What is Steam?

Steam is the gas formed when water passes from the liquid to the gaseous state. At the molecular
level, this is when H
2
O molecules manage to break free from the bonds (i.e. hydrogen bonds)
keeping them together.
How steam works
In liquid water, H
2
O molecules are constantly being joined together and separated. As the water
molecules are heated, however, the bonds connecting the molecules start breaking more rapidly
than they can form. Eventually, when enough heat is supplied, some molecules will break free.
These 'free' molecules form the transparent gas we know as steam, or more specifically dry steam.
Dry Steam vs. Wet Steam
In steam-using industries, two commonly referred to types of steam are dry steam (also called
saturated steam) and wet steam.
Dry steam applies to steam when all its water molecules remain in the gaseous state. It's a
transparent gas.
Wet steam applies to steam when a portion of its water molecules have given up their energy
(latent heat) and condense to form tiny water droplets.
Take the example of a kettle boiling water. Water is first heated using an element. As water absorbs
more and more heat from the element, its molecules become more agitated and it starts to boil.
Once enough energy is absorbed, part of the water vaporizes, which can represent an increase as
much as 1600X in molecular volume.
Sometimes a mist can be seen coming out of the spout. This mist is an example of how dry steam,
when released into the colder atmosphere, loses some of its energy by transferring it to the ambient
air. If enough energy is lost that intermolecular bonds start forming again, tiny airborne droplets can
be seen. This mixture of water in the liquid state (tiny droplets) and gaseous state (steam) is called
wet steam.



Saturated Steam (Dry)
As indicated by the black line in the above graph, saturated steam occurs at temperatures and
pressures where steam (gas) and water (liquid) can coexist. In other words, it occurs when the rate
of water vaporization is equal to the rate of condensation.
Advantages of using saturated steam for heating
Saturated steam has many properties that make it an excellent heat source, particularly at
temperatures of 100 C (212F) and higher. Some of these are:
Property Advantage
Rapid, even heating through latent
heat transfer
Improved product quality and productivity
Pressure can control temperature Temperature can be quickly and precisely established
High heat transfer coefficient
Smaller required heat transfer surface area, enabling reduced
initial equipment outlay
Originates from water Safe, clean, and low-cost
Unsaturated Steam (Wet)
This is the most common form of steam actually experienced by most plants. When steam is
generated using a boiler, it usually contains wetness from non-vaporized water molecules that are
carried over into the distributed steam. Even the best boilers may discharge steam containing 3% to
5% wetness. As the water approaches the saturation state and begins to vaporize, some water,
usually in the form of mist or droplets, is entrained in the rising steam and distributed downstream.
This is one of the key reasons why separation is used to dis-entrain condensate from distributed
steam.
Superheated Steam
Superheated steam is created by further heating wet or saturated steam beyond the saturated
steam point. This yields steam that has a higher temperature and lower density than saturated
steam at the same pressure. Superheated steam is mainly used in propulsion/drive applications such
as turbines, and is not typically used for heat transfer applications.


Advantages of using superheated steam to drive turbines:
To maintain the dryness of the steam for steam-driven equipment, whose performance is impaired
by the presence of condensate
To improve thermal efficiency and work capability, e.g. to achieve larger changes in specific volume
from the superheated state to lower pressures, even vacuum.
It is advantageous to both supply and discharge the steam while in the superheated state because
condensate will be generated inside steam-driven equipment during normal operation, minimizing
the risk of damage from erosion or carbonic acid corrosion. In addition, as the theoretical thermal
efficiency of the turbine is calculated from the value of the enthalpy at the turbine inlet and outlet,
increasing the degree of superheating as well as the pressure raises the enthalpy at the turbine inlet
side, and is thereby effective at improving thermal efficiency.
Disadvantages of using superheated steam for heating:
Property Disadvantage
Low heat transfer coefficient
Reduced productivity
Larger heat transfer surface area needed
Variable steam temperature even
at constant pressure
Superheated steam needs to maintain a high velocity, otherwise the
temperature will drop as heat is lost from the system
Sensible heat used to transfer
heat
Temperature drops can have a negative impact on product quality
Temperature may be extremely
high
Stronger materials of construction may be needed, requiring higher
initial equipment outlay
For these reasons and others, saturated steam is preferred over superheated steam as the heating
medium in exchangers and other heat transfer equipment. On the other hand, when viewed as a
heat source for direct heating as a high temperature gas, it has an advantage over hot air in that it
can be used as a heat source for heating under oxygen-free conditions. Research is also being
carried out on the use of superheated steam in food processing applications such as cooking and
drying.
Supercritical Water
Supercritical water is water in a state that exceeds its critical point: 22.1MPa, 374 C (3208 psia,
705F). At the critical point, the latent heat of steam is zero, and its specific volume is exactly the
same whether considered liquid or gaseous. In other words, water that is at a higher pressure and
temperature than the critical point is in an indistinguishable state that is neither liquid nor gas.
Supercritical water is used to drive turbines in power plants which demand higher efficiency.
Research on supercritical water is being performed with an emphasis on its use as a fluid that has
the properties of both a liquid and a gas, and in particular on its suitability as a solvent for chemical
reactions.

Methods of Estimating Steam Consumption
How to calculate steam requirements for flow and non-flow applications. Including warm-up, heat losses and
running loads.
The optimum design for a steam system will largely depend on whether the steam consumption rate has been
accurately established. This will enable pipe sizes to be calculated, while ancillaries such as control valves and steam
traps can be sized to give the best possible results. The steam demand of the plant can be determined using a
number of different methods:
Calculation - By analysing the heat output on an item of plant using heat transfer equations, it may be
possible to obtain an estimate for the steam consumption. Although heat transfer is not an exact science
and there may be many unknown variables, it is possible to utilise previous experimental data from similar
applications. The results acquired using this method are usually accurate enough for most purposes.
Measurement - Steam consumption may be determined by direct measurement, using flowmetering
equipment. This will provide relatively accurate data on the steam consumption for an existing plant.
However, for a plant which is still at the design stage, or is not up and running, this method is of little use.
Thermal rating - The thermal rating (or design rating) is often displayed on the name-plate of an individual
item of plant, as provided by the manufacturers. These ratings usually express the anticipated heat output in
kW, but the steam consumption required in kg/h will depend on the recommended steam pressure.
A change in any parameter which may alter the anticipated heat output, means that the thermal (design) rating and
the connected load (actual steam consumption) will not be the same. The manufacturer's rating is an indication of the
ideal capacity of an item and does not necessarily equate to the connected load
Measurement of Steam Consumption
By a steam flowmeter
The use of a steam flowmeter may be used to directly measure the steam usage of an operational item of plant. This
may be used to monitor the results of energy saving schemes and to compare the efficiency of one item of plant with
another. The steam can then be costed as a raw material at any stage of the production process, so that the cost of
individual product lines may be determined.

It is only in comparatively rare cases that a meter cannot measure steam flow. Care should be taken, however, to
ensure that the prevailing steam pressure is considered and that no other calibration factor has been overlooked.


Fig. 2.7.1
Typical steam flowmeter installation
By a condensate pump
A less accurate method of estimating the steam consumption is by incorporating a counter into the body of a positive
displacement pump used to pump condensate from the process. Each discharge stroke is registered, and an
estimate of the capacity of each stroke is used to calculate the amount of steam condensed over a given time period.
Fig. 2.7.2
Positive displacement pump with cycle counter
A purpose built electronic pump monitor can be used which enables this to be carried out automatically, converting
the pump into a condensate meter. The electronic pump monitor can be read locally or can return digital data to a
central monitoring system. If the pump is draining a vented receiver, a small allowance has to be made for flash
steam losses.

By collecting the condensate
Steam consumption can also be established directly, by measuring the mass of condensate collected in a drum over
a period of time. This may provide a more accurate method than using theoretical calculations if the flash steam
losses (which are not taken into account) are small, and can work for both non-flow and flow type applications.
However, this method cannot be used in direct steam injection applications, humidification or sterilisation processes,
where it is not possible to collect the condensate.

Figure 2.7.3 shows a test being carried out on a jacketed pan. In this case an empty oil drum and platform scales are
shown, but smaller plant can be tested just as accurately using a bucket and spring balance. This method is quite
easy to set up and can be relied upon to give accurate results.
Fig. 2.7.3
Equipment for measurement of steam consumption
The drum is first weighed with a sufficient quantity of cold water. Steam is then supplied to the plant, and any
condensate is discharged below the water level in the container to condense any flash steam. By noting the increase
in weight over time, the mean steam consumption can be determined.

Although this method gives the mean rate of steam consumption, if the weight of condensate is noted at regular
intervals during the test, the corresponding steam consumption rates can be calculated. Any obvious peaks will
become apparent and can be taken into account when deciding on the capacity of associated equipment. It is
important to note that the test is conducted with the condensate discharging into an atmospheric system. If the test is
being used to quantify steam consumption on plant that would otherwise have a condensate back pressure, the
steam trap capacity must relate to the expected differential pressure.

Care must also be taken to ensure that only condensate produced during the test run is measured. In the case of the
boiling pan shown, it would be wise to drain the jacket completely through the drain cock before starting the test. At
the end, drain the jacket again and add this condensate to that in the container before weighing.

The test should run for as long as possible in order to reduce the effect of errors of measurement. It is always
advisable to run three tests under similar conditions and average the results in order to get a reliable answer. Discard
any results that are widely different from the others and, if necessary, run further tests.

If the return system includes a collecting tank and pump, it may be possible to stop the pump for a period and
measure condensate volume by carefully dipping the tank before and after a test period. Care must be taken here,
particularly if the level change is small or if losses occur due to flash steam.
Steam Quality
Steam should be available at the point of use in the correct quantity, at the correct pressure, clean, dry and
free from air and other incondensable gases. This tutorial explains why this is necessary, and how steam
quality is assured.
Steam should be available at the point of use:
In the correct quantity
At the correct temperature and pressure
Free from air and incondensable gases
Clean
Dry
Correct quantity of steam
The correct quantity of steam must be made available for any heating process to ensure that a sufficient heat flow is
provided for heat transfer.

Similarly, the correct flowrate must also be supplied so that there is no product spoilage or drop in the rate of
production. Steam loads must be properly calculated and pipes must be correctly sized to achieve the flowrates
required.
Correct pressure and temperature of steam
Steam should reach the point of use at the required pressure and provide the desired temperature for each
application, or performance will be affected. The correct sizing of pipework and pipeline ancillaries will ensure this is
achieved.

However, even if the pressure gauge is correctly displaying the desired pressure, the corresponding saturation
temperature may not be available if the steam contains air and/or incondensable gases.