illustrating rotation of hinged end plates and soil
deformation in oscillatory simple shear (after Peacock and Seed, 1968).
more or less uniform along the height of the specimen. Unlike the strain
distribution in a solid sample with zero strain in the center and maximum at the
periphery (Drnevich, 1967,1972), the torque capacity of this device was increased
to produce large shearing strain amplitudes. Anderson (1974) used a modified
Drnevich apparatus to test clays at shearing strain amplitudes up to 1 percent.
Woods (1978) tested dense sands on the same device at shearing strain amplitudes
up to 0.5 percent at 40 psi (276 kN/m2) confining pressure. Drnevich et al. (1977)
described a calibration procedure and aids for reducing data of compression or
shear wave propagation along a cylindrical sample.
A soil element at xx, as indicated in Figure 4.36, may be considered to be
subjected to a series of cyclic shear stresses, which may reverse many times during
dynamic loading. In the case of a horizontal ground surface, there is no initial
shear stress on the horizontal plane.
In practice, initial static shear stresses are present in the soil (k,-initial
condition). Oscillatory shears may be introduced due to ground motion or a
machine load at the surface of the ground. A simple shear device simulates all
these loadings and consists of a sample box, an arrangement for applying a
cyclic load to the soil, and an electronic recording system (Figure 4.37), Peacock
and Seed (1968). Kjellman (1951), Hvorslev and Kaufman (1952), Bjerrum and
Landra (1966), and Prakash et al. (1973) have described this type of apparatus.
Typical shear-stress, shear-strain relationships obtained during cyclic simple
shear tests are shown in Figure 4.38a. A soil exhibits nonlinear stress-strain
behavior. For purposes of high-stress, high-strain loading as in an earthquake,
this behavior can be represented by a bilinear model (Figure 4.38b) defined by
three parameters: (1) modulus G, until a limiting strain, y y , is reached, (2) modulus
G, beyond strain y r and (3) strain y y (Thiers and Seed, 1968).
Typical simple shear stress-strain plots of San Francisco Bay mud for different
cycles of loading are shown in Figure 4.39 for cycles 1,50, and 200, with about 4
percent shearing strain. The decrease in peak load as the number of cycles
increase is reflected by the progressive flattening of the stress-strain curves.
However, corrections for confining pressure and other factors need to be applied,
as described in section 4.2.2.
A major drawback of most of the cyclic simple shear apparatus is that they do
not permit measurement or control of lateral confining pressures during cyclic
loading. Therefore, the value of ko is not known and hence the effect of the KO
condition on the behavior of soils cannot be studied.
Cyclic torsional simple shear is used to provide the capability of measuring
confining pressure and controlling KO conditions. Ishihara and Li (1972)
modified a triaxial apparatus to provide torsional straining capabilities. As in
resonant column sample, the shear strain distribution in a hollow sample is more
uniform.
The apparatus configuration (Figure 4.35) has an advantage in that both
resonant column and cyclic torsional shear tests can be performed in the same
device. For details refer to Woods (1978), Iwasaki et al., (1977) and Prakash and
Puri (1988).
Shear
stress I
Shear ,
b) 0)
Figure 4.38 (a) Stress-strain curve of a soil, (b) bilinear model (after Thiers and Seed,
1968).
Shear
b) Cycle 1
Shear
stress
&g/crn2)
r
Shear
ocg/crn2)
stmsr r
o.20 t o.20 t
-0.20
a31 Cyck 50
Figure 4.39 (a) Stress-strain curves and bilinear models in San Francisco Bay mud
(a) Cycle No. 1, (b) cycle No. 50, (c) cycle No. 200 (after Thiers and Seed, 1968).
Cyclic triaxial tests have been extensively used to study the stress-deformation
behavior of saturated sands and silts (Puri, 1984), and Seed (1979). Also, Youngs
modulus, E, and the damping ratio, r, have often been measured in cyclic triaxial
tests (Figure 4.40) when strain-controlled tests have been conducted. These tests
are performed in essentially the same manner as the stresscontrolled tests for
liquefaction studies.
As in all laboratory attempts to duplicate dynamic field conditions, cyclic
triaxial tests have the following limitations:
Vertical stress
I /
1 Area of Hysteresis Loop
2T Area of Triangle OAB & OA'B'
D - -
Figure 4.40 Equivalent hysteretic stress-strain properties from cyclic triaxial test.
1. Shearing strain measurements below 1 percent are generally difficult.
2. The extension and compression phases of each cycle produce different
results (Annaki and Lee, 1977); therefore, the hysteresis loops are not
symmetric in strain-controlled tests. In stress-controlled tests, the samples
tend to neck.
3. Void ratio redistribution occurs within the specimen during cyclic testing
4. Stress concentrations occur at the cap and base of the specimen being
5. The principal stress changes direction by 90" during each cycle.
(Castro and Poulos, 1977).
tested.
Void ratio redistribution is common to all cyclic shear tests, whereas the other
limitations are related mostly to the cyclic thaxial test.
For details on laboratory methods, the reader is referred to Woods (1978),
Silver (1981), Puri (1984), and Prakash and Puri (1988).
There are several available field methods with which the dynamic soil
properties and damping of soils can be determined. Salient features of these
methods will now be described.
4.2.4 Field Methods
The following methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use:
1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test
2. Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test
3. Surface wave propagation test
4. Standard penetration test
5. Footing resonance test
6. Cyclic plate load test
Brief descriptions of these tests are presented here. For details, the reader is
referred to Prakash and Puri (1988).
In the cross-borehole method, the velocity of shear wave propagation (Vh is
measured from one borehole to another (Stokoe and Woods, 1972). A minimum
of two boreholes are required, one for generating an impulse and the other for the
sensors. In Figure 4.41, the impulse rod is struck on top, causing an impulse to
travel down the rod to the soil at the bottom of the hole. The shearing between the
rod and the soil creates shear waves that travel through the soil to the vertical
motion sensor in the second hole; and the time required for a shear wave to
Capacitive
Figure 4.41
wave propagation.
Sketch showing cross-bore hole technique for measurement of velocity of
///I////
(a) Up hole
S =Source
R =Receiver
Figure 4.42 (a) Up-hole and (b) down-hole techniques for measurement of velocity of
wavepropagation.
traverse the known distance is monitored. Alternatively, shear wave may be
generated at any depth in a borehole with a special tool. The arrival of the shear
wave is monitored at the same elevation in the second borehole (ASTM D 4428,
1989).
Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In the
up-hole method, the sensor is placed at the surface, and shear waves are generated
at different depths within the borehole, while in the down-hole method, the
excitation is applied at the surface, and one or more sensors are placed at different
depths within the hole (Figure 4.42). Both the up-hole and the down-hole
methods give average values of wave velocities for the soil between the excitation
and the sensor (Prakash and Puri, 1988).
The shear modulus G is then determined as
or
v,=m
G = pVs
(4.19a)
(4.19b)
where p is mass density of the soil.
The Rayleigh wave (R wave) travels in a zone one-half to one-third its
wavelength below the ground surface (Ballard, 1964). An impact or other
harmonic vibration at the surface is used to sample soil for dynamic moduli.
The velocity of the Rayleigh waves, V,, is then given by
in which f is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength (A,) has been
measured.
It is important to note that the Rayleigh wavelength (A,) will vary with the
frequency of excitation (f). For smaller f, the AR is larger and the soil will be
sampled to a larger depth (Prakash and Puri, 1988; Stokoe and Nazarian, 1985).
TABLE 4.10 Representative Values of Poissons Ratio
Type of Soil V
Clay
Sand
Rock
0.5
0.3-0.35
0.15-0.25
The Rayleigh wave velocity V, and shear wave velocity V, are generally
approximately equal, therefore:
and
G== V i p
E==2pVi(l+ v)
(4.21)
(4.22)
in which p is the mass density and v the Poisson*s ratio of the soil. Values of v from
Table 4.10 may be used.
More recently, the interpratication of surface wave by a method called the
spectral analysis of surface waves ( SASW) has been developed (Stokoe and
Nazarian, 1985). In the field, two vertical velocity transducers are used as
receivers. The receivers are placed securely on the ground surface symmetrically
about an imaginary centerline. A transient impulse is transmitted to the soil by
means of an appropriate hammer. The range of frequencies over which the
receivers should function depends on the site being tested. To sample deep
materials, 50 to lOOft, the receiver should have a low natural frequency, in range
of 1 to 2 Hz. In contrast, for sampling shallow layers, the receivers should be able
to respond to high frequencies in the range of 1OOOHz or more.
Several tests with different receiver spacing are performed. The distance
between the receivers after every test is generally doubled. The geophones are
always placed symmetrically about the selected, imaginary centerline. The raw
data obtained from the impact test is reduced with the help of a Dynamic Signal
Analyzer (DSA) and the inversion curve is obtained.
A typical shear wave profile for a site in which the velocity profiles have been
determined both by the crosshole method and SASW method show a good tally
between the values measured by the two methods. The SASW method is very
economical and less time consuming than the cross-borehole method and has the
advantage of complete automation. The detailed description of this technique is
given by Nazarian and Stokoe (1984). However, the inversion techniques
applicable to soils are still not perfected (1990).
In the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), a standard split spoon sampler is
driven with a 140-lb hammer that falls freely through a distance of 30 in. The
number of blows for 12 in. of penetration of the split spoon sampler is designated
as the N value. This is N~er s ur c d. In a design problem using N values, a correction
for effective overburden pressure is applied (Peck et al., 1974). Although the test is
designated as a standard test, there are several personal errors as well as errors
that are equipment based. Therefore, the use of SPT to measure any soil property
has been questioned by many engineers (Woods, 1978). Recent careful studies by
Kovacs (1975), Kovacs et ai. (1977a. 1977b), Palacios (1977), and Schmertmann
(1975, 1977) have described the potential of SPT for obtaining consistent and
useful soil properties. Seed (1979) and Seed and Idriss (1982) presented
correlations between SPT and observed liquefaction.
Imai (1977) developed a correlation between (uncorrected) N and shear wave
velocity, V,(m/sec), in 943 recordings at four urban locations in J apan and
established the following relationship:
Then,
(4.23)
(4.19b)
In the above relationship, he converted the M values over 50 or under 1 for the
penetrating length at the time of 50 or 1 blows into the number of blows for 30-cm
penetration. Prakash and Puri (1981, 1984) successfully applied the above
relationship in predicting dynamic soil properties at different depths.
In footing resonance tests and free vibration test, a test footing 1.5 x 0.75
x 0.70m high is cast either at the surface or in a pit 4.5 x 2.75 m at a suitable
depth and is excited in vertical or horizontal vibrations.
From the natural frequency determined either in the forced or free footing
vibration tests, the soil modulus is determined (Prakash, 1981a; Prakash and
Puri, 1988).
The cyclic plate load test is a static test. There is ample evidence to show that in
non-cohesive soils, the values of soil modulus from this test match with those
from dynamic tests at appropriate strains and confining pressures (Prakash,
1981a; Prakash and Puri, 1988).
4.25 Selection of Design Parameters
The modulus of a given soil varies with strain and the confining pressure. It is
therefore necessary to make a plot of G vs. shear strain. G values are determined at
a mean effective confining pressure corresponding to the depth of soil and at a
shear strain that may be induced in the soil when the pile is subjected to dynamic
load. Prakash (1981a) and Prakash and Puri (1981) used a mean confining
pressure CO1, of 1 kg/cm2 or (1000KN/m*) to reduce the data from different tests
to a common confining pressure for comparison purpose only using Equations
(4.17) and (4.164
(4.17)
- 6,+8,+6,
3
uo = (4.16~)
VOID RATIO
Figure 4.43 Variation of shear wave velocity and shear modulus with void ratio and
confining pressure for dry round and angular sands (After Hardin and Richart, 1963).
where
The variation of modulus with strain is determined from different tests and a
plot similar to that in Figure 4.28 is obtained. This plot is then used to select the
design value at a predetermined strain and confining pressure. In the absence of
experimental data, values of shear modulus at low strain for preliminary design
may be selected from Figure 4.43 and Equation (4.16a). The following numerical
examples explain the selection method of dynamic design parameters.
Example 4.2 In a deposit of dry sand with G = 2.70 and dry density of 1 12 1 b/ft ',
estimate the shear wave velocity at 10, 20, and 30ft below ground level. Also
determine G,,,.
SOLUTION
2.7 x 62.4
112
- 1 = 0.504 1=
G Y W
e=----
G Y W
Yd = -
1 + e Yd
3.46 slugs
112
32.4
v * = m p =- =
SHEAR MODULUS Equation (4.16a) will be used to compute G,,
(2.973 - elZ (60)' /2
G,,, = 1230 OCR'
l +e
where do is effective all-around stress in psi.
Let
then
Also,
At 10' Depth
(4.16~)
6,= 10 x 112= 11201b/ft2
= 0.55 kg/cm2
6 h = 6, X 0.5 = 5601b/ft2
= 0.273 kg/cm2
60 = 7461b/ft2 = 5.1851 1b/h2
= 0.364 kg/cm2
1230(2.973 - 0.504)2 (5.185)l,2
1 + OS0 4
G , . , =
= 4985(5.1 85)2
= 11,352 lb/in.2 = 5.543 kg/cm2
= 78,271 kN/m2
V, = /T = 687.7 ft/sec = 209.6 m/sec
At 2 0 Depth
6, = 20 x 112 = 2240 lb/ft2
= 1.094 kg/cm2
dh = 11201b/ft2
= 0.545 kg/cm2
= 0.73 kg/cm2
6, = 1493 lb/ft2 = 10.37 lb/in.2
G,,,= 4985(10.37) = 16054 Ib/in.2 = 7.84 kg/cm2 = 110,690 kN/m2
V, = /F = 8 17.78 ft/sec = 249.3 m/sec.
At 3 0 Depth
6, = 30 x 112 = 33601b/ft2
= 1.64 kg/m2
6h = 16801b/ft2
Bo = 22401b/ft2 = 15.551b/i11.~
= 0.82 kg/cm2
= 1.094 kg/cm2
=: 9.6 kg/cm2 = 135,569 kN/m2
G,,, = 4985(15.55)2 = 19,6621b/i11.~
v, = JF = 905 ft/sec = 275.8 m/sec
Example 4.3 A sand layer in the field is 20m thick. The groundwater table is
located at a depth 5 m below the ground surface. Estimate the shear modulus G,,,
up to a depth of 20 m below the ground surface. The sand has a void ratio of 0.6, a
specific gravity of soil solids of 2.7, and Poisson's ratio of 0.3.
SOLUTION
Gy, 2.7
1 +e 1 +0.6
)Id=-- -- x l
yd = 1.6875 g/Cm3 = 0.0016875 kg/cm3 = 105.31b/ft3
e=0. 6 G=2.7 v =O. 3
2.7 + 0.6
x l
G+Se
Yt = ( -)Yw l +e
=
= 2.0625 g/cm3 = 0.0020625 kg/cm3 = 128.7 Ib/ft3
8, = 7 . Z
Depth z = 5 m
bu=- - 1'6875 (5) 100 = 0.84375 kg/cm2 '
lo00
= 1728 lb/ft2
5, = 0.361 1 kg/cm2 = 739 Ib/ft2
e,, = 0.522 kg/cm2 = 1069 Ib/ft2
Depth z = 10m
au = (2*0625 - ') (5) 100 + 0.84375 = 1.37475 kg/cm2
lo00
=28151b/ft2 '
61,= 0.5884 kg/cm2 = 1205 lb/ft2
do = 0.8505 kg/cm2 = 1742 Ib/ft2
Depthz=lSm
5, =(2*0625 - "(10) 100 + 0.84375 = 1.90625 kg/cm2
lo00
= 3904 Ib/ft2
6 h = 0.81587 kg/cm2 = 1671 Ib/ft2
6, = 1.1793 kg/cm2 = 2415 Ib/ft2
Depth z = 20m
- (2.0625 - 1)
6, = (15) 100 + 0.84375 = 2.4375 kg/m2
lo00
= 4992 lb/ft2
6, = 1.04325 kg/cm2 = 21361b/ft2
Bo = 1.508 kg/cm2 = 3088 lb/ft2
FOR CLEAN SANDS
(2.17 - e)2
l +e
G,,, = 700 (do)12
where C0 is expressed in kg/cm2
= 1,636,480 lb/ft2
= 78,355 kN/m2
G,,,at(lO)m = 1078.39(0.8505)/2 = 994.6kg/cm2
= 2,037,1001b/ft2
= 97,537 kN/m2
Gm,,at(15)m = 1078.39(1.1793)12 = 1171.05 kg/m2
= 2,398,498 lb/ft2
= 114,840kN/m2
G,,, at (20)m = 1078.39(1.508)/2 = 1324.2 kg/cm2
= 2,712,174 lb/ft
= 129,859 kN/m2
Example 4.4 A uniformly graded dry-sand specimen was tested in a resonant
column device with confining pressure of 3Opsi. The shear wave velocity V,
determined by torsional vibration of the specimen was 776 ft/sec. The longi-
tudinal wave velocity determined on a similar specimen in longitudinal
vibrations was 1275 ft/sec. Determine:
(a) Low-amplitude Youngs modulus (E) and shear modulus (G). The specific
(b) Poissons ratio
(c) Estimation of G,,, at a confining pressure of 15 psi.
gravity of soil solids is 2.7
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR PERMAFROST 185
SOLUTION
V, = 750 ft/sec
V, = 1275 ft/sec
Assuming y,, = 112 lb/ft3
Yd l12 lb x sec
g 32.2 ft4
Mass density, p = - = - = 3.478
(a) E = p V: = (1275) x 3.478 = 5,654,348 Ib/ft = 2760 kg/cm2
G = pV; = (776)2 x 3.478 = 2,094,525 lb/ft2 = 1022 kg/cm2
(b) E = 2G(1 + V )
:. v = - -
2G
- 1 ~0.35
5,654,348
2(2,094,525)
- -
2,094,525 = ( 30) 0. 5
G2
G, = 1,481,053 Ib/ft = 723 kg/cm = 70,213 kN/mz
4 3 SOIL PARAMETERS FOR PERMAFROST
With the development of resources in cold regions of the world, the need for
geotechnical information on seasonal and permanently frozen ground has been
growing. A great deal ofresearch, design, and construction activity in the past two
decades has provided a lot of geotechnical information in this area. Andersland
and Anderson (1978), J ohnston (1981) and Morgenstern (1983) provide updated
and excellent documentation on geotechnical related design and construction
data for permafrost areas. This section briefly outlines the geotechnical
information from these sources that are relevant for pile design in permafrost
area.
4.3.1 Northern Engineering Basic Consideration
Permafrost is the thermal condition in soil and rock when the ground stays colder
than the freezing temperature of water over at least two consecutive years.
Continuous permafrost areas are those areas where permafrost occurs every-
where beneath the exposed land surface with the exception of widely scattered
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Threeposition torque arm

Driving mechanism, 720 ratio

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