FLOATING LNG : Cost and Safety Benefits of a Concrete Hull

Denis MARCHAND
Bouygues Offshore
France
Christophe PRAT
Technigaz
France
Pierre BESSE
Bureau V ritas
France
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Introduction
The origin of this work is in the European Union Thermie project called AZURE: Full floating LNG Chain.
It involved a consortium of nine European Engineering Companies and Classification Societies, among
them BOUYGUES OFFSHORE and BUREAU VERITAS. The aim of the project is to demonstrate the
industrial viability of a full floating LNG chain from production well to natural gas distribution network.
One of the project work packages was the design and validation of a concrete hull for the LNG Floating
Production, Storage and Offloading vessel (FPSO).
To date concrete has been used offshore mainly in the North Sea for gravity base platforms. However
concrete floating units also exist in other parts of the world, the best known examples being the Ardjuna
LPG barge for Arco in Indonesia (ref 1) and the NKossa FPU for Elf in Congo (ref 2). Concrete is also
used for onshore LNG storage tanks in association with membrane or 9% nickel containment systems
(ref3). As a materiel, concrete is well adapted to a floating LNG plant because of :
its good cryogenic and insulation properties (ref 4)
its resistance to fire, heat radiation, impact loads, cold splash, seawater corrosion.
its stiffness: there is limited hull deformation and cost effective LNG containment systems can be
used.
The concrete hull developed in the AZURE project shows several innovative aspects:
Hull "multi-vaults" shape, made of three horizontal semi-cylinders, to take advantage of the seawater
hydrostatic pressure.
LNG tanks shape and size are such that resonance between vessel motion and liquid cargo is avoided.
Continuous concrete deck for segregation of storage and process parts.
The design criteria specified for this concrete hull is the liquefaction and storage of the associated gas
from deep-water oil fields offshore West Africa. Plant capacity is medium scale: around one million tons
of LNG per year. LNG is stored in three longitudinal tanks, with a conventional Technigaz type
membrane containment system. Total LNG storage capacity is 110,000 m
3
. Although only nitrogen is
used as refrigerant for liquefaction, there is a need for separation and storage of LPGs, due to feed gas
composition. The barge is spread moored, head to the prevailing wave direction. Export of LNG and LPG
is done by tandem offloading to dedicated carriers, through the Boom-to-Tanker system being developed
by FMC.
The hull is made of high performance, lightweight concrete. Thorough structural analysis has been
performed for the various loading configurations. Special consideration was given to accidental scenarios,
such as damage stability, collision, fire, explosion, dropped object, cold leaks etc. Extensive testing was
performed on the membrane and on the concrete in abnormal cryogenic conditions. Hydrodynamic
behavior is being tested by basin tests and liquid motion tests. The concrete hull design has proved to be a
very robust concept.
The barge can be built in a conventional dry dock or in a graving dock. Its draft is small enough to allow
concrete hull construction and topsides integration to be carried out at the same location. Containment
system integration is performed on a non-critical path basis, and the overall construction schedule is quite
attractive compared to land-based projects, or to LNG carrier building.
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A cost effective hull design
General architecture
The main principles governing the design of the hull are:
a) A monohull concept with a large deck area. A rather shallow draft was selected for the barge so as to
provide a large deck area for the liquefaction process plant and to allow the complete construction of the
FPSO in a single location; either in an existing dry-dock or in a new-build graving dock. The benign
environmental conditions of the Gulf of Guinea, with 100-year significant sea state of 4.2 m, allow the
use of such floaters.
b) Use of vault effect. In order to reduce concrete volume, choice was made to use a semi-cylindrical
shape design for the floating support. A good compromise between concrete volume, radius of the semi-
cylinders and ease of construction has been achieved by dividing the hull into three 11 m radius semi-
cylinders. The main interest of this shape is that semi-cylinders have a good structural behavior under
combined external and stored fluid pressure loading, as the curved shape greatly reduces the flexion and
take the advantage of the excellent behavior of the concrete when compressed. This principle has been
used in multi-vaults dams for many years.
Figure 1: a multi-vault dam
The upper part of the hull is composed of:
- vertical bulkheads and shells joining two adjacent semi-cylinders
- six diagonal slabs
- a single deck slab protecting the tanks against the process plant hazards.
The interest of the three previous components of the structure is the reduction of the spans in order to
avoid stiffening the structure and to reduce the thickness of these elements.
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Figure 2: Transverse section of the concrete barge
Thus, this structural configuration of the hull minimizes the volume of concrete:
- by using cylindrical shapes for the bottom slab,
- by reducing the spans of the straight walls and slabs.
Another reduction of concrete volume has been obtained by limiting the number and the thickness of the
transverse bulkheads of the hull. Thus, only three LNG tanks have been designed to store the 110,000 m
3
of LNG. LPG is stored into four tanks (two for propane, two for butane). Fore and stern tanks are
dedicated to ballast. Ballast requirements are kept minimal as LNG loads are centralized. In addition, no
ballast is necessary to compensate the variation of draft when loading or offloading the cargo, except for
trim and heel control. This symmetrical configuration limits the overall bending moments and thus the
quantity of longitudinal pre-stressing required.
c) Longitudinal storage tanks. For the LNG FPSO, where tanks are partially filled most of the time, tanks
are arranged in a longitudinal manner. There are 3 longitudinal storage tanks in the middle of the barge,
each about 100 m long and 22 m wide (see figure 3). This arrangement allows a high transverse stability
with negligible free surface effect. Moreover, as a good engineering practice, the resonant period of the
liquids inside the tanks have been placed outside the wave energy spectrum to limit possible sloshing
occurrence (ref 7). Figure 4 shows that the tank transverse resonant periods (in roll) are kept below the
wave periods for all filling levels of the tank. In a similar manner, the longitudinal resonant periods of the
tanks are always above the wave periods.
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Figure 3: plan view of the hull
Figure 4: resonant periods of the tank Vs filling level
Lightweight high performance concrete
A concrete hull provides some major advantages for offshore applications. These features have been
validated by current industrial offshore applications of concrete, which include several concrete platforms
and floaters for oil and gas applications worldwide.
Particular advantages may be summarized as follows:
- The long tradition of concrete as a construction material for the marine environment with well
established design and construction techniques.
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- Reinforced concrete is fatigue resistant and durable. Therefore, a concrete hull will have a high
residual value at the end of the field life.
- Concrete requires virtually no maintenance, and thus operating costs are minimized.
- High potential flexibility of the topsides loads during the field life and for later re-use.
- The sides of the concrete hull are able to withstand significant collision loads from supply boats.
- The concrete deck is not susceptible to damage from dropped objects.
The following features make concrete especially suitable for LNG storage applications compared with an
equivalent steel hull:
- A concrete hull is stiffer than an equivalent steel hull, leading to less stress on the longitudinal piping
and on the cryogenic containment system. It allows also the optimization of the structures of the
topsides.
- Concrete structures have much better fire resistance than steel structures, which is of major
importance for LNG production and storage vessels.
- The excellent cryogenic behavior of the high performance concrete makes it particularly safe for
LNG applications, and thus provides a higher overall safety.
- The pre-stressed concrete structure permits the use of the membrane containment system that is used
for land based LNG tanks. This is simpler than the one used for steel membrane LNG carriers.
- The membrane containment system within the hull provides a clear deck for the topsides. This greatly
improves topsides design flexibility and safety. No process equipment is installed within the hull.
- The ability to keep the hull stable even when storing relatively light fluids such as LNG, and more
particularly in damage conditions.
The concrete used for the design of the barge has a compressive strength equal to 70 MPa on cylinder.
The interest of the high performance concrete for this application has been further enhanced by the use of
lightweight concrete. As high performance concrete density is 2.4 t/m
3
, the use of 2.1 t/m
3
allows an
important reduction of concrete volume and length of the hull by limiting the volume of void tanks
required in the hull for buoyancy. Thus, this reduction of 12.5% in the concrete density allows the hull
length to be decreased by 11% and concrete volume by 9%, the criteria being to fulfil the ILLC free-
board criterion. In addition to concrete volume reduction it should be noted that the reduction of the hull
length allows 25% reduction of the longitudinal pre-stressing quantity, which is dependent on the
maximal values of the overall bending moments.
It should be noted that 2.1 t/m
3
density has been chosen as a good compromise between lightness and
material validation.
Structural analysis
A structural analysis has been performed to check the resistance of the hull to the environmental and
internal loads. This analysis has been based on the same standards and computer software as those used
for the structural analysis of the NKossa concrete barge built for Elf Congo in 1995. In fact, the design is
checked by performing two analyses:
- A longitudinal analysis to design the longitudinal pre-stress by calculating the stress in the hull due to
overall hydrostatic and hydrodynamic bending moments.
- A transverse analysis to check the design of the transverse section of the hull submitted to local loads.
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Verification of reinforced concrete sections are made using the Norwegian Standards (NS 3473 E) (ref.5).
The main criteria to be fulfilled guarantee the resistance of the concrete and the water tightness of the
section.
Longitudinal analysis
The static overall bending moments have been calculated for the following load cases, which summarize
the main load cases the hull is likely to experience during its whole life:
- All tanks empty,
- Full storage,
- LNG tanks empty, others full,
- LNG tanks full, others empty,
- One LNG side tank empty, other tanks full,
- Full laden except butane tanks.
The dynamic overall bending moments has been evaluated using Bureau Veritas Regulations.
Transverse analysis
The principle has been to model a third of the hull (equivalent to 80 m long), including the whole width of
the hull, from this centerline to the transverse bulkhead separating water ballast and LPG tanks. Software
used is Hercule, developed by the French classification society Socotec.
The supports defined in the model are:
- conditions of symmetry at the centerline of the barge
- no displacements or rotations of the whole transverse section at the end of the model.
Figure 5: view of the structural model
End of the
model
Pl ane of
symmetry
LNG tanks
LPG
tanks
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Load cases are described below. They are typical of the loads that hull will have to resist through its life-
cycle:
- self weight
- external static and dynamic pressures during towing and in site
- internal static and dynamic pressures (WB, LPG, LNG)
- deck loads during installation of the process modules
- topsides vertical loads at the end of the deck spans.
These load cases have been associated into six combinations:
- 3 in service,
- 1 for modules installation,
- 2 for towing.
Pre-stressing has been designed to guarantee that the structure fulfills the Norwegian Standards criteria.
Reinforcement has only been designed for the most loaded sections.
Longitudinal and transverse analysis lead to a ratio of pre-stressing steels equal to 90 kg per m
3
of
concrete, and 220 kg for reinforcement steels.
Construction
The construction philosophy is based on reduction of the overall schedule. Thus, one of the main
objectives is to complete LNG tanks construction as early as possible in order to start to install the
containment system. Thus, the construction of the hull is performed as indicated in the figure 6.
Figure 6: construction philosophy
Construction of the concrete hull is made easier by the regularity of its geometry, thus improving the
planning schedule. Transverse shells and bulkheads are built as soon as the adjacent longitudinal elements
are built.
The hull is constructed by 8 m wide slices. Each section is divided into different elements, which are built
in the following sequences:
- Installation of the sub semi-cylinders supports,
- Construction of bilge keels,
1
st
phase
2
nd
phase
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- Construction of semi-cylinders
- Construction of vertical walls
- Construction of triangle junctions and first slabs of roof
- Construction of last slabs of roofs.
- Construction of blisters for pre-stressing anchors.
These sequences are illustrated in the figure 7.
Figure 7: sequences of construction of the concrete hull
Following sequences in hull construction are:
- erection of the transverse shells and bulkheads,
- installation of containment system of LNG tanks
- realization of pre-stressing.
Installation of the containment system begins when concrete parts of LNG tanks have been completed. It
includes insulating panel erection and membrane erection, both being performed using dedicated
scaffoldings rolling along the length of the tank (see figure 8). Membrane installation can continue during
topsides integration.
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Figure 8: sequences of installation of the containment system
Strains of the hull due to pre-stressing allow its completion during erection of the containment system. As
longitudinal pre-stressing is more important at the center of the hull than at fore and stern, pre-stressing
installation can be started as soon as the concrete part of the LNG tanks is completed.
The resultant reduction of the construction schedule is significant, as concrete completion can be achieved
in 13 months. Consequently the hull is ready to receive topsides 13 months after the start of concrete
pouring.
The construction site of the concrete hull can be of three types:
- dry-dock
- new build dedicated graving dock
- existing graving-dock.
This choice increases the opportunities and the competitiveness between sites and thus may lead to cost
savings.
Safety benefits of the concrete hull
A good resistance to collision
Use of a single shell hull means that it is necessary to check its resistance to boat impact, particularly in
the area of the LNG and LPG tanks. The study has been performed according to DNV rules, assuming a
supply boat of 5,000 tons out of control at a speed of 1 m.s
-1
. 3 headings of the supply boats have been
studied: bow, broadside and stern impact. Results shows that overpressures on the concrete hull shells
plus static and hydrodynamic pressures are much less than pressures supported by hull during towing.
This guarantees the resistance of the hull to supply boat impact.
In case of impact with a shuttle carrier operating at the stern of the hull, the presence of water ballast and
void tanks guarantees the integrity of the LNG and LPG tanks. In addition, the great stability of the hull
allows the flooding of two adjacent compartments, in accordance with the International Gas Carriers
(IGC) code.
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A perfect water tightness
For in-ground LNG tanks it is important to limit hygrometry between the concrete and the insulation, to
prevent condensation that is likely to freeze, thus slightly increasing the thermal conductivity. For the
Azure barge, a study has been performed to check the tightness of the hull, to check that no water ingress
occurs from outside that could increase hygrometry within the insulation.
The first step was to determinate the nature of water transfer in concrete. Two phenomena could be likely
to occur: percolation or diffusion.
Water permeameter testing was performed on NKossa samples giving an intrinsic permeability of
2.10
-20
m_. Under those conditions, the calculated water speed of filtration through the concrete hull has
an order of magnitude of 0.1 millimeter a year. From this result it is evident that the water percolation
phenomenon through the studied concrete is negligible, therefore the water ingress through the concrete
hull is governed by a liquid diffusion process described by Ficks law.
The percolation phenomenon has been studied through the finite element code CESAR-LCPC. This code
allows the calculation of the solution of the non-linear diffusion equation.
The study took into account the following parameters:
- evolution of concrete humidity content
- internal (0%, 50% and 90%) and external humidity (100%)
- external pressure (1.7 bar)
- internal (-5 C) and external temperatures (20C)
- widths and density of concrete cracks
Calculations took into account the non-linear nature of the diffusion phenomenon:
- hydrous diffusivity variation with humidity content
- boundary exchange conditions variations with humidity content
- temperature dependent diffusion process
- diffusion process modeling with cracked concrete
The model represents a 60 cm thick concrete section (bottom slab). The finite element mesh is divided
into several stripes to take into account the concrete crack and the temperature distribution within the
concrete for steady state conditions.
The calculations performed (a period of time of one hundred years was simulated) indicated that the
concrete undergoes a dessication from the face exposed to 0%, 50% or 90% relative humidity, and that
there is a diffusion controlled water ingress from the face exposed to 100% relative humidity. Both of
these processes are very slow and reach a steady state resulting from an equilibrium between dessication
on one face and water ingress on the other. The figure 9 gives the water penetration depth for a given
concrete section, for 0%, 50% and 90% internal humidity.
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0
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HR = 50 %
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Figure 9: water penetration depth Vs time
For the studied concrete, the mass transfer process is diffusion controlled rather than a percolation process
(speed of percolation 0.1 mm a year). After one hundred year the water ingress by diffusion through the
concrete hull has reached a depth of around 34 cm for 50% internal humidity. As far as leakage is
concerned, the studied concrete (N Kossa high performance concrete) performs well, assuring no leakage
during the service life provided that the concrete does not include any cross-sectional cracks. Therefore,
for our structure, moisture content between concrete and insulation remains the same as for an in-ground
LNG tank.
A good resistance to cold spot
The storage of LNG imposes temperatures of about 170C. For this range of temperature, a specific
containment system including an efficient thermal insulation must be installed.
For the FPSO for LNG, the concept developed is based upon a concrete hull - single external walls and
tanks covered with the Technigaz membrane, including corrugated stainless steel membrane and
insulation panels. These panels maintain the temperature of the internal face of the concrete shell at about
0 / -5 C. This temperature is really acceptable for the concrete material, and does not represent a
significant loading.
Membrane leakage is a very unlikely scenario. However, what can be the consequences in that case? LNG
is directly in contact with the concrete slab and causes a thermal shock. Such a loading may last several
days before emptying the tank and decommissioning it. As the concrete acts as a secondary barrier, in
addition to the Technigaz membrane, the concrete slab must withstand this thermal shock without
significant damage. The demonstration of keeping this integrity has been demonstrated through a finite
element calculation in order to establish the temperature of the concrete and to check the resistance of the
tank for a local cold spot.
The model represents the bottom corner of the Azure barge LNG tank, insulation and concrete being
modeled (see model in figure 10). LNG leakage is represented through nodal heat of 5 m x 2 m extension
on the upper face of the concrete slab in the corner of the tank. The choice has been made to model the
bottom corner of a LNG tank, as it is considered the most critical area of the tank in case of LNG leakage.
The model represents the whole width of the tank, with the half height of the transverse bulkhead plus
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10m along the longitudinal axis of the hull. The model has been performed with COSMOS/M software
using volume elements.
Figure 10: model for analysis of cold spot
- Environmental conditions have been taken into account by modeling forced convection between
seawater and concrete,
- Thermal properties of concrete and insulation depending on temperature have been considered.
- Thermal loads are insulation temperature (-170C) and cold spot (-200 W.m
-
_).
A steady state thermal analysis has been performed (see figure 11 for results). The temperatures field has
been used to perform a structural analysis. Thermal stresses have been added to stresses resulting from the
structural analysis already performed. Verifications of concrete sections have been realized by comparing
final strains to ultimate strain limits of concrete and reinforcement steels.
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Figure 11: results of cold spot analysis
Results shows that the integrity of the concrete sections is maintained if some vertical prestressing cables
are added in the transverse bulkheads or by adding corner protection (LNG tight facing below the steel
membrane). Then the hull is able to resist the effects of the local cold spot until the LNG tank has been
emptied. In addition, concrete repair is unnecessary.
An excellent behavior in lower temperatures
Concrete is mainly composed of aggregates, cement, water, and some additive products. During
hardening of the paste, water and cement react to precipitate and form a gel that guaranties the cohesion
of the whole mixture. All the water content will not react with the cement, as it is necessary to add some
water for the workability of the fresh paste of concrete. Some water will remain in the concrete pores, at
various scales of the microscopic structure.
If concrete is subjected to a very low temperature, as could happen in the improbable case of breaking of
the containment system, the water contained may freeze. Consequently ice formation may begin in the
biggest pores. This formation could implicate some water migration in the concrete. If the structure
remains in water, as it is the case for offshore constructions, migration of water toward the cold face
implicates some absorption of water at the warm face. This phenomenon is called cryosuction.
As a result of the cryosuction, the migrating water could form ice crystals and the expansion of these
crystals in the pores could induce an important over-pressure that creates micro cracking and the structure
expands irreversibly.
Various phenomena have to be considered to explain cryosuction: thermal gradient, saline gradient,
internal pressure of residual water, thermodynamic effects in the hydrate paste etc. Up to now, these
explanations have been developed to justify the observed cryosuction for freezing / thawing tests adapted
to harsh winter conditions with temperatures about 25C. The purpose here was to test concrete, one face
being submitted to very low temperatures corresponding to cryogenic storage, the other face being in
contact with sea water at 25C.
Cylindrical pieces of concrete were prepared and subjected to a testing bench as indicated in Figure 12.
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Figure 12: testing bench
Samples tested are:
- High Performance Concrete B 70 density about 2.4 t/m
3
(NKossa concrete),
- High Performance Concrete B 70 modified density about 1.8 t/m
3
.
2 samples of each concrete composition have been tested, plus one as reference.
Duration of cryogenic testing were about six days per samples, concrete temperature being stabilized
within a few hours. Temperatures in the concrete, cryogenic tank and seawater were monitored by
thermocouples. Minimal temperature measured in the concrete was about 140C.
Figures 13 shows the general arrangement of the testing bench.
Gaseous LN2
Liquid LN2
at 196C
Cryostat (LN2)
Concrete
Insulation
Seawater 25
Tightness protection
(triplex)
Diameter: 450 mm
Thickness: 120 mm
Plywood
Seal
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Figure 13: general view of the testing bench
After testing, the aspect of the concrete samples remains unchanged, no cracks have been observed.
Currently, measures of concrete characteristics are in progress to confirm the good ability of high
performance concrete to resist this type of thermal shock, which may permit the conclusion that the
cryosuction effect is not important in our case. The aim of the tests in progress is to measure the following
parameters of the concrete:
- Water content
- Porosity
- Permeability
- Compressive strength
- Dynamic module
- Spacing factor L , qualifying the average spacing of air bubbles in concrete, which is linked to the
durability of concrete cold environments.
- Volume increase
- Microstructure analysis
- Thermal expansion coefficient
- Diffusion constant for chloride ions
An unmatched deck resistance to process hazards
In order to guarantee the structural integrity and to prevent any damage to the LNG tanks, a study of
consequences of explosion on the deck has been performed. Results shows that the concrete deck is able
to resist the following overpressures:
- 8 t/m_ on the whole width of the deck,
- 10 t/m_ on a single span of the deck,
- higher pressures on smaller lengths than one span.
Longitudinal extension of the explosion overpressure has no influence on the results.
Recording of
temperature data
Testing bench
Liquid nitrogen
tank (6 m
3
)
Sea water tank to maintain
water level in bench test
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Conclusion
Studies and tests performed during the Azure project have led to a reliable design of a concrete hull for
the production, storage and offloading of LNG. Cost effectiveness of the design is associated with a high
level of safety with regard to the hazards likely to be faced by the FPSO.
Cost effectiveness is due to reduction of concrete quantity and ease of construction, in terms of realization
and sites.
Safety benefits are due to inherent properties of high performance concrete.
The validation of the concrete hull for the LNG FPSO is an important contribution to the demonstration
of the industrial viability of the full floating LNG chain.
Figure 14: artistic view of the concrete barge
References
1 "Design and construction of a 375,000 bbl prestressed concrete floating LPG storage facility for
the Java sea", by A.R Anderson (Concrete Technology Corp.) OTC 2487, Dallas, 1976
2 "The NKossa concrete oil production barge" by C.Valenchon & R.Nagel (Bouygues Offshore),
J.P.Viallon & H.Belbeoch (Bouygues), J.Rouillon (Elf Congo) DOT 1995, Rio
3 "LNG storage: adaptability of the membrane containment system to existing and future concepts
along the LNG chain" by P.Genoud (SN Technigaz) IBC 1999 Conference, London, October
1999
4 "Liquid gas storage using high-performance concrete: a way to improve safety and reduce costs"
By C.Valenchon (Bouygues Offshore), N.Roux & M.Cheyrezy (Bouygues) GASTECH 1993
Conference, Paris, February 1993
5 Norwegian Standard NS 3473 E "Concrete structures, Design rules", 1998
6 IGC code 93, "International code for the construction and equipment of ship carrying liquefied
gases in bulk"
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7 "Membrane LNG FPSO and FSRU Methodology for sloshing phenomenon" by L.Spitta l
(Gaztransport & Technigaz), M.Zalar (Bureau Veritas), P.Laspalles (Bouygues Offshore) and
L.Brosset (IRCN) GASTECH 2000 Conference, Houston, November 2000
Acknowledgements
- The European Commission
- The sponsors (ELF, SHELL, CHEVRON, TEXACO, CONOCO)
- The partners of the AZURE project (Bouygues Offshore, MW Kellogg Ltd, les Chantiers de
lAtlantique, Fincantieri, FMC Europe, Gaz Transport et Technigaz, Bureau Veritas, RINA, IRCN are
acknowledged for financial and technical support provided.
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