DC}'.

Preliminary examination
THE DIAGNOSIS
OF ALKALI-SILICA
REACTION
Report of a world ng party
Preface to second
edition
The first edition ofthis report appeared in 1988, when
it was believed to be the first publication dealing solely
with the diagnosis of alkali-silica reaction. It received
world-wide attention and has become a standard ref-
erence on the subject.
The continuing flow of conferences and papers on
ASR denlonstrates that knowledge is still accumulat-
ing. This, and further practical experience, have led to
ilnprovements in the techniques for diagnosis. Also, in
December 1988, the Institution of Structural Engineers
(ISE), published an interinl report, Structural effects of
alkali-silica reaction, and its final report(l) will cover
sonle of the topics included in the first edition of this
report on diagnosis. Liaison has been maintained
between the two groups during the drafting of both
doculnents.
These developlnents nleant that some sections of
the first edition were no longer fully up to date and
other sections were no longer needed. Revisions were
required, so the working party on diagnosis was recon-
vened and auglnented by new members. This second
edition is the result oftheir discussions, based on their
collective knowledge and experience, and helped by
comnlents received from others working on ASR.
Among the nlany revisions which have been made,
only the nlore important or extensive are mentioned
here.
More emphasis has been placed on the examination
of finely ground surfaces of concrete samples, and
especiall y on the interpretation of the internal crack
patterns revealed by this technique.
The method for testing the expansion of cores has
been revised (Appendix H on page 38) .
The original appendices on testing by ultrasonic
pulse velocity, and on conlpressive and tensile strength
testing, have been deleted, because these techniques
are now considered of little value for diagnosis. Also
deleted is most of the information on in-situ monitor-
ing and on the effects of ASR on the structure. The final
report of the Institution of Structural Engineers(1) is
expected to deal with these nlatters.
More help is given in a flow chart for laboratory
procedures, and in a new appendix detailing a scheme
for the petrographic examination of hardened con-
crete.
It is hoped that use of this revised report will give
even greater confidence that reliable results can be
obtained when cOlnmissioning or undertaking the
diagnosis of alkali -silica reaction.
Acknowledgements
The working party and the British Cement Association
thank all those, from the UK and abroad, who com-
mented on drafts of this report. Their help and interest
is greatly appreciated.
Thanks are also due to those laboratories that col-
laborated in the core expansion test precision trial, and
to Dr Roger Sym for undertaking the statistical analysis
of the results, reported in Appendix J on page 40.
Contents
1. Introduction ....................................................... 3
1.1 Scope and objects of report ...................... 3
1.2 Background ............................................... 3
1.3 Alkali-silica reaction ................................ 3
1.4 Approach to investigations of
damaged concrete ..................................... 3
1.5 Sequence for investigation ....................... 4
2. Site inspection and testing ................................ 5
2.1 Preliminary considerations ...................... 5
2.2 Personnel and expertise ........................... 6
2.3 Documentary evidence ............................. 6
2.4 Planning ................. ....... ............................ 6
2.4.1 Equipment ..................................... 6
2.4.2 Access .......... .. ................................ 7
2.5 Site observations ....................................... 7
2.5.1 General considerations ................. 7
2.5.2 Environmental conditions ............ 7
2.5.3 Concrete surface features
suggestive of ASR .......................... 7
2.5.4 Movements, displacements
and deformation ............................ 8
2.5.5 Record and preliminary assessment
of site inspection ........................... 8
2.6 Evaluation and interpretation of site
observations ................................... ........... 8
2.6.1 General approach .......................... 8
2.6.2 Environment .................................. 8
2.6.3 Cracking ........................ .. ............... 9
2.6.4 Surface discoloration .................. 11
2.6.5 Efflorescence and exudations ..... 11
2.6.6 Pop-outs ....................................... 11
2.6.7 Movements, displacenlents
and defornlation .......................... 12
2.6.8 Collective assessment of
site observations .......................... 12
2.7 In-situ testing and nlonitoring ................ 13
2.7.1 Non-destructive testing (NDT) ... 13
2.7.2 Monitoring ................................... 13
3. Sampling ...... ....... ........... ....................... .... .... .... 13
3.1 Objects and approach .............. .. ............. 13
3.2 Number and distribution of samples ..... 13
3.3 Types of samples ..................................... 14
3.3.1 Cores ............................................ 14
3.3.2 Powdered drilling samples ......... 14
3.3.3 Lump samples ............................. 14
3.3.4 Special samples ........................... 14
3.4 Treatment of samples .............................. 15
3.4.1 Site observations and records ..... 15
3.4.2 Preservation of samples .............. 15
3.5 Making good .......... .. ................................ 15
4. Laboratory investigation ................................. 15
4.1 General approach .................................... 15
4.1.1 Objects of investigation .............. 15
4 .1.2 Personnel and expertise .............. 15
4.2 Available nlethods .................................. 15
4.3 Preliminary examination of cores
in the laboratory ...................................... 15
4.3.1 Receipt of cores ........................... 15
4.3.2 Reconstruction and logging
of cores ......................................... 17
1
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.3.3 Record and description
of cores ......................................... 17
4.3.4 Photographs ................................. 19
4.3.5 Re-wetting and further
exanlination ................................. 19
4.3.6 Selection of specimens for
further testing .............................. 19
Examination of finely ground sections .. 19
4.4.1 Applications ................................ 19
4.4.2 Internal cracking ......................... 19
Thin sections ........................................... 21
4.5.1 Introduction ................................. 21
4.5.2 Preparation of thin sections ........ 21
4.5.3 Exanlination of thin sections ...... 21
4.5.3.1 Cenlent paste ............................... 22
4.5.3.2 Surface deposits .......................... 22
4.5.3.3 Aggregates ................................... 22
4.5.3.4 Cracking ....................................... 23
4.5.3.5 Identification of
alkali-silica gel ............................ 23
4.5.4 Quantifying the observations ..... 23
Chemical analysis of concrete ................ 24
4.6.1 Determination of alkali
content ......................................... 24
4.6.2 Determination of cement
content ......................................... 24
4.6.3 Determination of chloride
content ......................................... 25
Examination of exudations and
crystalline material ................................. 25
Expansion testing .................................... 25
4.8.1 Function of expansion tests ........ 25
4.8.2 Accelerated expansion tests ....... 25
4.8.3 Interpretation of results .............. 26
4.8.4 Expansion tests at other
temperatures ................................ 26
4.8.5 Expansion tests in a caustic or
sodium chloride solution ........... 26
4.8.6 Restrained expansion tests ......... 26
Alkali-immersion test .. ........................... 26
Evaluation of laboratory findings ........... 27
4.10.1 General approach to evaluation. 27
4.10.2 Significance of alkali-silica gel .. 27
4.10.3 Sites of expansive reaction ......... 27
4.10.4 Internal cracking ......................... 27
4.10.5 Other features .............................. 28
4.10.6 Quantifying microscopical
observations ................................. 28
4.10.7 Interpretation of chemical
analysis results ............................ 28
5. Assessment of site and laboratDry findings ... 28
6. Risk of future reaction .................................... 29
2
6.1 Assessment of risk .................................. 29
6.1.1 General considerations ............... 29
6.1.2 Expansion tests on cores ............. 29
6.1.3 Nature of the reactive aggregate. 30
6.1.4 Mix proportions and alkali
content ...... ................ .................. . 30
6.1.5 Environmental factors ................. 30
6.1.6 Other processes of
deterioration ........................ ........ 30
6.1.7 Changes in use ............................ 31
6.1.8 Case histories ............................... 31
6.1.9 Adoption of a risk classification
scheme ............. .. .......................... 31
6.2 Implications for the structure ................ 31
6.2.1 General implications ................... 31
6.2.2 Effect on durability of cracking
from ASR .. ................................... 31
Appendix A - Scheme for the petrographic
examination of hardened
concrete ......................................... . 32
Appendix B - Preparation and examination
of sawn sections ............................. 33
Appendix C - Preparation of thin sections .......... 34
Appendix D - COlnmon rock and mineral
aggregates which may sometimes
contain potentially alkali -silica
reactive components ...................... 34
Appendix E - Methods for determining the
alkali content of concrete .............. 37
Appendix F - Determination of the cement
content of concrete ........................ 37
Appendix G - Examination of crystalline
nlaterial ........................... ............... 38
Appendix H - Expansion testing .......................... 38
Appendix J - Expansion tests on cores - precision
trial on test method ....................... 40
Appendix K - The alkali-immersion test ............. 42
References ... .... ............... ............ ............................. 43
I. Introduction
I. I Scope and objects of report
The reconlnlendations given in this report apply only
to alkali-silica reaction (ASR). They are based prima-
rily on experience in the UK(2) and represent the
present state of knowledge on this subject.
When comnlissioning an investigation of a dam-
aaed or deteriorated structure, most owners will wish
b
to have answers to three questions:
(1) What has caused the damage or deterioration?
(2) What is the likely future for the structure?
(3) How can the structure be repaired or otherwise
IDanaged to obtain an economic life from it ?
This report deals primarily with question 1, and spe-
cifically with the diagnosis of ASR and the assessment
of the role it has played in causing any visible deterio-
ration of the structure. It suggests the procedures to be
followed to produce a reasonably reliable diagnosis of.
ASR as a cause of danlage. In sonle circumstances,
where there is a linlit on expenditure, a definitive
diagnosis might not be possible.
SOlDe of the procedures described for diagnosis nlay
also be helpful when attempting to answer question 2.
Further infornlation on this is given in the Institution
of Structural Engineers' report Structural effects of
alkali-silica reaction(l).
The answer to question 3 is outside the scope of this
report.
The tests required to produce a detailed diagnosis of
ASR and to assist in forecasting the future of the
structure, need the expertise and dedication of experi-
enced investigators and laboratory staff if reliable
results are to be obtained. This report is intended to
assist them in this work.
The report is also written with the engineer in mind.
Close collaboration between engineers and laboratory
staff is essential at all stages of an investigation if it is
to be conducted efficiently, and lead to the correct
interpretation and the best advice being given to the
structure's owner. The report should help engineers
obtain a better understanding of what is required to
produce a reliable diagnosis of ASR, and of what
investigations will help in an engineering assessment
of the present structural condition and the future
performance of the structure.
1.2 Background
As the number of suspected cases of alkali-silica reac-
tion increased, nl0re organizations becanle involved
in diagnosis and in giving advice on structures thought
to be suffering from ASR.
There was concern that lack of unifornlity in ap-
proach to the problems of diagnosis could lead to
inconsistencies and unreliability in the diagnoses and
subsequent advice to owners. This lack of uniformity
Inight produce a sense offalse security in some owners
and aive rise to unnecessary alarm in others, and could
b .
lead to expenditure on unsuitable or unnecessary
remedial measures.
Perhaps not so obvious, but of vital concern for the
future, unreliable diagnoses could lead to an incorrect
evaluation of the factors necessary for damage fronl
ASR to occur. This, in turn, could lead to inappropriate
guidance being given on nleasures to avoid damage in
future construction.
To deal with these concerns, this report has been
written by a working party whose members have wide
experience of ASR and its diagnosis. It is published in
the hope that it will encourage greater reliability and
unifonnity in such diagnoses.
1.3 Alkali-silica reaction
The alkalis present in Portland cement are released
during normal hydration. The pore water present in
Portland cement concrete, although saturated with
calcium hydroxide, is largely a mixture of sodiunl and
potassium hydroxides, which are primarily responsi-
ble for the alkalini ty being higher than that of a saturated
solution of calcium hydroxide.
A number of the COlDmon crushed rocks, sands and
gravels, used as aggregates, nlay sometinles contain
sianificant quantities of silica in a form that can react
with the hydroxide ions associated with these alkalis
in the pore water. This reaction forms an alkali-silica
ael which is hygroscopic, and the imbibition of the
pore water causes it to swell. Where conditions are
favourable for the production of sufficient gel and its
subsequent expansion, the expansive forces created
can be high enough to crack the concrete or cause other
structural distress.
Alkali-silica gel has, however, been observed in
sound and durable concrete made with siliceous ag-
gregate. In such concrete the presence of gel may
renlain undetected and have no effect on the perfonn-
ance of the concrete.
There are many other possible causes of cracks in
concrete, including structural and thermal stresses,
drying shrinkage, frost danlage, and moisture suscep-
tible aggregates. Cracking is often the result of a
conlbination of causes, and it is difficult to determine
which, if any, is the Inajor reason for deterioration.
It is essential, therefore, to nlake a clear distinction
between alkali-silica reaction, which is shown by the
presence of gel, and damage caused by swelling ofthe
gel formed by the alkali-silica reaction.
When damage caused by ASR does occur, its conse-
quences for the affected structure nlay appear to be
serious, but even when cracking is visually alarming,
the expansion may not have an unacceptably adverse
effect upon the performance of the structure.
Damage caused by ASR is rare when with
other forms of damage, such as that from r81nforce-
nlent corrosion. Over the whole ofthe UK its incidence
is snlall in comparison with the total anl0unt of con-
crete used, but the incidence of ASR is higher in some
areas of the UK.
Detailed information on the causes and prevention
of damage fronl ASR will be found elsewhere(3.-l).
1.4 Approach to investigations
of damaged concrete
All investigations of cracked, or otherwise deterio-
rated concrete, should be approached with a completely
open mind. The primary question to be asked in any
investigation is, 'What has caused the deterioration ?',
rather than, 'Is this a case of ASR ?'.
3
If the wrong questions are asked, the resulting ad-
vice may be nlisleading, costly, or even dangerous, if
other major or contributory causes of deterioration
remain undetected, leading to inadequate or unneces-
sary remedial work.
Causes of damage other than ASR are not considered
in detail in this report, but it should be remembered
that:
(a) At the start of an investigation, every mecha-
nism which could cause concrete deterioration
should be considered as a possibility.
(b) No single possible cause should be eliminated
until the investigation has shown clearly that it
could not have contributed to the deterioration.
(c) Evidence of alkali -silica reaction may be found
in concrete where siliceous material forms part
or all of the aggregates, whether or not the
concrete has cracked or expanded as a conse-
quence of ASR.
Routine or ad hoc inspection
or casual observation
Report to management
Decision to seek specialist advice
Commission specialist
Specialist:
(a) examines records
(b) makes visual inspection of site
1.5 Sequence for investigation
The logical sequence for the investigation of a struc-
ture would be:
(1) Examine records, inspect site, assess results to
establish whether laboratory work, in-situ
testing, or monitoring is required, and what
tests should be undertaken.
(2) Take samples for testing in the laboratory.
Commence site testing or monitoring.
(3) Do laboratory examinations and tests.
(4) Assess results of laboratory tests, in conjunction
with results and observations from the site, to
produce answers to the questions posed in 1.1.
More detailed recomnlendations on the various stages
of an investigation are given in the following sections
of this report and are summarized in the flow-charts
(Figures 1 and 2).
(c) lists all possible causes of deterioration
t
Is ASR among possible
causes of deterioration?
~ Y E S
Proceed to
Figure 2
Referred to only in this report
NO
'-0..
Discount ASR
Investigate other
possible causes
Dealt with in detail in this report
Figure 1: Stages in the investigation of deterioration in concrete structures, with particular reference to ASR.
4
Examine records, see Section 2
Inspect site, see Section 2
Take smnples, see Section 3
Make laboratory tests, see Section 4
Is ASR occurring
or has ASR occurred?
See Section 5
rYES
a) Has ASR contributed to
deterioration?
NO

Investigate
other causes
of
NO
deterioration
""""'-

b) Could ASR contribute to
future deterioration?
See Section 6
to both
questions
YES to either
l question
Is ASR the only cause of
deterioration?
See Section 5
NO
""""-
Combine investigation
of ASR with investigation
of all other possible causes
r Report I
Investigate further (if required) to make
forecast of future behaviour of structure
See Sections 4, 5 and 6
I Report I
Referred to only in this report Dealt with in detail in this report
Figure 2: Detailed investigation of ASR as a possible cause of deterioration.
The report follows this sequence, but it is recog-
nized that circumstances often indicate that another
sequence should be followed.
For example, if the cost of providing access is high,
it nlight be advisable to nlake assumptions about the
required laboratory tests at the outset, and to take
smnples at the same tinle as conducting the site inves-
tigation. In other cases the results of initial laboratory
tests might indicate the need for further action such as
a more detailed site investigation of certain aspects or
parts of the structure.
2. Site inspection and
testing
2.1 Preliminary considerations
Where the investigation is to include the possibility
that damage has been caused by ASR, the site inspec-
tion procedure should be no different from that adopted
for any routine condition assessment (5. 6.7.8.9).
Site inspection alone can neither confirm nor dis-
count the presence of ASR wi th a.n y certainty. Sam pling,
5
6
see Section 3, and testing, see Section 4, will be
necessary before any definite interpretation can be
attempted. The object of the site inspection is to
establish whether or not the structure exhibits any
features which are consistent with damage caused by
ASR, and to identify those features which indicate
other mechanisms. Fronl this, the best progranlme of
further site and laboratory investigation may be planned
to establish the cause, or causes of deterioration. This
is covered in more detail in 2.6.
Many concrete structures exhibit characteristics
which variously suggest poor workmanship, weather-
ing, shrinkage, or differential stresses caused by general
deterioration or damage. It is not always easy to distin-
guish these features from those indicative of ASR.
The inspection should be thorough and systematic,
and disproportionate attention should not be paid to
those areas exhibiting the most obvious deterioration
or damage. Nevertheless, there nlay be 'critical' areas
to which particular attention should be made, such as
those exhibiting comparatively greater damage or de-
terioration, locations inlportant for structural stability
and safety, or areas subject to unusually severe expo-
sure. A conlparable location exhibiting no apparent
danlage is often valuable for reference purposes .
Some parts of the structure nlay not be visible, such
as foundations and components concealed by clad-
ding, but secondary features of deterioration, such as
displacements, may sometinles be observed. These,
together with doculnentary evidence on the hidden
parts ofthe structure, observations ofthe visible parts ,
and the results of case studies of sin1ilar structures
elsewhere, nlay be used to decide whether the hidden
concrete should be exposed for direct exanlination.
Although ASR nlay have implications for the future
service life of a structure, it is important to ren1ember
that, in some circunlstances, other problenls may be of
greater inlnlediate or long-tenn concern.
Descriptions of features possibly indicative of ASR
or other deteriorative mechanisms should include
clear, if subjective, assessnlents of both the extent and
severity of the damage at the time of inspection
(see 2.6).
2.2 Personnel and expertise
Routine condition surveys should be carried out by
experienced personnel, who have been trained to
111ake careful observations and to record their findings
in a systematic Inanner. The reliability of the findings
will depend upon the specialist knowledge of the
inspector, so the inspection should be carried out by a
Chartered Engineer or an engineering materials
scientist, or preferably both working as a team. These
personnel should have specialized knowledge and
experience of ASR. It is inlportant that the inspectors
should be familiar with the sanlpling requirenlents of
the test laboratory, see Sections 3 and 4.
Cracking is the conlmon vis.ual sign of damage fr0111
ASR [see 2.5.3(a)], but it n1ust be ren1enlbered that
there are a nun1ber of reasons , both structural and non-
structural, why concrete nlight crack. In many cases
the pattern of cracks results from the interaction oftwo
or more causes. The expertise of an engineer is often
essential in suggesting possible reasons for the visible
crack pattern. If the structural integrity ofthe structure
is in doubt, it should be evaluated by a suitably
qualified engineer, experienced in structural assess-
ment. Further guidance on structural assessment is
given in the Institution of Structural Engineers'
report(11.
2.3 Documentary evidence
All documents relating to the structure should be
examined and appraised before the specialized site
inspection takes place. Ideally, this desk study shoul d
be carried out by the personnel who will be undertak-
ing the site inspection. Details which may be obtainable
in advance include:
(a) The full name of the structure, or part of it and,
where applicable, the owner's reference.
(b) The exact location of the structure, including
the Ordnance Survey map reference, and its re-
lationshi p to other structures in the vicinity.
(c) The type of structure, and the conditions to
which it is exposed because of its location or
function.
(d) The age, including date of completion, and
details of any nlajor or minor remedial work
since completion.
(e) Design loading and construction details, includ-
ing foundations , drainage systel11, joints, and
the position and pattern of reinforcement.
(f) Details of concrete, including mix designs,
sources of Inaterials (aggregates and cement),
and any contemporary certificates or t est
results.
(g) Reports of previous inspections and/or testing,
either routine or specialized, and particularly
the dates on which signs of damage or deterio-
ration were first noticed. Such reports should,
however, always be treated with caution. Every
effort should be nlade to assess when damage or
deterioration first occurred, rather than when it
was first observed.
(h) Information on other concrete structures in the
vicinity which nlay be of similar composition,
have been exposed to c01nparable conditions
and are of a known age, especially if ASR has
been diagnosed in them.
Original scale drawings, including plans, elevations
and sections, may be available at this stage. Copies of
such drawings are very useful for making an accurate
recording of observations during the site inspection.
The validity of docunlentary evidence, particularly
test results, needs to be assessed carefully and, where
possible, checked against site observations.
2.4 Planning
2.4.1 Equipment
Equipment for site inspection should include a hand-
lens or strong magnifying glass (say xl0 or x20) ,
binoculars (especially when access to the structure is
lilnited), a mirror, and a powerful electric torch. A
flexible endoscope can be used to obtain information
from areas inside the structure which are not readily
accessible, such as those hidden by cladding.
A good quality camera, loaded with colour film and
equipped with a flashgun, should be used to make a
c0l11prehensive photographic record. A description of
each photograph should be recorded in a notebook.
Every photograph should include a scale. A video
camera may be useful, but should not be relied upon to
produce records where high definition is required.
Other equipment for general site inspection, not all
of which may be relevant to the diagnosis of ASR,
l11ight include a metric steel tape, say 4 m long, a
straight-edge, a spirit level, a plumb line, a crack-
width l11icroscope, a small hanllner, and a penknife.
Non-destructive testing equipment may be required,
and nlight include an electromagnetic covermeter, a
Schmidt rebound hanllner and ultrasonic pulse veloc-
ity (UPV) apparatus.
Detailed records of the inspection should be written
into a notebook or on to fornls held on a waterproof
clipboard. Portable dictation nlachines are useful,
especially in wet and/or windy weather, but care must
be taken at the outset to ensure that the recording is
taking place satisfactorily, and that background noise
is not excessive. Wherever possible, visible signs of
deterioration should be recorded on copies of scale
drawings.
In some instances, site inspection and sampling
. may both be carried out at the saIne time, when it will
be necessary to consider what equipment will be
needed for sanlpling, see Section 3. In any event, the
inspector should carry a small selection of polythene
sample bags and indelible marking pens.
2.4.2 Access
Written permission nlay be necessary to gain access for
the inspection. Special arrangements for lane closures
or working between specific times may have to be
nlade before the inspection can commence, especially
for some structures , such as those associated with
highways, railways, and public utilities.
The means of access will need to be chosen to meet
specific situations and requirements. These will vary
from relatively sinlple ladders, step-ladders, and scaf-
folding towers and cradles, to specially constructed
scaffolding. Vehicular hoists or lifts may be useful for
the inspection of sonle structures, and special cradles
or nlechanical Ineans of access may be required to
inspect the sides and soffits of structures, such as river
bridges and nlaritime piers , that span across water.
The nlinimum provision of access should always be
governed strictly by the safety of the inspector. Where
the access arrang81nents are to be used for both inspec-
tion and sampling, allowance should be made for the
additional stability which may be required for the
sanlpling procedures, especially when drilling con-
crete cores. Space for parking vehicles and equipment,
and provision of a water supply and other services may
all be necessary. Excavating equipment nlay be re-
quired to expose concrete foundations.
2.5 Site observations
2.5.1 General considerations
The site inspection should be carried out in good
daylight whenever possible. The weather at the time of
inspection should be recorded, as it may have an
influence on the observations. It is often found most
suitable to inspect in drying conditions following rain,
because faint cracks and other possible defects are
highlighted by differential drying. Where a water sup-
ply is available it may be possible to dampen surfaces
to produce a similar effect.
2.5.2 Environmental condit ions
An assessment should be nlade of the conditions to
which the structural element has been exposed, in-
cluding any changes that may have taken place during
service.
Generally, it is those concretes exposed to wetting
which are affected by ASR. The degree and frequency
of wetting and drying is important and should be
noted, together with the reason for the wetting. This
might be rain, run-off, leaking joints, poor detailing,
standing water (sea, river, etc.), or condensation. Foun-
dations nlay be exposed more or less continuously to
nloisture.
If concrete foundations are to be inspected, it should
be recognized that exposing concrete which previ-
ously had been buried, allows the exposed surfaces to
dry and thereby alters the local environment penna-
nently. In some instances this may be damaging to the
concrete .
For this reason foundation and other buried con-
crete should be inspected, and its condition recorded,
as it is being exposed. Interpretation of the findings is
then not complicated by deterioration which may
occur after exposure.
A record should be made of those surfaces which
have come into contact with salt solutions, which
would include seawater, de-icing salts, salt spray, and
sonle industrial environments. Affected areas should
be defined clearly and care taken to record variations
in the degree of damage in those areas.
Certain parts of the structure may be particularly
vulnerable to damage fronl other causes, such as frost ,
which Inight aggravate any cracking caused by ASR.
2.5.3 Concrete surface feat ures suggestive
ofASR
No attempt is made here to provide an exhaustive
catalogue of features that should be recorded during a
routine site inspection. Certain features are sometimes
the result of ASR and the nl0st important of these are
given below. The site inspection and records should be
such that an assessment can be made of the extent and
severity of each feature.
(a) Cracking. The position, disposition and pattern of
cracks should be carefully recorded. Photography is a
quick method of recording crack patterns, but major
cracks should be plotted onto a scale drawing, noting
discernible length, crack width, apparent depth, con-
tinuity, surface displacenlent (estinlated using a
straight-edge), path (around or across aggregate parti-
cles) and any obvious association with features such as
underlying reinforcement, stress orientation or sur-
face discoloration.
When cracking occurs in structurally critical posi-
tions. more detailed mapping of the cracks may be
required. Care must be taken to differentiate between
cracking and the surface crazing often caused by early
7
surface shrinkage or the use of impermeable forms.
A standard method should be adopted for describing
the width of cracks. A suitable scheme is shown in
Table 1 .
Table 1: Classification of crack widths.
Crack width, mm Description Abbreviation
<0.01 * Microcrack M
0.01- 0.1 * Extremely fine EF
0.1 - 0.5 Very fine VF
0.5 - 1.0 Fine F
1.0 - 2.0 Moderately wide MW
2.0 - 5.0 \/Vide 'vV
5.0 -10.0 Very wide V'vV
>10.0 Extremely wide EW
* For field description, cracks finer than 0.1 mm should be
described as <0.1 mm, extremely fine. Further classification
requires microscopical examination.
(b) Discoloration. Distinctive surface discoloration is
sometimes a feature of ASR and often occurs along the
line of cracks, but it may also appear as surface patches.
The extent of surface discoloration is most easily
recorded by colour photography, but the film may not
reprod uce the colour entirel y fai thfull y. Staining caused
by rust should be readily identifiable.
(c) Efflorescence and exudations. The position, ex-
tent and quantity of efflorescence and exudations
should be recorded, and the colour, texture, dampness
and hardness of the deposit described. Samples should
be taken for subsequent identification.
(d) Pop-outs. Expansion of individual aggregate par-
ticles, or Qf gel close to an exposed concrete surface,
can sometimes detach a conical portion of the surface,
leaving a small pit or 'pop-out'.
The number, size and distribution of any pop-outs
should be recorded and the nature of the aggregate
exposed in the base of the pit should be identified.
Any exudation associated with the pop-out should
be recorded and samples removed for laboratory ex-
amination.
2.5.4 Movements, displacements and
deformation
ASR is a potentially expansive mechanism, so that
significant movements in the structure can sometimes
occur. A record should be made of any differential
movement, such as the closing of joints, the relative
displacement of adjacent concrete sections, excessive
deflection, and the twisting or bulging of originally flat
surfaces. The correspondence of this movement with
other features, such as concrete of different composi-
tion, unusually wet or exposed locations, or less
restrained parts of the structure, should be noted.
2.5.5 Record and preliminary assessment
of site inspection
A careful and detailed record of all observations should
be made as the site inspection proceeds.
8
Drawings can be shaded to illustrate the extent and
severity of each feature. These drawings will assist in
correlating the observed features with the environ-
mental variations, in locating areas for detailed
inspection, and in deciding sampling locations .
Certain parts of the structure may be considered
worthy of a more detailed visual inspection prior to the
sanlpling and testing which may have to be carried out.
It is at this stage, for example, that detailed crack
mapping [see 2.5.3(a)] Inay be justified. Surveying
techniques might be used to check any apparent mis-
alignment. On completion ofthe site work, the records
should be collected to fornl the basis of the site inspec-
tion report.
2.6 Evaluation and interpretation
of site observations
2.6.1 General approach
On completion of the nlain inspection, the detailed
observations should be evaluated to provide a prelilni-
nary assessment and to highlight areas requiring more
intensive exanlination or testing.
This further work nlay include on site non-destruc-
tive testing (see 2.7.1), or longer-term monitoring of the
structure (see 2.7.2). In all but minor cases of deterio-
ration, it is probable that some laboratory work will be
called for, see Section 4, for which sampling will be
necessary, see Section 3.
The site inspection is interpreted using visual ob-
servations, photographs, drawings , site records and
the results of in-situ tests.
No one type of site observation is exclusively
characteristic, or reliably symptomatic of ASR. How-
ever 'typical' the signs of distress nlay appear to be on
site, ASR cannot be assumed to be the cause unless
and until laboratory exanlination has verified that
definite evidence of ASR and its effects exist within
the concrete.
The immediate object of the site inspection is ,
therefore, to decide whether or not the structure exhib-
its any features which might be consistent with damage
from ASR and, equally important, whether the struc-
ture exhibits features nlore characteristic of other
forms of concrete deterioration, so that the 1110st appro-
priate laboratory investigation can be proposed. When
the results oflaboratory tests are known, they may then
be assessed in the light of site observations and records.
The likelihood of ASR being the cause of any dam-
age will increase as the number of indicative features
increases. The site inspection report will include de-
scriptions of any features possibly indicative of ASR,
together with an indication of their extent and severity.
Guidance on the assessnlent of individual features
is given in 2.6.2 to 2.6.7 and a method of asse111bling
these observations to for111 an overall assessment is
given in 2.6.8.
2.6.2 Environment
The presence of nloisture is necessary for the forma-
tion of alkali-silica gel, and for its subsequent swelling
to cause expansion and da111age to the concrete.
Experience so far suggests that concrete is unlikely
to have suffered damage from ASR if, during its service
life, it has been per111anently in an environment with
a relative humidity of less than 80 to 90%(10)(11). This
will include concrete permanently in a 'dry' internal
environment.
Environments in which the concrete is perma-
nently in contact with water, or subject to intermittent
wetting and drying, 11lay be conducive to expansion
from ASR, provided that the necessary reactive silica
and alkalis are also present (Figure 3). In this context,
heavy condensation should be considered a poten-
tially conducive environment.
If the external nloisture contains salt (see 2.5.2), it is
possible that the risk of dalnage fronl ASR may be
increased. This may have to be assessed in conjunction
with chemical analyses of the concrete.
Figure 3: Wet environlnent, conducive to ASR.
2.6.3 Cracking
It is not unusual for concrete structures to show some
cracking. These cracks rarely affect structural integ-
rity, but their presence nlay accelerate the effects of
weathering. Cracks can adversely affect the appear-
ance of concrete , particularly where calcium hydroxide
has leached out, or after a period of wet weather, when
the lines of the cracks are accentuated as the concrete
dries.
Cracking in structural concrete may not have a
single cause. Cracks can be induced by a variety of
mechanisms, including plastic shrinkage, drying
shrinkage, early-age thermal contraction, frost attack,
corrosion ofreinforcenlent, and loading. Less common
causes of cracking are sulfate attack and alkali-silica
reaction.
In unloaded sections of plain concrete, cracks caused
by ASR will often form individual three-armed star
shapes which join up to produce a pattern of cracks as
illustrated in Figures 4 and 5. Any other abnormal
shrinkage or expansion 111ay cause very similar crack
patterns (Figures 6 to 9) .
This pattern can be altered or prevented by stress or
reinforcement (Figure 10). In reinforced concrete the
cracks often reflect the pattern ofthe underlying steel.
In heavily reinforced, or prestressed beams and col-
umns, or where there is a moderate longitudinal
Figure 4: Pattern of cracks attributed to ASR in
unreinforced concrete.
Figure 5: Cracking in flight of unreinforced concrete
steps, attributed to ASR.
Figure 6: Cracking caused by shrinkable aggregate.
9
Figure 7: Cracking caused by frost.
Figure 8: Typical cracking beneath a bridge parapet
coping, caused by frost.
Figure 9: Crazing on the surface of a precast
concrete bridge beam.
10
Figure 10: Crack pattern in beam, attributed to ASR
but affected by reinforcement.
conlpressive stress in the member, cracks will not form
perpendicular to the direction of the major stress. They
will tend to form parallel to the line of stress, i.e. along
the length of the member (Figures 11 and 12) and may
be short cracks or may extend the whole length of the
member.
A similar crack pattern may be seen in columns with
inadequate strength (Figure 13).
On occasion, a distinct step in the surface may be
seen across a crack (Figure 14).
An adequate assessment of the significance of crack-
ing cannot, therefore, be made without a knowledge of
the reinforcement or prestressing, the amount of re-
straint, and the loading history. Guidance on the
identification of non-structural cracks in concrete is
given in Concrete Society Technical Report 22(8).
Figure 11: Longitudinal cracking, attributed to ASR,
in a prestressed concrete column.
Figure 12: Regularly spaced cracking, attributed to
ASR, in a circular bridge column.
Figure 13: Vertical cracking in a circular bridge column,
caused by con crete of inadequate strength failing under
load.
Figure 14: Displacement of concrete across a crack
in a bridge abutment.
2.6.4 Surface discoloration
It is fairly common for cracks caused by ASR to be
bordered by broad zones of light-coloured concrete
(Figure 15), although the lines of fine cracks may be
marked by a dark discoloration, giving the appearance
of permanent dampness. Severely affected areas of
concrete may also develop patchy surface discolora-
tion. Again, ASR is not the only potential cause of
surface discoloration of concrete, but the incidence of
such discoloration will increase the probability that
ASR is present.
2.6.5 Efflorescence and exudations
The copious exudation of gel is a characteristic of
many overseas examples of ASR, but this feature is not
common in the UK. Fresh gel at the surface, especially
if it is intimately associated with a crack or a pop-out
(see 2.6.6)' is a reasonably diagnostic feature of alkali-
silica reaction. However, any gel exposed at the surface
is likely to have carbonated and dried and may be
visually indistinguishable from the very common
calcium carbonate deposits.
Several staining techniques have been suggested
for the rapid detection of alkali-silica gel in
concrete(12.13.14.15). So far, these methods have not come
into general use for positive diagnosis. It is considered
that the results might prove misleading, because these
techniques will identify gel in many concretes where
the gel has not caused significant damage. In addition,
these methods often use potentially hazardous rea-
gents.
Figure 15: Discoloration of concrete along cracks.
2.6.6 Pop-outs
Whilst pop-outs are very common manifestations of
ASR in some parts of the world (Figure 16), they have
rarely been observed in the UK. Pop-outs are fre-
quently caused by other mechanisms , notably frost
action, so they should not be ascribed automatically to
ASR.
The nature of any aggregate particle exposed at the
base of the pop-out, for example whether it is soft and
porous or not, may be sufficient to diagnose that ASR
is unlikely to have caused the pop-out (Figure 17).
Where the aggregate is hard and possibly siliceous ,
and especially where there is associated gel or other
deposit , it may be advisable to undertake a further
laboratory investigati on -of the aggregate and deposit.
11
Figure 16: Pop-out over an opaline aggregate
particle {non-UK aggregate}, caused by ASR.
Figure 17: Pop-out caused by frost action on a particle
of porous 'white cortex in a flint gravel aggregate.
2.6.7 Movements, displacements and
deformation
Movements, displac8111ents and deformation, as de-
scribed in 2.5.4 and shown in Figure 18, may arise from
a number of causes other than ASR, such as loading,
uniform or differential shrinkage, thermal or moisture
1110vements, gravity effects, creep, impact, or. vibra-
tion. The possibility that any ofthese have caused the
observed mOV8111ents, should be tested against the
known use of the structure and its loading and envi-
ronmental history.
Figure 18: Displacement of parapet at joint, indicating
relative movements between parts of structure.
12
2.6.8 Collective assessment of site
observations
For each ofthe site features an assessnlent can be made
of:
(a) The degree to which ASR is indicated as a
cause of the observed feature.
(b) Its extent in relation to the structural menlber,
or to the structure as a whole.
(c) The severity of the damage or deterioration pro-
duced by the observed feature. The recorded
dalnage to the concrete, and the environmental
conditions, should each be classified in terms of
their extent and severity, as suggested in Table 2.
Each classification is given an 'Index' which may
assist in diagnosing the cause of deterioration, and
will be particularly useful when making reconlmenda-
tions on the structural condition and future
management of the structure (see 6.2).
Table 2: Visual features: extent and severity indices.
Classification Index
Extent of feature
Not significant 1
Slight, up to 5% of area or length as appropriate 2
Moderate, 5 to 20% 3
Extensive, more than 20%, but not all 4
Total, all areas affected 5
Severity of feature
Insignifican t
Minor features of a non-urgent or purely
cosmetic nature
1
2
Unacceptable features requiring attention 3
Severe defects or problems requiring 4
immediate attention
Structurally unsafe 5
When diagnosing the cause of deterioration and the
role which ASR may have played in it, only (a), the
degree to which ASR is indicated, will be of impor-
tance.
The extent (b) and severity (c) will, of course, be
critical factors governing reconlmendations for the
repair and management of the structure.
The extent and severity should also be considered
when deciding whether laboratory testing, site testing,
or other investigations to establish the cause of deterio-
ration, should be undertaken immediately, or might be
delayed pending the results of future site inspections
or monitoring.
At this stage in the investigation, the degree to
which ASR is indicated by individual site features
must be largely a subjective assessment, based on the
assessor's knowledge and experience, and the guid-
ance given in this report.
The following procedure is suggested.
-
(a) If the environment (see 2.6.2) is very unlikely to
have been conducive to ASR, then further
investigation of ASR is not indicated, and
attention should be focussed on other possible
causes of the damage.
(b) If the environnlent could possibly have been
conducive to ASR, then each of the other
features listed in 2.6.3 to 2. 6.7 should be as-
sessed as producing a ' low', ' moderate', or
' high' indication that ASR could be a cause of
the observed feature.
If any single feature falls in the ' high' category it is
suggested that laboratory testing for ASR would be
justified.
If one or more of the features fall in the ' moderate'
category, laboratory testing for ASR probably would be
justified on the grounds that the client would wish to
have all possible causes investigated.
If all features are classified as 'low' , it is probable
that laboratory testing for ASR would not be justified,
and any inlmediate further investigation should con-
centrate on other possible causes.
2.7 In-situ testing and monitoring
2.7.1 Non-destructive testing (NOT)
Non-destructive testing rarely provides additional
evidence for the diagnosis of ASR, but it may be useful
in the assessment of the visual features described in
2.5, and in assessing strains not associated with visual
features.
The principal NDT nlethods are described in British
Standards[Hl), and those 1110St commonly used on site
are described below.
(a) Electromagnetic cover meters(1 7). These devices
1neasure the position of underlying steel reinforce-
ment , and its depth beneath the concrete surface.
They vary in sensitivity (maxiIilum detection depth
and indication of orientation of the reinforcement) and
all require calibrating for the particular concrete being
investigated. They are useful when determining the
relationship between a crack pattern and the position
of reinforcenlent.
(b) Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)[18). Portable appa-
ratus is used to nleasure the UPV through the thickness
of concrete units. Cracks which lie across the sonic
path reduce the pulse velocity, although to a variable
extent , so the nleasure1nents offer a potentially useful
indication of the condition of the concrete. In certain
instances , UPV nleasurenlents may enable mininlunl
crack depths to be estinlated.
Results are frequently difficult to interpret and the
method is less useful when access to both sides of a
unit is restricted or impossible. The pulse velocity can
be affected by the nloisture content of the concrete and
by reinforcement. The technique appears to have a
limited use in the diagnosis of ASR. Those aspects of
the technique which relate to structural assessment
are dealt with in the Institution of Structural Engi-
neer's report(1) .
(c) Surface hardness(19) . Rebound hammers , such as
Schnlidt hanl nl ers, which give a measure of concrete
surface hardness, are oflinlited use in the diagnosis of
ASR.
(d) Other methods. Many specialist or experimental
NDT nlethods have been developed, although few are
of direct relevance to the diagnosis of ASR.
Vibration response testing may be useful in assess-
ing the overall condition of the structure.
Half-cell potential and resistivity testing are being
used increasingly to evaluate reinforcement corro-
sion. These may be of some relevance when cracking
of the concrete cover, caused by ASR, might present a
risk of corrosion of the enlbedded steel.
2.7.2 Monitoring
In many cases, the damage at the tinle of inspection is
not severe enough to warrant immediate further test-
ing or remedial action, but it may be considered
appropriate to nlonitor the structure, or parts of the
structure, to ascertain the rate and magnitude of any
progressive development of the danlage.
The Institution of Structural Engineers ' report(1)
gives guidance on the monitoring of structures either
suffering from, or suspected of suffering from ASR.
3. Sampling
3.1 Objects and approach
The objects of the sampling progranlme are directl y
dependent on the objects of the test programme, for
example, on whether the cause or the extent of the
distress is being investigated, or both.
The test programnle should include an investiga-
tion of factors other than ASR, such as carbonation and
chloride penetration. It is probable that , during the
initial investigation, sanlples will be required only to
discover the cause of visual distress. When this is the
case, a linlited programme of coring from those areas
which are showing most damage nlay be all that is
needed for petrographical examination and chemical
analysis.
From the results of this initial examination, it nlay
be necessary to consider a 1nore comprehensive test
programme to establish both the extent and severity of
the problem.
3.2 Number and distribution
of samples
The number of samples that will be required is de-
pendent on the type of structure and its complexity.
The sampling scheme should provide a series of
samples representative of the elements of the structure
under investigation. Because of the inhOl11ogeneity of
most concrete within a large structure, three areas
should be chosen from each element (such as a foun-
dation, beam, abutment or slab), representing sound,
typical and damaged concrete, and it is suggested that
sanlples should be taken fronl each of the three areas.
Almost inevitably, the lilnitations of access and
economics will be deciding factors in the selection of
the sampling locations , and of the number of samples
to be taken. Generally, a more representative assess-
ment is obtained from single tests carried 0'...1t on many
samples taken from different parts of the structure,
than from concentrating all testing on a few samples.
13
3.3 Types of samples
3.3.1 Cores
Coring is the most widely used method of sampling,
and is the only technique capable of producing sam-
ples meeting the needs of most of the laboratory
analysis and testing. The locations of cores should be
agreed with the engineer responsible for the structure,
to ensure that they do not adversely affect it.
If cores are to be tested for strength, then care should
be taken to extract cores suitable for this purpose.
Concrete Society Technical Report 11(20) and the ISE
report(1) give guidance on this. However, for structural
assessment, it is recommended that cores should have
a length to diameter ratio between 2.5:1 and 3.0:1(1).
A core diameter of 100 mm is preferred, but fre-
quently it is necessary to take smaller cores, typically
of about 75 mm diameter, to avoid cutting closely-
spaced reinforcement, which may be detected with a
cover meter. In exceptional circumstances, the core
diameter may have to be reduced to 50 mm, but small
diameter cores are not recommended. Where cores are
drilled deep into the concrete, particularly in heavily
reinforced sections, or through layered reinforcement,
some cutting of steel may be inevitable.
To meet certain special testing requirements, typi-
cally when the coarse aggregate has a maximum particle
size of40mnl ormore, cores of150mm, or occasionally
even 200 mm diameter, may be required. In practice,
the use of large diameter cores is f'estricted by the
problems of cutting reinforcement, and the effect on
the structural integrity of the concrete member being
cored.
In reinforced concrete, major cracking and disrup-
tion, caused by ASR, is usually confined to the outer
concrete cover, but extrenlely fine cracking will nor-
mally occur throughout the depth of the concrete. Core
samples should, therefore, be as long as possible and,
where feasible, should pass completely through the
concrete member being sampled.
It is advisable to drill some of the cores through
cracks, so that the depth of visible cracks may be
determined.
Cracking and disruption from ASR is not restricted
to concrete above ground level, or to exposed concrete.
Cores should be taken from foundations, and from the
bases of columns, ground slabs, and abutments.
It is essential to fix the core drilling rig rigidly
(Figure 19), because vibration or lateral movement of
the core barrel, during drilling, can result in an un-
evenly cut or damaged core. With all rotary coring, the
quality of the core produced depends upon the equip-
ment used and the experience of the operatives . The
major requirement is that the core should have smooth
parallel sides and should not contain cracks produced
by the drilling.
3.3.2 Powdered drilling samples
Powdered samples of concrete can be produced by
drilling with a standard rotary percussion drill fitted
with a masonry bit. Powdered samples are commonly
used for chloride analysis, where large numbers of
samples are required. The technique is described in
BRE IP 21/86(21), where it is recommended that the
powder collected from several adjacent holes , drilled
using a bit of 10 mm diameter, is combined to form a
14
Figure 19: Drilling a horizontal core: rig bolted to face
of concrete.
sample. When drilling each hole, the surface 5 mm is
discarded, and the holes drilled to a depth of about
25mm.
The current practice is to use larger bits of 20 mm or
25 mm diameter, and to collect the powdered drillings
at increnlents of depth, usually of 25 lum. Such sam-
ples permit the chloride content and gradient in the
concrete to be determined.
Powdered drillings are not recommended for deter-
mining the alkali content of the bulk concrete, but they
may be used for determining local alkali concentra-
tions or gradients. Even when produced by the
larger-size drills indicated above, powdered drillings
are rarely truly representative of the concrete and, to
avoid misleading results, alkali gradients should be
determined as alkali by weight of cenlent.
3.3.3 Lump samples
Samples obtained by hammering or chiselling lumps
of concrete from the structure are not recommended
for use in a petrographical examination, because crack-
ing caused by hammering may be misleading, and
evidence of ASR may be masked by extensive carbona-
tion of the cement paste or gel.
Large angle-grinders may be used to cut lump sam-
ples from the concrete. These are adequate for initial
diagnostic analysis in certain situations, but are not
recommended for the main phase of the investigation.
3.3.4 Special samples
Samples of surface deposits of soil and water, in
contact with the concrete, may be required. The
sampling of soil and ground water is described in
BS 5930(22).
Occasionally, complete concrete units may need to
be removed for structural testing. This type of sam-
pling would normally be undertaken during the
execution of remedial works, but it is not common
practice.
- I
3.4 Treatment of samples
3.4.1 Site observations and records
A detailed record of all sampling operations should be
made on site. The location of each sample should be
plotted accurately, and a record made of all informa-
tion relating to sampling.
A detailed description of the cores would normally
be undertaken on receipt in the laboratory, but certain
basic information should be noted on site, including:
(a) Core location, diameter, length and orientation.
(b) Fractures, cold joints, and disintegration of
core.
(c) Number of pieces (if fragnlented).
(d) Presence of reinforcement, including size,
position and condition.
(e) Other features, such as damp patches and fresh
gel in cracks and voids.
A photographic record should be made ofthe locations
from which samples are taken, and the condition ofthe
concrete within the core hole should be noted. It is
often useful to photograph the sanlples immediately
after they have been extracted.
As soon as possible after drilling, and using an
indelible marker, all samples should be clearly la-
belled with a reference nunlber and an indication of
the sanlple's orientation within the concrete member.
Where core samples are fragmented, the individual
fragments should be labelled sequentially. Records of
sampling are most conveniently made using prepared
record sheets. A suitable site core record sheet is
shown in Figure 20 on page 16. Similar records should
be kept when sawn lump samples are removed.
3.4.2 Preservation of samples
Without delay, cores and lump samples should be
sealed to prevent desiccation and carbonation. A
number of layers of commercial-grade cling-filnl
wrapped around the samples has been found suitable,
although it is not re-usable. The sanlples should then
be sealed in heavy-gauge polythene bags for additional
protection.
It is stongl y recommended that core boxes should be
used for the transport and storage of core samples,
especially when the cores are long and fragmented.
Powdered drilling samples should be sealed in a
polythene bag or an appropriate airtight container.
Plastic photographic film canisters have been found
suitable.
3.5 Making good
All sampling, by its nature, is destructive, and the
sampled area of concrete will require making good for
durability, structural, or aesthetic reasons, although
repairs are normally non-structural. In most cases, a
permanent repair of sampled areas will be required.
Cementitious and resin mortar systems, designed
specifically for concrete repairs, are available. Both
cementitious and resin nlortars are obtainable in light-
weight, low-slump specifications, suitable for repairs
to soffits, or similar situations where plugging would
normally be required to retain the fresh mortar.
4. Laboratory
investigation
4. I General approach
4.1.1 Objects of investigat ion
The objects of the laboratory investigation may in-
clude:
(a) To examine samples for evidence of ASR having
occurred, and to determine to what extent ASR
might have contributed to the visible damage
(diagnosis) .
(b) To assist in forecasting the possibility of further
reaction and expansion in the structure, and the
magnitude of any such further expansion
(prognosis) .
(c) To assist in the structural assessment of the
structure.
4. 1.2 Pe rsonnel and experti se
Laboratory personnel should be suitably qualified, by
education, training and experience, to carry out the
procedures described in this section.
4.2 Available methods
The available laboratory investigation methods vary in
usefulness, depending on the objects to be achieved,
and are described in 4.3 to 4.9. Table 3 on page 17
provides a guide to the selection ofthe most appropri-
ate methods. Normally a number of these methods will
need to be used to obtain a reliable diagnosis.
A general procedure for undertaking a laboratory
investigation of concrete suspected of suffering from
ASR is shown as a flow chart in Figur,e 21 on page 18.
This figure should be read in conjunction with Table 3,
and tests selected as appropriate.
A scheme for the petrographic examination of hard-
ened concrete is given Appendix A on page 32. Further
guidance on methods of chemical and microscopical
analysis of concrete is given in Concrete Society
Technical Report 32(23) and ASTM Standard C856(24).
Specialist techniques, such as scanning electron
microscopy (SEM), may sometimes prove useful, but
are not described in this report.
4.3 Preliminary examination of
cores in the laboratory
4.3.1 Receipt of cores
Cores despatched from site should arrive at the labora-
tory wrapped in cling-film and with the concrete in a
moist condition. They should be unwrapped, and the
procedures described in 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4 carried
out immediately. It should be remembered that the
concrete will be drying out whilst this is being done.
Some cores may have dried out before arrival at the
laboratory. This should be recorded, because it can
influence the extent to which the gellnay have carbon-
ated and the degree to which the gel could expand
later.
15
SITE CORE RECORD
Client Site
Date Type of rig
Location of core in structure (including grid refs)
Direction of drilling (tick box)
Vertical up
Vertical down
Horizontal
Inclined
Depth of carbonation
Max Min
D
D
D
D

Approx angle
0.0
+
---- D
_ 0.0
D
Number of pieces
Assembled
length
Max
Min
Job No.
Operator
Photograph (tick)
Core D Hole D
Method of flush (tick box)
Water flush D
Air flush D
Dry D
Antifreeze D
Reinforcement size
Distance to reinforcement
Condition
Vertical or horizontal
I Site Ref
Operators comments on CORE SAMPLE (condition of concrete, condition of steel, cracks, delamination of core etc)
Operators comments on CORE HOLE (cracks, voids, poor compaction, reinforcement, loss of water during coring etc)
Sketch of core hole location (if necessary)
Notes:
1. Mark core with site reference number
2. All core locations to be photographed or sketched
3. All cores to be labelled
(b) (c)
OUT
I ...... t-----
4. If outside of core is destroyed by coring, mark core with estimate of depth of
new surface i.e.
r-- 50 mm from surface
Figure 20: Example of site core record sheet.
16
Dia. of drill bit
Table 3: Laboratory tests used during the investigation of ASR.
Use and importance of test results
Clause
4.3
Test
Preliminary
laboratory
examination
4.4 Examination of sawn,
Appendix B finely ground and
impregnated sections
Measurements, such as
lengths, widths and
frequency of cracks
Volumetric
proportions
4.5 Examination of
thin sections
4.6.1 Determination of
alkali content
4.6.2 Determination of
cement content
4.6.3 Determination of
chloride content
4.7 Examination of
exudations and
crystalline material
4.8 Expansion testing
4.9 Alkali -immersion
test
Purpose Diagnosis
To complete the record of samples on site.
To look for signs of possible ASR, and highlight
***
areas for more detailed laboratory investigation
To look for evidence of ASR and to assess internal
crack patterns. Area for more detailed examination,
***
e.g. by preparing thin sections, can be highlighted
To assist in quantification of damage and its
severity
*
To quantify selected constituents of concrete. Useful
for quantifying amount of reacted and/or potentially
*
reactive aggregates
To identify reacted and potentially reactive aggregate.
To confirm the presence of alkali-silica gel and
***
reaction sites, and to observe the extent and
configuration of related cracking
To assess alkali levels within the concrete in order to
consider the sources of alkalis and the possibility of
**
local concentrations
To assist in estimating the original alkali content of
the concrete
*
Used in conjunction with 4.6.1 to infer the possible
contribution of sodium chloride to the alkali content
of the concrete
To identify exudations and crystalline material
e.g. to identify the presence of alkali -silica gel
***
To assist in diagnosis and in assessing the potential
for further expansion **
To assist in the identification of reactive aggregates
*
Key * * * Important tests * * Do when possible * Results could be useful if test can be done
Prognosis
***
*
*
**
*
*
*
*
*
***
A superficial examination of the cores should start
with reconstruction of the core (see 4.3.2). A detailed
record (see 4.3.3) should be made, and photographs
taken of the reconstructed cores and of any other
features which nlight be ofinterest (see 4.3.4). Sanlples
should then be selected for further testing (see 4.3.6).
from the original surface inwards (Figure 23 on
page 18). A convention such as this defines the direc-
tion in which the core was drilled.
4.3.2 Reconstruction and logging of cores
Cores cannot always be extracted as one continuous
length, most are fragmented into relatively short pieces.
On receipt at the laboratory, these pieces should be
reass81nbled in the order in which they were drilled
from the concrete. This reconstruction is simplified by
placing the pieces end to end on a long piece of
V-section timber (Figure 22 on page 18).
It is conlmon practice to assign an identification
number to each core as a whole. Using a waterproof
ink, each piece of the core is then labelled with the
core's identification nunlber, and with suffixes as-
signed to individual fragnlents in alphabetical order
4.3.3 Record and description of cores
A file should be opened on each core, and should be
given the same nunlber. All records relating to the core,
and to any tests performed on sanlples taken from the
core, should be stored in the file. Infornlation such as
the diameter, overall length and place of origin of the
core should be recorded, with the name of the supplier
and the date on which the concrete was placed.
The apparent composition and uniformity of the
concrete, and the aggregate types and sizes should be
described. An asseSSlnent of the proportion of voids in
the concrete nlay give a useful indication of the origi-
nal quality ofthe concrete or degree of compaction(20).
The extent of surface deposits, danlp patches and
cracking should be noted. In some cases carbonated gel
may be visible in cracks orvoids (Figure 24 on page 19).
17
Preliminary examination
Decision on further laboratory work
Core saw-cut into test portions
Note: Depending on the dimensions of the component and/or objectives of the investigation separate areas may be taken
for the various tests.
Figure 21: General procedure for laboratory investigations.
Figure 22: Core reconstructed on a long piece of
V-section timber. -
18
Figure 23: Core labelled sequentially from original
surface.
Figure 24: Fracture sUljace, carbonated gel in void.
4.3.4 Photographs
Having reconstructed, labelled and described the core,
it should be photographed, preferably in colour. A
graduated scale should be included in each photo-
graph to define the size and proportions ofthe subject.
Features of special interest, such as gelatinous exuda-
tions and pop-outs, should be photographed. In many
instances these features can then be removed carefully
for examination, such as by a determination of refrac-
tive index, or by x-ray diffraction powder analysis
(see 4.7).
4.3.5 Re-wetting and further examination
When the preliminary examination has been conl-
pleted as described above, the core should be re-wetted
by placing it briefly under running water from a tap.
Each section of the core is then wrapped in several
layers of cling-film and stored carefully overnight. The
cores should be unwrapped the following morning
and re-examined as the surface dries out. The so-called
' sweaty patches' and 'snails trails', indicative of ASR
(Figure 25), can be readily identified, and will assist in
the selection of pieces of concrete for the preparation
of thin sections (see 4. 5) .
ES ~ 9 3
Figure 25: S-weaty patches on surface of core.
4.3.6 Selection of specimens for further
testing
Surface deposits should be removed for optical exami-
nation, and regions of the core selected for further
testing.
Thin sections for optical exanlination are normally
cut from areas thought to contain reactive aggregates
and silica gel. During the initial examinations these
will have been identified as areas of dampness or gel
exudation. The optical examination of sawn and finely
ground sections, described in 4.4, may also assist in the
selection of areas suitable for thin sections. A record
should be nlade of the location, orientation and depth
ofthe sub-sanlples along the core. Samples should also
be selected for chenlical analysis.
Off-cuts from the concrete samples can be broken
into fragments, and the freshly broken surfaces exam-
ined under a low-power stereoscopic microscope to
identify reaction products, including gel.
The surfaces produced in this way should not be
used for any other testing.
4.4 Examination of finely ground
sections
4.4.1 Applications
The low-power microscopical exanlination of sawn
and finely ground sections of concrete (usually from
cores) is. a relatively inexpensive method of studying
large areas of concrete sanlples.
The technique can be used as the initial phase of a
petrographic exanlination, when it assists in the selec-
tion of areas for detailed examination of thin sections,
or for chemical analysis. It may also be used to study
cores on cOlnpletion of expansion testing, pernlitting
aggregate conlposition to be correlated with expan-
sion.
It has the following applications:
(a) Qualitative description of aggregate.
(b) Examination of crack patterns.
(c) Examination of features such as aggregate
reaction rinls.
(d) Detection of ASR reaction products and other
reaction products, not necessarily associated
with ASR, which may be removed for analysis.
(e) Quantitative deternlination of aggregate
composition.
(f) Estimation of concrete nlix proportions.
Methods for the preparation and examination of sawn
sections are described in Appendix B on page 33 , and
in ASTM Standard C856(24).
4.4.2 Internal cracking
Internal cracks in concrete can be induced by exces-
sive expansion or contraction, or by strains caused by
loading. Not only can internal cracks be found in
concretes which exhibit signs of deterioration, they
can also be found, but to a nluch lesser extent, in
concretes which are visually sound. It is also possible
that some additional internal cracking will be induced
19
during extraction of the core, or during the preparation
of the finely ground section.
It is not only ASR that can cause expansion and
internal cracking. Other processes can induce exces-
sive expansion and contraction in concrete, nearly all
of which are more common than ASR. They include:
plastic shrinkage;
thermal contraction;
drying shrinkage;
aggregate expansion and contraction (caused by a
1110isture sensitive aggregate);
sulfate attack;
frost attack;
steel corrosion.
Each of these processes, if acting alone, induces a
reasonably characteristic internal crack pattern, the
recognition of which can often assist in diagnosis.
Figures 26 to 32 are idealized drawings illustrating
some internal crack patterns typically induced by the
Inore common causes of expansion or contraction. It is
emphasized that many other variations will be en-
countered when examining concrete samples.
Complicated crack patterns may result from a combi-
nation of different processes and/or crack patterns,
caused or modified by extraneous factors.
Figure 26 shows internal cracking induced by ther-
Inal contraction or aggregate expansion, with many
cracks radiating from aggregate particles. This type of
cracking can be found in concretes which have been
subjected to a high temperature at an early age. The
internal cracking induced by drying shrinkage can be
similar (Figure 27).
Figure 28 shows the internal crack pattern which
can be induced by shrinkage of the coarse aggregate.
When internal cracking is induced by thermal contrac-
tion, drying shrinkage, or aggregate shrinkage, the
cracks are normally empty.
Figure 29 on page 21 shows internal cracking in-
d uced by frost attack. There is a random syst81n of
cracks in the heart concrete, together with cracks
parallel to the exposed surface of the concrete, which
decrease in severity away from the surface. The cracks
are often partially filled with calcite and/or portlandite
and/ or ettringi te.
Figure 30 on page 21 shows internal cracking linked
with internal sulfate attack, either caused by delayed
ettringite formation, or by sulfates derived from the
aggregate. Cracks are typically filled with ettringite.
Figures 31 and 32 on page 21 show the characteristic
internal crack distribution in a concrete which exhib-
its excessive expansion caused by ASR, when the
reactive silica is found in the fine and coarse aggregate
respectively. This type of cracking has been found in
sections taken both frOln affected field concretes and
from concretes which have expanded due to ASR
under controlled conditions. The cracks are frequently
filled or partially filled with gel and, in some cases,
also partially filled with ettringite.
Where abnormal expansion is induced by ASR, a
network of cracks, interconnecting a number of cracked
aggregate particles, is formed in the heart of the con-
crete. Occasionally some of the reacting particles are
partially solubilized.
20
Exposed
face
Figure 26: Internal crack pattern which can be induced
by thermal contraction or aggregate expansion.
Exposed
face
Figure 27: Internal crack pattern which can be
induced by drying shrinkage.
Exposed
face
Figure 28: Internal crack pattern which can be
induced by shrinkage of the coarse aggregate.
Exposed
face
Figure 29: Internal crack pattern which can be
induced by frost attack.
Exposed
face
Figure 30: Internal crack pattern which can be caused
by internal sulfate attack for delayed ettringite
formation, or from sulfates derived from the aggregate.
The internal crack distribution is sensitive to ap-
plied and induced compressive stresses. When under
stress, the cracks tend to be aligned parallel to the
direction of compressive stress.
The interconnecting cracks are absent in those parts
of the section which correspond with the exposed
surface of the concrete, and there are few cracked
aggregate particles in this region (Figures 31 and 32).
In concrete affected by ASR, typically the heart
concrete expands and the exposed outer surfaces do
not, so the outer surfaces go into tension and macro-
cracks are fonned at right angles to the exposed surfaces.
The interconnecting cracks, together with the macro-
cracks close to the exposed surfaces, indicate that
expansion has occurred in the interior of the concrete.
If some of the cracks in a section of a suspect
concrete are found to be filled with gel, and if, in
addition, the internal crack distribution is typical of
that induced by ASR, then ASR is likely to be a major
cause of the dettrioration.
If some of t11e cracks in a section of a suspect
concrete are found to be filled with gel, but the internal
cracking is not typical of that induced by ASR, then
ASR is unlikely to be the primary cause ofthe deterio-
ration. However, if in regions associated with reacting
particles, the crack intensity and the crack width is
greater than elsewhere, then ASR may be taken to be a
secondary cause of the observed deterioration.
Exposed
face
Figure 31: Internal crack pattern which can be caused
by ASR: reactive silica in the sand fraction .
Exposed
face
Figure 32: Internal crack pattern 'which can be caused
by ASR: reactive silica in the coarse aggregate.
4.5 Thin sections
4.5.1 Introduction
Thin sections of concrete, prepared by, or under the
supervision of an experienced petrographer, form an
important part of the diagnosis of ASR, and provide
valuable information on the physical conlposition and
condition of the concrete(25). The petrographer will
identify reactive and reacted aggregates and confirm,
or otherwise, the presence of gel and cracking.
Petrographical exanlination ofthin sections is not able
to provide evidence of the extent or rate of deteriora-
tion. For this purpose it should be used in conjunction
with other methods.
4.5.2 Preparation of thin sections
It is recommended that two thin sections should be
prepared from a core. One section should be cut
perpendicular to, and include the outer surface of the
concrete. The other should be taken frOln a selected
area at depth (see AppendixAon page 32).The method
of preparing thin sections is described in Appendix C
on page 34.
21
4.5.3 Examination of thin sections
It 'is essential for the examination to be conducted by
a person familiar with the petrography of concrete.
The completed thin sections should be examined
using a high quality polarizing microscope, in both the
transmission and reflecting nlodes, with lighting suit-
able for .inducing fluorescence. Photomicrographs
should be taken to illustrate the salient points of any
interpretation.
The petrographer should describe the features cov-
ered by 4.5.3.1 to 4.5.3.5 below, though not necessarily
in this order.
4.5.3.1 Cement paste
(a) Cement clinker. Unhydrated particles of Portland
cement clinker are often present in the cement paste of
Portland cement concrete(26).
The larger particles, 50 pm to 100 pm or larger,
survive the hydration process. Their presence will
confirm that the sample is, in fact, of aPortland cement
concrete.
(b) Portlandite. Portlandite [Ca(OH)?] is a product of
the hydration of Portland cement , and is a normal and
abundant constituent of hardened Portland cement
concrete.
The .size of the portlandite crystals is affected by
factors such as water/cement ratio, cement content,
aggregates, leaching, chemical history, and exposure
to frost.
Consequently, the location, size and distribution of
these crystals can provide useful diagnostic evidence
on the above factors, and information regarding their
occurrence should be recorded.
(c) Carbonation. The rate of carbonation in a high
quality concrete is normally low. The rate in lower
quality, more porous concrete is more rapid. If the age
of the concrete is known, observation of the degree of
carbonation may, therefore, permit an impression ofits
original quality to be obtained.
However, caution is necessary, because the carbona-
tion rate can be influenced by the environment,
aggregates, and added materials such as fly ash and
ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs).
If an outer surface is included in the thin section, the
depth of penetration of carbonation should be re-
corded, and any deeper incursions , caused by cracking
or honeyconlbing, identified.
The form of the carbonation front, i.e. whether the
boundary is sharp or diffuse, can also provide useful
information. Sharp boundaries tend to occur in higher
quality concrete, and diffuse boundaries in lower
quality, more permeable concrete.
(d) Voids. In any concrete, a small amount of en-
trapped air will be present as voids of various sizes and
shapes. If air is deliberately entrained, the resulting
voids are usually spherical, of a limited size range, and
relatively abundant.
Voids caused by bleeding are large, often elongated
and irregular in shape, and tend to occur near outer
surfaces and under coarse aggregate particles.
If the void volume is required, it should be meas-
ured using one of the methods described in 4.4 and
Appendix B on page 33, otherwise the shape, size
range, and the contents of the voids should be re-
corded.
22
(e) Cement replacement materials. The cement paste
should be examined, at moderately high magnifica-
tions, to establish whether or not the concrete contains
cement replacement materials. The Inost common of
these are fly ash (pfa) and ggbs. Fly ash will be visible
as small spherical inclusions, some of which will be
glassy and hollow (cenospheres), with others opaque
and carbonaceous. Ggbs should be visible as angular
glassy (isotropic) shards, the majority of which will be
between 30 pm to 60 pm. It should be noted that both
these materials are hydraulic and are affected by the
alkaline environment of the paste, which can nlake
them difficult to detect in older concretes.
When used as a partial replacement for a high-alkali
Portland cement, both fly ash and ggbs tend to reduce
the likelihood of damage from ASR, and the presence
of either of these in significant quantities will have a
bearing on the possibility of ASR being the cause of any
expansion.
(f) Colour variations. The cement paste should be
examined at low magnification to detect colour varia-
tions. One ofthe common observable effects of ASR is
a marked darkening of parts ofthe paste. This is caused
by gel impregnation of the micro-pores which are
always present in a cement paste. The occurrence of
irregular dark patches, and whether they are close to
cracks, or to any particular rock type in either coarse or
fine aggregate, should be recorded.
4.5.3.2 Surface deposits
When subjected to leaching, cracked concrete struc-
tures frequently show surface exudations, which
usually consist of calcite. Structures affected by ASR
sometimes show both calcite fonnations and gel exu-
dation. If surface deposits are present in the thin
section they should be identified qualitatively and
commented on, but it nlay be advisable to collect these
from the surface of the concrete before making the thin
sections, and to examine thenl separately (see 4.7).
4.5.3.3 Aggregates
(a) Coarse fraction. In the case of a polymictic* gravel,
the rock types should be identified, described in gen-
eral terms and detailed in approximate order of
abundance. The presence of potentially deleterious
rock types should be recorded.
If the aggregate is monomictic+, e.g. a crushed rock,
it should be identified and examined for potentially
reactive constituents. These might be present in the
form of secondary incl usions, such as vein materials in
igneous rocks or silicification in limestones.
The porosity, if evident, should be commented on.
Collins and Bareham(27) have shown that the extent of
distress caused by ASR can be related to the porosity
of an inert coarse aggregate. The greater the porosity,
the less the distress relative to that produced when a
non-porous aggregate is present. Information on the
shape and size range of aggregate particles may also be
useful.
If some rock types in the aggregate show evidence of
distress, possibly as a result of ASR, these should be
identified and described in detail.
* Composed of more than one rock type
+ Composed of a single rock type
I
I
A guide to potentially alkali-reactive rock and nlin-
eral constituents is given in Appendix D on page 34.
(b) Fine fraction. The principal constituents of the
fine fraction should be identified and listed in order of
abundance, noting any potentially reactive or other-
wise deleterious content , see Appendix D. It is
frequently possible to identify sea-dredged sands by
their non-fossilised shell content.
The proportion of reactive to non-reactive aggregate
can be of significance (see 6.1.3), so any observations
in this respect should be made.
If crushed rock coarse aggregate is present, it will be
of interest to know whether the fine fraction is frOln the
same source and, if so, whether much derived dust is
present in the cement paste.
4.5.3.4 Cracking
(a) General observations. Cracking most comnlonly
forms on the surface of the concrete, but it can occur at
depth, when the usual causes are various forms of
shrinkage. In thin sections the cracks are characterized
by their fineness (about 10 11m in width), their randOln
distribution in the paste (sonletimes self-healing), and
the absence of alternative causes.
When examining the . cracks in thin sections, the
form, distribution, width, and pattern of any cracks
should be noted. If gel is found filling some cracks,
then ASR should be considered as a possible cause of
the cracking. If little or no gel is found in a representa-
tive section, then ASR is less likely, either as a prinlary
or a secondary cause of the cracking.
(b) Cracking caused by ASR. The expansion induced
by ASR will cause cracking in the cement paste.
Nornlally, it will also cause cracking in reacting aggre-
gate particles. The quantity of gel should not be taken
as a nleasure of the deleterious effects of the reaction.
Cracking in reacting aggregate particles may
propagate cracks into the surro1J.nding C81nent paste
(Figures 33 and 34) . The c81nent paste adjacent to
reacting particles and to gel-filled cracks is usually
darkened by gel impregnation. If expansion has been
induced, the cracks can travel considerable distances
through the paste which interconnects reacting aggre-
gate particles. The cracks sonletimes pass through
unreacted aggregate particles, but usually skirt them.
Gel is sonletimes very Inobile and may be found far
from reacting particles, filling or partially filling voids,
and occasionally filling cracks in unreacted aggregate
particles.
The petrographer should study and report on the
crack formation and its relationship to aggregate
particles, recording the contents of any cracks.
The likely contents include gel , sulfate minerals ,
and portlandite. If they are found , their abundance and
location should be recorded.
4.5.3.5 Identification of alkali-silica gel
Gel is a mineraloid and has a high water content. When
it is dried, or partially dried, it frequently shows
characteristic drying shrinkage cracking and may also
have a layered structure, with the layers running
parallel to the walls of cracks or voids (Figure 34) .
These det ails nl ay be seen more clearly by
stopping down the condenser or field iris of the
microscope.
Figur e 33: Thin section. Cracking in aggregate particle
filled with resin. Not a site of expansive reaction.
Figur e 34: Thin section. ASR gel in cracks in aggregate
and in matrix. A site of expansive reaction.
As it ages, gel may carbonate or otherwise become
crystalline and, in this state, it is birefringent. Interfer-
ence colours have been found to vary fronl first order
greys to much higher values, although the reasons for
such variations are, as yet, not fully understood. Inter-
nal details are often retained when crystalline.
4.5.4 Quantifying the observations
Conventional point-counting would enable specific
constituents and features to be quantified, but an
extremely large number of points would need to be
counted if a statistically valid determination of fea-
tures, which form only a small proportion of the
sample, is to be produced. This probably makes such
an approach inlpracticable. SinlS et a1'14) have
described an alternative procedure for quantifying
the evidence of ASR observed in thin sections. This
produces index values which nlay be used for
comparative purposes.
23
4.6 Chemical analysis of concrete
4.6.1 Determination of alkali content
The alkali content of the concrete (i.e. its sodium and
potassium content) can be determined in an attenlpt to
show whether the original alkali content of the
concrete Inix was high enough to make it possible for
danlage to have been caused by alkali-silica reaction.
Even when care is taken when coring, and adequate
representative samples have been obtained, there are
several factors that make it difficult to interpret the test
results.
Where concrete has been exposed to rain or to other
sources of water, there is good evidence to show that
the alkali level can be reduced by the long term
leaching of soluble salts. This is less of a problem in
high quality concrete, but even here caution should be
exercised when interpreting results of alkali
determinations on hardened concrete from the site,
unless there is corroborative evidence frolll a
knowledge of tile original alkali content ofthe cement
and of the cement content of the concrete.
If the concrete has been exposed to moisture on one
or more faces, and to a drying environment on others ,
then moisture lllay have migrated through the con-
crete. This may have caused a concentration of alkalis
in one area and a consequent reduction in another.
Alkali introduced into the concrete at the time of
mixing, for exalllple as salt in sea-dredged aggregates,
is known to be available for reaction. The contribution
from this source tan be calculated from the back-
ground chloride level of the concrete (i.e. that
sufficiently deep within the concrete to avoid confu-
sion with chloride introduced as de-icing salt). A
factor of 0.76 may be used to convert chloride ion to
equivalent sodium oxide. This factor is based on a
consideration of the composition of sea water and
assumes that no other sources of chloride (e.g. calcium
chloride) are present in the concrete.
Uncertainty remains about the extent to which so-
dium chloride frolll de-icing salt can increase the
alkali available for reaction and the level of expansion.
In Denmark, salt added to the water in public indoor
swimllling pools is believed to be a major factor in ASR
causing their deterioration.
At present, the best guidance on the determination
of alkali content is to follow the procedure given in
Appendix E on page 37, after sampling at a sufficient
depth to avoid the effect of alkali contributed from de-
icing salt. '!\There it is suspected that alkalis from
de-icing salt may be present , then determinatiolls of
chloride content should be made at varying depths
below the surface (see 4. 6.3). The presence of chloride
from de-icing salt will usually be shown by a ' chloride
gradient' that decreases with depth into the concrete.
If there is a possibility that the sample may contain
alkali frolll de-icing salt , then it must be remembered
that not all of this alkali may be available to react.
If the aggregate contains alkalis , then the measured
acid soluble alkali content of the concrete will be
greater than that introduced into the mix by the ce-
ment.
There is also uncertainty about whether alkalis in
the minerals lllaking up the aggregate, such as those in
feldspar, are available for reaction, although these
alkalis are likely to be extracted by the acid dissolution
step used in the deterlllination of acid soluble alkali.
24
At present , there is no way of cOlllpensating for this
contribution to the alkali unless salllples of the aggre-
gate are available for testing.
Consideration might be given to a lllethod of analy-
sis of water soluble alkalis. Further work is necessary
to establish the reliability of this method.
Where it is suspected that alkali Inay be present in
the minerals in the aggregate , BS 1881: Part 124(28)
recomlllends that it can be compensated for by analys-
ing a 'fines-rich' fraction of the concrete, obtained by
screening out as much as possible of the aggregate,
before analysing the relllainder.
It has been found, however, that certain aggregates
may absorb some of the available alkali fronl the mix,
so this technique may underestimate the available
alkali content. Building Research Establishment
Digest 330(3) gives guidance on assessing the contribu-
tion of available alkalis from fly ash and ggbs. An
asseSSlllent of the contribution these materials lllake to
the available alkali content of the concrete, requires a
knowledge of the available alkali in the fly ash or ggbs ,
and of the amount of fly ash or ggbs in the lllix.
BS 1881: Part 124(213) contains a method for the
determination of the ggbs content, and it may be
possible to provide guidance on the possible sources of
the additional measured alkali (29) .
In practice, by the time cracking caused by ASR has
become apparent, there is likely to have been consid-
erable oxidation of the sulfide component in ggbs ,
rendering the BS 1881 method for determining ggbs
content unreliable. Control salllples of the original mix
ingredients are unlikely to be available, thus com-
pounding the difficulties.
4.6.2 Determination of cement content
For the diagnosis of ASR, it is not essential to know the
cement content of a concrete, because any deteriora-
tion caused by ASR will be related to the available
alkali content of the concrete, rather than directly to
the cement content. However, a knowledge of the
cement content of the concrete, coupled with the
alkali content of the cement, is important for estilllat-
ing the original available alkali content of the concrete
and, together with the detennination of the alkali
content (see 4.6. 1), may give guidance on the possible
sources of any additional alkali.
In addition, when assessing the cause of deteriora-
tion, factors such as susceptibility to frost danlage,
which can be visually similar to ASR, may be strongly
influenced by the celllent content , so a knowledge of
the cement content Inay be helpful.
Furthermore, the cement is usually the nlajor source
of available alkalis in a concrete, and it is normally
those structures with a high cement content that are
potentially at risk from ASR, particularly when the
cement alkali content is high.
If a fines-rich sample is analysed for cement con-
tent , despite the comments in 4 .6.1 on possible errors
in the analysis of a fines-rich fraction, then alkali
content determinations on both the fines-rich sample
and the original concrete will be required ifpercentage
alkali con.tents are to be converted to masses per unit
volume (kg/m
3
) .
The difficulties in using chelllical analysis to deter-
mine the cement content of concrete suffering from
ASR, are discussed in Appendix F on page 37.
Microscopical methods have also been used (see
Appendix B on page 33).
4.6.3 Determination of chloride content
An analysis of the chloride content of the concrete is
of linlited value in an investigation of ASR, but it
frequently fornls part of the testing programme be-
cause the engineer Inay also be concerned about a
potential risk of chloride-induced corrosion of the
steel reinforc81nent.
There are two possible sources of any chloride salt
present in the concrete:
(a) Chlorides nlay have been incorporated into the
original mix from some aggregates, non-potable
mixing water, or adlnixtures containing calcium
chloride.
(b) Chlorides may have penetrated the hardened
concrete from exposure, either to de-icing salt,
or to sea water.
The chloride content of the concrete can be deter-
mined by the procedure given in BS 1881: Part 124(28),
but this does not necessarily indicate contaniination of
the concrete with alkali nletal salt. For exanlple, the
presence of a calciunl chloride admixture would not
imply that the alkali content of the concrete had been
increased.
Calcium chloride Inay increase the risk of corrosion
of steel reinforcement in the concrete, but in the
context of ASR its presence may be irrelevant. A study
of the concrete structure nlight require the chloride
gradient (the variation of chloride content with depth)
and, for fullest information, the alkali gradient to be
determined.
When such information is interpreted, the engineer
may be in a position to assess the relative contributions
to the potential for ASR, made by the alkali originally
present, and the additional alkali resulting frOln later
ingress.
In addition, the chloride gradient, together with
infornlation on the depth of cover to the steel rein-
forcement , and perhaps on carbonation depth, may be
of interest to the engineer in assessing the likelihood of
damage caused by reinforcement corrosion.
4.7 Examination of exudations and
crystalline material
In the context of ASR, an exudation is likely to be
alkali-silica gel which, when uncontaminated, can
occur in a variety of fornls fronl transparent to translu-
cent, and have a fluidity varying from that of a viscous
oil to that of a hardened acrylic resin.
Crystalline products - not necessarily associated
with ASR - are often a variety of calcium carbonate
(such as calcite orvaterite), a type of hydrated calcium-
alumino-silico-sulfate (such as ettringite orthaumasite),
or a type of sodiuln carbonate (such as trona) . This list
is not intended to be exhaustive, further guidance nlay
be found in ASTM C856(24).
The gelatinous exudation from ASR is not normally
crystalline. It should be examined, using a polarizing
microscope, both to determine its anisotropy and to
estinlate its refracti ve index. The refractive index of
alkali-silica gel can vary over a wide range , but is
typically between 1.4 and 1.5. In some cases it may be
necessary to use other techniques, such as a combina-
tion of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
associated electron probe micro-analysis (EPNA). A
report should be made on the nature and identity of
any exudation.
The staining methods for the in-situ detection of gel
(see 2. 6.5), can also be applied to the laboratory exami-
nation of concrete.
Crystalline material can be exrunined using an x-ray
powder technique (see Appendix G on page 38).
4.8 Expansion testing
4.8.1 Function of expansion tests
The prime function of expansion tests on cores is to
assist in diagnosis, but expansion testing is also used
as a guide to the likely further expansion of the con-
crete member from which the cores were taken.
When used for such predictions, the results of
expansion tests should be treated with caution. They
can overestimate the potential expansion of the con-
crete on site, because the extracted cores can expand
when stored in a moist atmosphere.
This expansion can take up to a year or more to reach
completion, and is observed even when expansion of
the concrete on site has reached completion. Part, or
all of the observed core expansion can result fronl the
removal of restraint(3o.31) .
It should be remembered that extracted cores can
also expand for reasons other than ASR, such as creep
recovery, moisture uptake, the presence of a moisture
sensitive aggregate, and internal sulfate attack.
4.8.2 Accelerated expansion tests
The changes in length of concrete cores are monitored
over a period oftime during which the cores are stored
in a high humidity and at a temperature of 382C.The
method oftest is described in Appendix H on page 38
and has been subjected to a precision trial by ten
collaborating laboratories.
The results ofthis trial are reported in AppendixJ on
page 40. Other storage conditions may be used and
alternatives are suggested in 4.8.4 to 4. 8.6.
The cores are Ineasured at intervals, usually up to
about one year from the start of testing, and the read-
ings used to calculate expansion in microstrain or
percent linear expansion . .
A graph of strain versus tinle for each core is plotted
(Figure 35 on page 26) to assist interpretation of the
results.
Concrete in which ASR has caused deleterious
expansion will normally exhibit an expansion at arate
which is rapid at early ages , but which declines with
age.
Part of this expansion may be caused by the r81noval
ofrestraint, part by additional uptake of water, and part
by continuing reaction. The distinction between the
three forms of expansion has not been established.
The cores can expand asymmetrically, and it is not
uncommon for there to be considerable differences
between individual measurenlents of expansion along
the length of a core. This is possibly caused by differing
levels of restraint and by alkali leaching from the
concrete.
25
c 2000 ,--
-
-
-- / ...
--
---
.
- - - - - - . . ~ - ...... ~ /
...
.... _-----
en 1600
o
o
'E 1200
800
c
.Q
I
I
/I
II
I/r
//
.i/
/
(/)
c
co
Q.
X
W
400
~ r
o
o 20
----

~
40 60 80
Test duration - days
(a ) Cur ves fr om i ndi vi dual readings
2000
100
c
~ 1600
en
/"
..... ~
o
o 1200
E
c 800
o
'(i.j
c
co
Q.
X
W
400
~
."
/
f
/
~
120
20 40 60 80 100 120
Test duration - days
(b) Mean of readings shown i n (a)
Figure 35: Results of expansion test on core sample.
Continuing reaction and expansion in cores is usu-
ally accompanied by a gradual moisture uptake, with
a consequent increase in weight. The relationship
between weight gain and expansion is not clear, but
weight gain provides a useful cross-check with expan-
sion measurements.
4.8.3. Interpretation of results
At present, firm guidance cannot be given on the
interpretation of expansion test results, because there
is not enough information on the correlation, if any,
between the results of core expansion tests and expan-
sion in the structure.
However, if the observed expansion is about
700 microstrain or less, it is unlikely that there will be
further expansion ofthe member from which the cores
were taken. This figure includes 200 to 300 microstrain
to allow for thermal expansion as the core temperature
is raised to 38C. If the test is conducted at a lower
temperature (see 4.8. 4 ) this allowance may need to be
reduced.
For observed expansions higher than
700 ruicrostrain, the greater the expansion shown by
the concrete in the test, the greater the concern that
further expansion, caused by ASR, will occur in the
concrete from which the sample was taken. Core ex-
pansions of 4000 microstrain, and occasionally more,
have been observed.
To assist in evaluating the cause of expansion, it is
recommended that, on completion of the expansion
tests, a petrographic examination is carried out on
selected cores which show a range of expansions.
26
4.8.4 Expansion tests at other temperatures
Some comparative work on cores stored at a tempera-
ture of 20C, has indicated that the rate of expansion is
greatly reduced from that observed at 38C, but the
magnitude ofthe expansion ultimately may be higher.
Experience of the expansion test at temperatures of
20C and less is limited compared with that of the test
at 38C, and it is not possible to provide firm guidance
at this time.
4.8.5 Expansion tests in a caustic or sodium
chloride solution
Some comparative expansion tests have been done on
cores immersed in a caustic solution, such as a l-molar
sodium hydroxide solution, or in a sodium chloride
solution. These tests have indicated that expansions
can be increased. It is considered that such tests can
provide additional guidance on diagnosis, and on
whether the reaction and its expansive effects are
largely complete, but experience with such testing is
limited and it is not yet possible to give firm guidance.
4.8.6 Restrained expansion tests
Limited studies have been made of expansion test
specimens and affected cores restrained by applied
compressions of up to 4 N/mm
2
(32 ) . These indicate that
expansions can be reduced(33), or eliminated by ap-
plied loads. The ' effective elastic modulus ', appropriate
to restrained expansion, is only about 1 to 2 kN/mm
2

Such tests are mainly used for diagnosis, but they may
assist judgements on whether or not the expansions
have been induced by ASR.
Laboratory experiments show that other forms of
expansion, such as those from creep recovery and
moisture uptake, are less sensitive to restraint.
4.9 Alkali-immersion test
A rapid, qualitative indication of the presence of
potentially alkali-silica reactive aggregate particles
may be obtained from the alkali-immersion test. This
method does not prove that damaging ASR has oc-
curred in the concrete, nor that such reactions will
necessarily occur in the future, but it might enable the
presence and type of potentially reactive aggregate
particles to be identified.
Visual monitoring of the immersed test surface will
enable any alkali-silica reactive particles to be recog-
nized, because small gel growths will appear on the
concrete surface near to the exposed aggregate parti-
cles involved in the reaction (Figure 36) .
Figure 36: Gel exudation. Reacting concrete in alkali-
immersion test.
A careful petrographical description of the test
surface, prior to testing, may permit identification of
the aggregate types reacting in the test. The observa-
tions should be confirnled and recorded by comparative
photography before and after testing.
The nlethod for the alkali-immersion test is given in
Appendix K on page 42.
4.1 0 Evaluation of laboratory
findings
4.10.1 General approach to evaluation
ASR in concrete can only be positively identified by a
laboratory investigation using the microscopical and
other techniques already described. The chemical
analysis of concrete sanlples or secondary deposits
will sometimes provide valuable supporting informa-
tion.
Certain features, or combinations offeatures, can be
regarded as reliably diagnostic of ASR. Other features
are only suggestive of ASR and might equally have
resulted from other mechanisms. It is important to
appreciate that the identification, in laboratory sam-
ples, offeatures reliably diagnostic of ASR does not, by
itself, prove that the damage to the structure has been
caused by ASR. Conversely, damage to the structure
should not be ascribed to ASR, except with consider-
able caution, unless a thorough laboratory examination
of adequately representative samples has confirmed
the presence of features diagnostic of ASR.
If ASR has occurred, a conlbined assessment of the
laboratory test results and the site observations should
enable a conclusion to be reached on whether ASR was
the cause, or contributory cause, of any observed
damage, see Section 5.
4.10.2 Significance of alkali-silica gel
The expansive forces generated by ASR in concrete are
caused by the formation and subsequent swelling of
alkali-silica gel within and around the boundaries of
reacting aggregate particles.
The presence of alkali -silica gel within a concrete
indicates that ASR has occurred, but caution must be
exercised when attenlpting to associate the presence of
gel with expansion and cracking. There is no easily
identifiable relationship between the abundance of gel
deposits and the magnitude of any resultant expansion
or cracking. Thus, the identification of considerable
quantities of gel in a sample should not be regarded as
necessarily indicative of a correspondingly large
expansion, or extensive cracking in the structure, or
any expansion whatsoever, unless substantiated by
internal cracking (see 4 .4 .2).
If deposits of gel cannot be found in representative
thin sections which have been prepared correctly,
then it may be taken that ASR is unlikely to have been
the cause of the visual deterioration.
It is vital that samples are correctly selected and
prepared when they are to be used in an evaluation of
ASR (see 3.2 and 4 .5) . Gel is easily washed out with
water and, in general, if snlall amounts of gel are found
in a thin section, the Inethod used in the preparation
should be questioned.
It has been observed that concrete containing reac-
tive gravel aggregates from the Midlands area of the
UK, can sonletinles show only slnall amounts of gel in
thin sections. In this situation, it may be nlore
representative to use either the fractured or the sawn
surface of the concrete (see 4.3.6 and 4.4), when
attempting to make a semi-quantitative assessment of
the amount of gel produced.
4.10.3 Sites of expansive reaction
In addition to the observation of alkali -silica gel, a
second reliably diagnostic observation is the identifi-
cation of 'sites of expansive reaction' on sawn and
finely ground surfaces, and in thin sections. A site of
expansive reaction is a location within the concrete
where reaction has taken place and from which swell-
ing pressures have emanated. It will show clear
evidence of gel formation and associated crack propa-
gation from the interface between the cement paste
matrix and an aggregate particle (Figure 34 on page 23).
Without additional evidence of reaction, a gel deposit
within a crack that transects or surrounds an aggregate
particle, does not constitute a site of expansive
reaction (Figure 37).
Aggregate particles associated with sites of expan-
sive reaction will consist of a recognisably reactive or
potentially reactive rock type, which has been par-
tially replaced or, rarely, completely replaced by gel.
The aggregate particle typically exhibits some internal
fracturing, and some cracks will propagate into the
surrounding concrete matrix. These cracks usually are
filled, or partially filled with gel. In some examples of
ASR, such sites of expansive reaction may appear as
'reaction rims' around aggregate particles, but not all
rims, if present, represent sites of expansive reaction.
Figure 37: Thin section. Gel filling crack in cement
paste. Not a site of expansive reaction.
4.10.4 Internal cracking
A third reliably diagnostic observation is that the
internal crack pattern, observed in a finely ground
section ofthe suspect concrete, is characteristic of that
induced by ASR (see 4 .4.2, Figures 31 and 32 on
page 21). If ASR is the primary cause of the expansion,
then a network of cracks will be found interconnecting
a number of aggregate particles which are generally
cracked and constitute sites of expansive reaction.
The interconnecting crack system will be absent in
those parts of the section which correspond with the
27
exposed surface of the concrete, and few aggregate
particles which have cracked as a consequence of ASR
will be present. Depending upon where the section
was taken, cracks at right angles to the exposed surface
Inay be observed in this region.
4.10.5 Other features
During the laboratory investigation, other features
Inay have been identified that are consistent with, or
suggestive of ASR, but which are not reliably diagnos-
tic in themselves. These have been described earlier,
but include:
(a) Cracking; especially when the crack patterns
appear to be causally related to certain aggre-
gate particles, or when the cracks are filled or
lined with gel [see 4.5.3.4(b)].
(b) Internal fracturing of aggregate particles, espe-
cially when the rock types are recognizably
reactive or potentially reactive.
(c) The darkening of cement paste around aggregate
particles or voids, or along borders, perhaps
(but not invariably) caused by gel impregnation
[see 4.5.3.1()].
(d) Recognizably reactive or potentially reactive
aggregate types (see 4.5.3.3).
(e) The formation of damp or ' sweaty' patches on
the surfaces of core saInples (see 4.3.5).
None of these features, on its own, constitutes un-
equivocal evidence of ASR, but the occurrence of
several such features in anyone sample will support
such a diagnosis. The strength of this support will
increase as the diversity and abundance of the identi-
fied features cumulate.
4.10.6 Quantifying microscopical
observations
At present, it is uncertain whether a reliably predictive
relationshi p exists between the abundance of
microscopical evidence for the occurrence of ASR
within a concrete, and the extent of damage which is,
or might be, a result of that ASR. SinlS et all14) have
described a procedure for quantifying such
Inicroscopical observations. The method appears to be
effective, at least for comparative applications such as
for monitoring the progress of reaction within indi-
vidual structural elenlents over a period, or for
comparing various parts of one concrete pour exposed
to different environments.
4.10.7 Interpretation of chemical analysis
results
When other reliably diagnostic or indicative features
have been identified, a determination of the concrete's
alkali content may provide additional supporting evi-
dence, but the analysis of hardened concrete for
acid-soluble alkalis will rarely produce a result which
reliably represents the original content of 'reactive'
alkalis (see 4.6.1).
It seems reasonable to suppose that damage from
ASR is unlikely to have occurred in any concrete in
28
which the average overall alkali content of the
concrete, expressed as equivalent sodium oxide
(Na + 0.658 Kz0), remains appreciably less than
3.0 'kg/m
3
, unless the aggregate contains an opaline
constituent. This assumes that the sub-samples ana-
lysed were taken from locations which could not have
been subjected to leaching and consequent depletion
of the alkali content. The converse, however, is not
necessarily true. A high measured alkali level does
not , by itself, prove that ASR is the cause of any
damage, but it may lend weight to other observations
which indicate this .
5. Assessment of site
and laboratory
findings
Assessment of the significance and importance of the
site and laboratory findings must be carried out by a
specialist experienced in ASR. This will be a profes-
sional exercise in addition to the site inspection and
laboratory investigation stages.
Systematic site inspection can quantify the evi-
dence of damage to a structure, but cannot confirm the
occurrence of ASR without corroboration from the
laboratory examination of concrete samples. Labora-
tory investigations only determine the occurrence of
ASR within concrete. It is difficult, and sometinles
impossible, to demonstrate any unequivocal causal
link between identifiable features diagnostic of ASR in
concrete samples taken from the structure, and crack-
ing and other damage which is evident on site.
The assumed relationship is sometinles based on
the notion of 'guilt by association', and the extent to
which this assumption is justified will be controlled
by the weight of evidence indicating ASR and the
existence or otherwise of factors suggestive of alterna-
tive or other contributory causes or mechanisms.
Careful evaluation of the individual laboratory find-
ings (see 4.10) should enable the occurrence of ASR
within concrete sanlples to be identified or discounted
with some degree of certainty. If the laboratory evi-
dence includes two of the reliably diagnostic features,
i.e. alkali-silica gel and sites of expansion reaction,
then ASR nlay be considered to have been positively
identified. If sufficient sites of expansive reaction
have been observed and the internal cracking is char-
acteristic ofthat induced by ASR, it may be concluded
that ASR is at least a partial cause of any observed
danlage.
If only possibly indicative features have been re-
corded, even if in some abundance, and if no other
satisfactory explanation of the damage has been estab-
lished, then ASR cannot be discounted, but additional
laboratory investigation may be essential before any
definitive diagnosis can be attempted. Such further
work could include examining additional samples ,
alkali-immersion tests (see 4.9), or obtaining the early
age results of a core expansion test (see 4 .8) .
The occurrence of ASR may be discounted if no
reliably diagnostic feature has been identified and the
incidence of possibly indicative features is sensibly
low, provided that an adequate series of samples has
been examined.
At present, no completely objective guidelines can
be given for assessing the relationship between the site
observations and laboratory findings. It is suggested
that a collective classification of the site observations
should be made (see 2.6.8) and simplified so as to
indicate whether there is a 'high' or 'low' probability
that the observed damage is caused by ASR. Table 4
may then be used to combine this probability with the
laboratory findings to form an assessment of the role of
ASR in causing any observed damage.
6. Risk of future
reaction
6. I Assessment of risk
6.1.1 General considerations
If ASR has been diagnosed, guidance on the potential
for future reaction and expansion may be required as
part of an assessment ofthe stability and serviceability
of the structure
l1l
.
The interpretation of diagnostic evidence obtained
from the site inspection and from the laboratory inves-
tigation has been discussed in 2.6, 4.10 and Section 5.
The starting point for appraising the influence of the
parameters likely to control future reaction and expan-
sion, is information on the existing extent and severity
of cracking and deterioration related to ASR in the
structure. The factors which should be considered are:
(a) Field and laboratory evidence on the extent and
severity of reaction and deterioration.
(b) The results of accelerated expansion tests.
(c) Site data on rates of crack widening and
displacenlents, obtained from in-situ monitoring.
(d) Petrographical data on the nature of the reactive
aggregate.
(e) The nlix proportions and alkali content of the
concrete.
(f) The existence of other forms of deterioration.
(g) Environmental factors, including the availabil-
ity of moisture and external sources of alkalis.
(h) Planned or predicted changes in the use or
environment of the structure.
(i) Information from related case histories.
Factors (a) and (c) are, perhaps, the most important in
helping to reach conclusions on the future behaviour
and nlanagement of the structure.
However, in-situ monitoring of the structure is a
long-term process and probably will not have pro-
duced results by the time the report on diagnosis is
required.
Therefore the report will have to be prepared before
the results of in-situ monitoring become available.
In nlany cases, consideration of the other factors
listed above will lead to the recommendation that in-
situ monitoring should be put in hand.
6.1.2 Expansion tests on cores
The prime function of expansion testing (see 4.8) is to
determine whether the concrete, as represented by one
or more core samples , has the potential to expand, or
continue to expand, as a result of ASR.
Because concrete in the structure is under con-
straint, it is difficult to make a direct comparison
between concrete in the structure and results obtained
from cores tested in an unrestrained condition and in
a different environlnent (see 4. 8.3) .
When interpreting these data, it should be remem-
bered that movements may result froln the
superimposition of a number of effects, such as wet-
ting and drying, and thernlal, expansive and structural
nlovements. All these should be taken into account.
Table 4: Assessnlent of site observations and laboratory findings.
Site observations
Probability
(see 2.6.8 and 5)
High
High
High
Low
Low
Low
Laboratory findings
Presence of reliably
diagnostic features
(see 4.10.2 and 4.10. 4)
Yes
None
None
Yes (but uncharacteristic
crack pattern)
None
None
Presence of possibly
indicative features
(see 4.10.5)
Yes
Yes
None
Yes
Yes
None
Suggested ASR assessment
(Check other considerations,
see Figure 1)
ASR confirmed as probably the
main cause of damage
ASR unlikely to be contributory
cause of damage
ASR has not occurred
Damage caused by other factors
ASR confirmed but may be
non-expansive in character or
only a minor, contributory or
incipient cause of any damage
ASR unlikely to have occurred,
but may be a minor, contributory
or incipient cause of any damage
ASR has not occurred
29
6.1.3 Nature of the reactive aggregate
Using data obtained during the petrographical exami-
nation of the concrete, the proportions of reacted and
potentially reactive aggregate, within the concrete,
can sometinles be related to available data on the
pessimunl * proportion of the particular aggregate type,
to give an indication of the likelihood of reaction. It
may also be possible to compare this information with
data obtained from accelerated expansion tests.
6.1.4 Mix proportions and a!kali content
For any assessment of potential future reactivity, it is
useful to know both the original and present alkali
contents of the concrete. These may be obtained from
a cOlnbination of chemical analysis and documentary
evidence.
Errors associated with the chenlical analysis for
alkali content have been discussed in 4 .6.1. In some
cases, aggregate constituents may release additional
alkalis during the test, producing misleadingly high
results. In other cases, local leaching of alkalis from
concrete during service may give rise to unexpectedly
low values, or migration of alkalis within the concrete
may result in a concentration and increase of alkalis in
some places.
The concrete alkali content, if calculated from docu-
nlentary evidence, nlay contain errors caused by the
mixes used varying from the specified mix designs,
and by the difficulty of obtaining reliable data on the
alkali content of the cement at the time of placing.
Determination of the nlix proportions by chemical
analysis is subject to error which can be considerable
in advanced cases of ASR.
6.1.5 Environmental factors
The inter-relationship between the temperature, avail-
ability of moisture, and rates of reaction and expansion,
is complex and is not fully understood, but environ-
nlental factors can be shown to be the most important
controlling influences in nlany cases of ASR.
* The pessimum proportion is that proportion ofreac-
tive aggregate within the total aggregate which produces
maximum concrete expansion.
A critical environmental factor is the availability of
moisture. Research has de1nonstrated that 'free' water
is not essential for expansive ASR to proceed if the
relative humidity is sufficiently high (over 80 to 90%).
In practice, however, it can often be demonstrated that
there is a relationship between the severity of cracking
and the availability of copious nloisture, such as that
from leaking joints, poor drainage or increased expo-
sure. The moist environment of foundations 1night
make thenl particularly vulnerable to ASR.
There is uncertainty about the significance of alter-
nate wetting and drying, as opposed to continuous
saturation, but it is a distinct environmental factor
which should be recognized and recorded.
Under laboratory conditions it can be denlonstrated
that elevated temperatures up to about 40C will in-
crease ASR expansion rates, although possibly not the
magnitude of the expansion. The significance of mi -
cro-environmental temperature effects, in practice, is
less well documented.
The ingress of additional alkalis from the environ-
ment, for example from de-icing salt or sea water,
should also be considered. There is also the possibility
of alkali migration or leaching. These are all factors
which should be investigated and recorded during the
site investigation, then classified in a form which can
be incorporated in the assessment of the potential for
future reaction, see Table 5.
This simple classification is based principally on
the availability of moisture, modified by the other
factors discussed above. As l110re data becomes avail-
able, it may be possible to extend and refine the
classification. At the present tilne it is inevitably
somewhat subjective.
6.1.6 Other processes of deterioration
The possible effect of cracking caused by ASR on the
overall durability of the structure is considered in
Section 6.2.2. Cracks caused by other mechanisms can
proceed alongside the ASR, and their influence on the
overall rate of deterioration should also be considered.
By permitting increased nloisture penetration into the
concrete, they may be responsible for accelerating or
even initiating the onset of damage from ASR.
Table 5: Classification of environmental risk of further expansion.
Environmental risk
Low
Medium
High
Types of exposure conditions
Concrete protected from wetting
at all times, or maintained at a
humidity below about 85% RH
Concrete wetted intermittently.
High levels of humidity (above
about 85% RH), or condensation
Concrete frequently wetted or
continuously wet. Concrete
liable to sodium chloride ingress
Some examples
Internal or clad structural units, and
other concrete wi thin buildings
Shel tered external units on buildings.
External concrete not exposed to
prevailing weather conditions
External units on buildings and structures
exposed to prevailing weather conditions:
bridges, maritinle and water retaining
structures, and foundation concrete
Note: The simplified exposure conditions and suggested examples given in this table are intended for guidance
only. Individual judgements will be needed to assess the environmental risks of other types of exposure and
different types of construction.
30
6.1.7 Changes in use
It is essential to obtain information on any planned
changes in the use of the structure which could affect
the rate of ASR expansion. This information is also
relevant to the long-ternl structural assessment.
A change in use might affect the micro-environment
such as, for example, the exposure to moisture of a
particular structural member which had previously
been protected, or vice versa.
6.1.8 Case histories
Where they are available, case histories of other struc-
tures suffering frOln ASR and with similar materials
and conditions, 111ay provide valuable information.
6.1.9 Adoption of a risk classification
system
The degree of confidence which can be placed on the
above data will vary, and this will affect the confidence
with which future reaction and expansion can be
assessed. A major difficulty is in defining and classi-
fying the variables. This is particularly true of
environmental factors.
Certain data may suggest a numerical classification,
for example the intensity of existing cracking might be
classified on a relative scale of, say, one to five.
Such classifications are arbitrary, however, and
assigning an undue significance to a particular feature
or parameter 111ust be guarded against. A precise calcu-
lation offuture reaction in the concrete is not possible,
but a classification of the risk of future reaction may be
produced. It is not possible to classify the risk offuture
deterioration in the structure.
The classification should consider the risk of con-
tinued reaction in areas already affected, and the risk
of reaction occurring in areas currently unaffected. In
both cases the classification Inay be based on the
assessment of the risk, separated into two elements:
(a) Materials risk. This is the risk presented by the
materials used in the concrete, as assessed from the
alkali content, the nature and proportion of reactive
aggregate, laboratory expansion test data, in-situ meas-
urenlents, and case histories.
(b) Environmental risk. This is the risk presented by
the environment, for example the availability ofmois-
ture, or the exposure to external sources of alkali.
The risks may be classified as 'low', 'medium', or
' high' in each case, which can then be combined as
suggested in Figure 38. At the present state of knowl-
edge, these risk classifications necessarily will be
based on subjective assessments, dependent on pro-
fessional judgement backed by experience and
expertise.
The risk of reaction will usually be combined with
the structural assessment to produce an overall assess-
ment of the future serviceability of the structure.
6.2 Implications for the structure
6.2.1 General implications
The investigation so far will have established whether
or not ASR is likely to produce continued reaction. If
no further reaction is considered likely to occur, then
MEDIUM MEDIUM
HIGH HIGH
Key
-- -- LOW RISK of future reaction
----- MEDIUM RISK of future react ion
HIGH RISK of future reaction
Note: The above diagram is only an example and
may not apply to all situations in practice
Figure 38: Assessment of risk of future reaction.
an assessment of the structure can be made in the same
way as for a structure damaged by other causes(34,35,6).
If further reaction is considered to be a possibility,
not only will an assessment of the structure in its
present state be required, but also a forecast of its
future behaviour. In this case, recommendations for
the assessment of the structure will be found in
Reference 1.
6.2.2 Effect on durability of cracking from
ASR
Cracks produced by ASR pose a potential durability
risk for the structure by permitting the ingress of
carbon dioxide. This may cause carbonation of the
concrete along the crack line and where the crack and
reinforcement intersect, so reducing the alkaline protec-
tion normally given to the steel.
Observation has shown that the most severe crack-
ing caused by ASR is often found only in the cover
zone. Unfortunately this is where it poses the greatest
threat to durability, but in cases of ASR there is often
little evidence of steel corrosion, indicating that the
alkalinity of the concrete has been maintained.
For concrete exposed to chloride salts from an
external source, cracking can provide chloride with a
ready means of ingress into the concrete. This ingress
will be much faster than the already rapid penetration
typically achieved by normal diffusion processes. Lo-
calized penetration of chloride salts into cracks can be
particularly damaging, because it encourages the for-
mation of differential electrical cells which produce
localized anodes on the steel, resulting in pitting
corrosion. This type of corrosion may not cause spalling
of the cover concrete, so there may be little visible
warning of a significant localized loss of section of the
steel reinforcement.
Concrete Inay also be exposed to other aggressive
agencies, such as sulfates, acids, or contaminants
found in some soils and ground waters. In such situa-
tions cracking caused by ASR may permit a more rapid
ingress of aggressive substances, so creating durability
problems earlier than expected.
31
APPENDIXA
Scheme for the petrographic
examination of hardened
concrete
A.I Sample receipt and preliminary
examination
A.l.l Unwrap sample. Check saluple reference number
against sampling record sheet. Give sample laboratory
reference number.
A.l.2 Visually examine sanlple and record:
(a) dimensions;
(b) compaction and distribution of materials;
(c) nominal aggregate size;
(d) preliminary identification of aggregate type;
(e) presence, location, size, type and condition of
reinforcement;
(f) description of cracks and coring fractures;
(g) description of special features, e.g. deposits in
voids and cracks, presence of damp resinous
patches on surface, presence of extraneous
material.
A.l.3 Take colour photograph of sample.
A.2. Processing sample for detailed
examination
A.2.l Extract traces of any deposits within cracks or
voids for subsequent analysis.
A.2.2 Mark up sample. Cut into test portions for de-
tailed examination, using a diamond saw. Figure 39
shows a typical cutting pattern for a core sample
required solely for petrographic exanlination.
A.2.3 Prepare the following:
(a) sawn and finely ground section, impregnated
with fluorescent resin, extending from outer
surface to depth of nominally 200 mm; a second
section may be prepared from greater depth in
special circumstances;
(b) 30 11m thin section, cut perpendicular to outer
surface and including surface, if required;
(c) 30 11m thin section, cut from selected area at
depth.
A.l. Sawn and finely ground section
A.3.l Visually examine in normal and UV light.
Examination aided with stereoscopic microscope.
A.3.2 Record information on:
(a) cracking; J relationship and sites of
(b) aggregate type; expansive reaction
(c) presence of deposits and reaction features.
A.3.1.3 Reserve section for possible micrometric
analysis.
32
I I
o 100
Slice cut for preparation
of thin section
Sawn and ground
section
Line of crack
i
200
Slice cut for
preparation of
thin section
i
300 mm
Thin section
Figure 39: Typical distribution of sections cut from a
concrete core for petrographical examination.
A.4 Thin sections
A.4.l Examine thin sections in plane light, cross-
polarized light and UV light.
A.4.2 Record information on:
(a) aggregate;
(b) cement paste;
(c) cracking;
(d) deposits and reaction features .
A.S Analysis of removed deposits
A.5.l Place traces of deposit in immersion oil on aglass
slide and examine under petrological microscope in
transmitted plane and cross-polarized light.
A.5.2 Analyse trace of deposit by infrared absorption
spectrophotometry.
A.5.3. Record observations and results .
A.6 Remnant portions of sample
A.6.l Break remnant portions of sample with a
hammer. Examine the freshly fractured surfaces visu-
ally and with the aid of a stereoscopic microscope.
A.6.2 Remove deposits exposed on fractured
surfaces. Analyse as in A.5, as appropriate.
A.6.3 Remove embedded reinforcement for detailed
examination of condition.
APPENDIX B
Preparation and examination of
sawn sections
B.I Sample preparation
The sample for examination will normally be prepared
by sawing the core longitudinally, with the plane of the
cut perpendicular to the layers in which the concrete
was compacted. A slice can be removed by making two
parallel longitudinal cuts. This is more convenient
than attempting to prepare the surface of one half of a
core.
The slice is finely ground by using successively
finer orades of abrasive (120, 3F, 600 and sao Grades).
The used is nornlally non-aqueous to avoid
the dissolution of water soluble compounds in the
concrete. This is especially important if a thin section
is to be prepared from the slice subsequent to the
microscopical exalnination. The grinding can be done
by hand, but a superior finish can be achieved more
readily by using an automatic lapping machine.
It is possible to grind surfaces up to 200 mm x 200
mm, but for the 100 nlm or 75 nlm diameter cores
normally taken, slices 100 mm or 150 mm long can be
more easily handled and examined.
Various methods can be used to aid crack detection.
Impregnation with a fluorescent dye has been found
particularly suitable.
B.2 Examination
The finely ground surface is examined with a stere-
oscopic nlicroscope at magnifications typically of xl a
up to xl00.
Important features may be recorded by
photomicrography.
B.3 Linear measurements
Linear measurements, such as of crack widths, are
normally made with a caljbrated eye-piece graticule.
For certain purposes, a calibrated travelling specimen
stage may be used.
B.4 Volumetric proportions
The volumetric proportions of selected constituents in
the concrete slice can be quantified by one of three
methods:
(a) point count analysis;
(b) linear traverse (Rosiwal) method;
(c) computer-aided image analysis.
8.4.1 Point count analysis
This is the most widely used method, because it is the
least laborious of the manual options. The finely
ground slice is examined under the stereoscopic mi -
croscope, whilst being traversed along a series of
regularly spaced parallel lines. At regular points along
each traverse line, the constituent falling on that point
(coarse aggregate , fine aggregate, cement paste, or air
void) is recorded on a tally counter. From the data
collected, the volume percentage of each constituent
can be calculated.
The aggregate would normally be sub-divided on
the basis of the composition and, possibly, the pres-
ence of reaction features.
The area of an individual surface to be counted will
be governed by the size of core available and any
special objects of the analysis.
Where the data are intended to indicate the com po-
sition of the concrete at a particular sample location,
the area of the surface or combined surfaces analysed
should take into account the maximum aggregate size
and any inhomogeneity of the concrete. As a general
guide, the larger the area the better, but the minimum
dimension should be five times the maximum aggre-
gate size.
The reliability of the analysis will be controlled by
the number of points counted and the relative propor-
tion of the component.
The standard deviation for a given component may
be calculated by:
S = I x (lOa-x)
-V St
where x = volunle percentage of conlponent
St = total number of points counted.
The repeatability (r) is 2.S x standard deviation.
For example, for a determination of, say, a flint
content of 20%, the repeatability at 1000 points and
3000 points counted is 3.5 and 2.0 respectively. The
effect of counting errors can, therefore, be reduced by
increasing the number of points counted.
B.4.2 Linear traverse method
In this nlethod, the volumetric composition of the
concrete is deternlined by integrating the distance
traversed across each component along regularly spaced
parallel lines.
The method requires a l1lotor-driven stage which
permits the sample to be l1loved in two directions
at right angles, and possesses a means of recording
the distance traversed over each component. The slice
is examined with a stereoscopic Inicroscope. The
method is extremely laborious for multi-component
analysis.
B.4.3 Computer-aided image analysis
Automatic image analysing systems have been used
for determining the air void and aggregate contents of
concrete samples.
These require additional sample preparation to pro-
vide sufficient colour contrast between components
and, at present, distinction of aggregate types is virtu-
ally not feasible. This technique is not readily available
commercially at the present til1le.
B.S Determination of mix proportions
From the volume percentages of coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, cement paste and air voids, it is possible to
calculate the original concrete mix proportions by
mass, but this requires additional data on the concrete
density, the density and water absorption of the aggre-
gate, and the specific gravity of the cement.
It is beyond the scope of this report to discuss the
methods in detail. Further inforl1lation is found in
Concrete Society Report 32(23) and reference 36.
33
A firm statement on the precision of micrometric
methods for estilnating mix proportions cannot be
made at this time, but trials suggest that a precision at
least comparable to the standard chemical method can
be achieved. The potential for the method would
appear to lie in its application for the analysis of
concretes containing 'chemically complicated' aggre-
gates, or where the original lime and soluble silica
have been affected by chemical attack, leaching, or
ASR.
APPENDIX C
Preparation of thin sections
Each core selected for the preparation of thin sections
should be exalllined closely on receipt. If it is badly
cracked or friable, vacuum ilnpregnation with resin
will be necessary before it is cut.
The concrete should be dried before impregnation,
either by warllling gently at 505C for 24 to 48 hours,
or by evacuating for 24 hours at 25C.
APPENDIX D
If the concrete is reasonably sound it may be possi-
ble to cut a slice before impregnation, using a dianlond
saw. This slice would usually be cut perpendicular to
the length of the core, after which it should be dried
and impregnated with resin.
The use of coloured resin, carrying a fluorescent
yellow dye, for all inlpregnation work, will assist in the
identification of pre-exist in j fractures. All cutting and
grinding of specimens should be carried out using oil
lubrication to avoid the possible dissolution of water
soluble nlaterials.
In other respects the preparation should follow
nornlal procedures for the manufacture of 30 11m
petrographic thin sections as described by Allman and
Lawrence(37). Special nlethods for the preparation of
concrete samples are described by Koelliker(3B) and
Poulsen(39).
The diagnosis of ASR requires a study of the aggre-
gates, so thin sections should be as large as possible to
ensure that the material examined is representative of
the concrete. If large thin sections are not obtainable,
several smaller ones should be prepared.
Common rock and mineral aggregates which may sometimes
contain potentially alkali-silica reactive components
A limited number of naturally occurring rocks, nlinerals, and synthetic aggregates have been identified as
potentially alkali-silica reactive when present in concrete. Minerals include opaline silica, tridYlllite, cristobalite,
chalcedonic silica, micro-crystalline or crypto-crystalline quartz, highly-strained quartz, volcanic glass, and
devitrified volcanic glass. Almost any rock used as concrete aggregate may contain such minerals, either as minor
constituents, or as discrete particles, although their occurrence is generally rare. The following list, which is not
exhaustive, includes some of the more common aggregate materials which may contain potentially alkali-reactive
components. In addition to the natural aggregates listed, some synthetic aggregates, such as calcined flint and
nlanufactured glass, are known to be reactive. Some cases of cracking of concrete made with manufactured glass
have been reported. Care should be also be taken when recycled crushed concrete and other waste Inaterials are
used as aggregate.
Rock or
mineral (M)
type
Amphibolite
Andesite
Arkose
Basalt
Breccia
Chalcedony or
chalcedonic
silica (M)
Chalk
34
Definition
Metamorphic rock characterized
by a dominant content of
amphibole minerals
Intermediate volcanic igneous rock
(differs mineralogically from Trachyte)
Detrital sedimentary rock containing
more than 25% feldspar
Basic volcanic igneous rock
Coarse detrital rock containing
angular fragments
Very fine-grained silica with a
distinctive fibrous micro-structure
Very fine-grained white Cretaceous
limestone
Potentially alkali-silica reactive
components that may sometimes
be present (Note 1)
Highly strained quartz and/or poorly
crystalline boundries between quartz
grains. Micro-crystalline quartz. Opaline
or chalcedonic veination. (Note 3)
Glass or devitrified glass. Opaline or
chalcedonic veination or vugh-fillings
See Sandstone
Glass or devitrified glass. Opaline or
chalcedonic veination or vugh-fillings
See Sandstone
Chalcedony is potentially reactive
Associated flint
Reported occurrences
of ASR in the UK
(Note 2)
o
o
o
o
o
***
o
Rock or
mineral (M)
type
Cher t
Conglomerate
Cristoblite (M)
Diorite and
micro diorite
Dolerite
Dolomite
Feldspar (M)
Flint
Gabbro
Gneiss
Granite and
micro granite
Granulite
Greywacke
Gritstone
Hornfels
Limestone
Marble
Opal or
opaline
silica (M)
Definition
Micro-crystalline or crypto-crystalline
silica
Coarse detrital rock containing
rounded fragments
Very high temperature form of quartz
occurring as a metastable constituent
in some acid volcanic rocks
Intermediate intrusive igneous rock
(differs mineralogically from Syenite)
Basic hypabyssal igneous rock
Carbonate sedimentary rock
containing more mineral dolomite
than calcite
A group of silicate minerals commonly
occurring as discrete grains in fine
aggregate
Micro-crystalline or crypto-crystalline
silica. Strictly, chert occurring in
Cretaceous chalk
Basic plutonic igneous rock
High-grade metamorphic rock
exhibiting banding
Acid intrusive igneous rock
Granular metamorphic rock
Detrital sedimentary rock containing
rock fragments and mineral grains in
a very fine-grained matrix
Sandstone with coarse, angular grains
Fine-grained, thermally
metamorphosed rock
Carbonate sedimentary rock
Metamorphosed limestone
Essential amorphous or disordered
forms of hydrous silica
Potentially alkali-silica reactive
components that may sometimes
be present (Note 1)
See Flint
See Sandstone
Cristobalite is potentially reactive
(Rare in UK aggregates)
Opaline or chalcedonic veination
or vugh-fillings
Opaline or chalcedonic veination
or vugh-fillings
Associated chert or flint
(Note 5)
Not reactive
(Note 6)
Chalcedonic silica and micro-crystalline
or crypto-crystalline quartz. Some varieties
may contain opaline silica
Opaline or chalcedonic veination
Highly-strained quartz andlor poorly
crystalline boundaries between quartz
grains. Microcrystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz. Opaline or chalcedonic veination
(Note 3)
Opaline or chalcedonic veination or vugh-
fillings. See also Feldspar
Highly-strained quartz andlor poorly
crystalline boundaries between quartz
gains. Microcrystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz. Opaline or chalcedonic veination
(Note 3)
Some greywackes may be alkali-reactive.
See Sandstone (Notes 7 & 8)
See Sandstone
Highly-strained quartz andlor poorly
crystalline boundaries between quartz
Reported occurrences
of ASR in the UK
(Note 2)
***
o
o
***
(Note 4)
o
o
o
***
o
o
o
o
**
o
*
gains. Microcrystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz. Glass or devitrified glass (Notes 3 & 7)
Silicified limestone, or associated chert or
flint (Note 5)
Associated chert or flint
Opaline silica is highly reactive
**
o
**
(Note 4)
Key to last column: 0 None. * Some evidence of reaction, but no reportod cases of damage.
* * Reaction, but uncertainty whether damage has resulted. * * * Reaction and resulting damage.
See Notes on page 36 - 37
35
Rock or
mineral (M)
type
Quartz (M)
Quartzite
Rhyolite
Sandstone
and
siltstone
Schist
Slate
Syenite and
microsyenite
Trachyte
Tridymite (M)
Tuff
Volcanic
glass (M)
Definition
Crystalline form of silica, often
occurring as discrete mineral grains
especially in fine aggregates
Sedimentary or metamorphic rock
consisting predominantly of quartz:
(i) Sedimentary or ortho-quartzite
(ii) Metamorphic or meta-quartzite
Fine-grained to glassy acid
volcanic igneous rock
Detrital sedimentary rock. The grains
are most commonly quartz, but
fragments or grains of almost any
types of rock or mineral are possibl e
Metamorphic rock characterized by
foliation
Potentially alkali-silica reactive
components that may sometimes
be present (Note 1)
Reported occurrences
of ASR in the UK
(Note 2)
Highl y-strained quartz. Some microcrystalline
or crypto-crystalline forms are react ive
(Note 3)
See Sandstone
Highly-strained quartz and/or poorly
crystalline boundaries between quartz
ga{ns. Microcrystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz (Note 3)
Glass or devitrified glass. Tridymite. Cristobalite.
Opaline or chalcedonic veination or vugh-fillings
Highl y-strained quartz. Some types of rock cement
notably opaline silica, chalcedonic silica, micro-
crystalline or crypto-crystalline quartz
(Notes 3, 7 & 8)
Highl y-strained quartz and/or poorly
crystalline boundaries between quartz
gains. Microcrystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz. (Notes 3 & 7)
*
*
**
**
**
o
Low-grade metamorphosed argillaceous (Note 7)
rock characterized by cleavage
o
Intermediate intrusive igneous rock
(differs mineralogicall y from Diorite)
Intermediate intrusive igneous rock
(differs mineralogically from Andesite)
High temperature form of quartz,
occurring as a metastable constituent
in some acid volcanic rocks
Detrital pyroclastic rock consisting of
consolidated volcanic ash
Non-crystalline phase within some
volcanic rocks; may be devitrified
to very fine or incipient crystals
Opaline or chalcedonic
veination or vugh-fillings
Glass or devitrifi ed glass. Opaline or
chalcedonic veination or vugh-fillings
Tridymite is reactive
Glass or devitrified glass. Highly-strained
quartz. Micro-crystalline or crypto-crystalline
quartz. Opaline or chalcedonic veination or
vugh-fillings. (Note 3)
Some volcanic glass or devitrified volcan'ic
glass is reactive
o
o
o
o
*
Key to last column: 0 None. * Some evidence of reaction, but no reported cases of damage.
* * Reaction, but uncertainty whether damage has resulted. * * * Reaction and resulting damage.
NOTES
1. Where rocks or mineral types are noted as ' reactive', it does not
necessarily imply that damage has been caused by ASR when
these have been used.
2. This guidance is based upon published information available in
1992 and could be superseded by later reports. In the case of
certain rock or mineral types listed for which no occurrences of
ASR have been reported in the UK, similar rock or mineral types
have been associated with examples of damaging ASR in other
parts of the world.
3. Rocks with some forms of strained quartz, and/or exhibiting
poorly crystallized grain boundaries and/or crypto-crystalline
quartz between contiguous quartz grains, are sometimes
found to be alkali-silica reactive, when the relative abundance
of such features is prohably related to the degree of reactivity.
36
The measurement of high undulatory extinction angles is not
necessarily indicative of reactive quartz.
4. Some concretes in Jersey, Channel Islands , exhibit ASR as the
result of opaline silica veining of a dioritic rock aggregate
source.
5. Certain types of dolomitic limestone (or calcitic dolomite) have
been reported to be expansively reactive in North America.
Some dolomites have been reported to be non-expansively
reactive in the Middle East and North Africa. These are collec-
tively termed 'alkali-carbonate' reactions. No reports of alkali -
carbonate reactivity have been published for UK aggregates.
6. In some other countries, highly altered or exceptionally weath-
ered feldspars in aggregates have been considered to release
additional alkalis within concrete. No reports of such alkali
content enhancement have been published for UK concretes.
7. Phyllosilicates may be present and these are sheet silicate
minerals, including the chlorite, vermiculite, mica and clay
mineral groups. Expansive 'alkali-silica' reactions involving
phyllosilicates have been reported in Canada and South Africa.
APPENDIX E
Methods for determining the
alkali content of concrete
The total acid-soluble alkali content of hardened con-
crete can be detern1ined on crushed samples using the
method given in BS 1881: Part 124(281. This n1ethod can
sometimes yield misleadingly high values, because
preparation of the test samples can release alkalis in
the aggregate which are not otherwise available for
reaction in concrete (see 4.6.1), so a method is also
given for the detern1ination of the alkali c01)tent of a
fines-rich fraction of the concrete.
The 111ethod of n1easur8111ent uses flame photom-
etry, but alternative methods of equivalent accuracy
may be used at the analyst's discretion. In particular,
aton1ic absorption spectrophotometry has been used.
Precautions should be taken to avoid ionization inter-
ference. Suitable procedures are usually given in the
manual provided with the particular instrument being
used.
If the concrete contains fly ash, the alkali determi-
nation should be undertaken with care, as different
methods can give different results. XRF analysis will
give the total alkali content. Unless the extraction is
done with perchloric and hydrofluoric acids for both
the flal11e photon1eter and atomic absorption methods,
the total alkali in the fly ash fraction will not be
detern1ined, thus giving a lower value than the XRF
method.
APPENDIX F
Determination of the cement
content of concrete
The test procedures for determining the cement con-
tent of concrete are given in BS 1881: Part 124(28).
Before carrying out the test it is essential to obtain an
adequate san1ple for testing, using the procedures
outlined in Section 3.
The san1ple is crushed to obtain a representative
sub-sample passing the 150 pn1 test sieve. This sample
is then subjected to successive extractions with cold
dilute acid and hot dilute alkali solutions to dissolve
the cement component (although some of the aggre-
gate n1ay also dissolve).
The extract is then analysed for its content of both
silica and calciun1 oxide (the two major components of
a Portland cement).
If the cement source is known, figures should be
available for the calciu111 oxide and silica contents of
the cement, and the cement content can be determined
from each conlponent by simple proportion.
8. Within the UK a few cases of possible alkali-silica reactions
have been reported in coarse aggregates containing greywacke
and related rocks.
The matrix in such rocks is very finely divided and consists
of phyllosilicates, quartz and other minerals. The actual
nature of this reaction is the subject of continuing
research.
If a calcareous aggregate is present, and control
samples of the aggregates are not available, only the
sol uble silica nlay be used for calculating the cement
content, with a consequent loss of accuracy.
It is preferable to analyse control samples of the
aggregate alongside the sample under test, and to
apply appropriate corrections to the regIlts before
calculating the cement content. If control samples of
the aggregate are not available, then the determined
cement content will be erroneously high.
In investigations of ASR, when the concrete being
analysed is often many years old, it is usually difficult
to be certain that the control samples truly represent
the aggregate that was used in the concrete. If the
appropriate corrections for the aggregate have been
made, the calculated C8111ent contents derived from
silica and from calcium oxide, should be within 1 % of
each other, and it is then normal to take the mean
value. If they are not within 1 % of each other, it is
possible that the control aggregate does not represent
that used in the concrete. If either or both of the cement
and aggregate compositions are unknown, then rea-
sonable assumptions of their composition must be
made, recognizing that this will lead to some loss in
accuracy.
The precision and accuracy ofthe chemical analysis
of hardened concrete, for the normal range of cen1ent
contents, were exanlined in a precision experiment
undertaken by the Concrete Society and the Society of
Chemical Industry, see Concrete Society Technical
Report 32(23) .
It is normally possible for a conlpetent analyst to
provide results for ce111ent content within 15 % ofthe
true value.
With control sanlples of aggregate and cement, re-
sults of better than 25 kg/m3 can be obtained for
samples prepal'ed in the laboratory, as shown by the
BRE Proficiency Schen1e for cen1ent content determi-
nation.
Normally, the silica conlponent of siliceous aggre-
gates, such as flint, remains essentially insoluble under
the conditions of test, and thus does not interfere
significantly with the chemical analysis. However,
there is a special problen1 with concrete affected by
ASR, because ASR causes a breakdown of the siliceous
aggregate, which then becomes soluble and can con-
tribute to the amount of soluble silica determined by
chemical analysis.
If significallt interference from this phenomenon
occurs, and a calcareous aggregate is present to inter-
fere with the determination ofthe cement content from
calciun1, then the cen1ent content is likely to be over-
estimated, unless a representative control sample of
aggregate permits a suitable correction for calcium
content to be made.
37
APPENDIX G
Examination of crystalline
material
Crystalline material can be examined using an x-ray
powder diffraction technique(40). It is now possible to
buy a specially cut flat disc of a single crystal, of either
silicon or quartz, which can be mounted at the centre
of an x-ray diffractometer. With this, very small quan-
tities of the powdered crystalline material can be
examined.
Samples are made by first putting a small hemi-
sphere of liquid cyclohexane onto the flat surface of
the single crystal and then sprinkling a thin layer of
finely powdered crystalline nlaterial evenly into the
liquid.
The liquid will evaporate fairly quickly leaving the
thin layer of powder retained on the surface of the
crystal. This can be exanlined and identified in the
way usually used for x-ray powder diffraction.
APPENDIX H
Expansion testing
H.I. Standard method of test
H.I.I Introduction
The test should be carried out on concrete core sam-
ples which have been cut from the structure in such a
way as to avoid reinforcing steel.
These cores should have been protected from drying
out, and further carbonation, by being wrapped on site
in several layers of cling-film, then sealed into poly-
thene bags.
Alkali-silica gel will not expand when it has carbon-
ated by exposure to the atmosphere, so to minimize
possible carbonation and drying out, the test should be
started promptly after sampling.
Various laboratory methods of expansion llleasure-
nlent have been devised in an attempt to overcome the
difficulties associated with the uneven expansion of
cores caused by inhomogeneity, possible leaching of
alkalis during storage, poor reproducibility, and non-
unifornlity of the hunlid storage and the measuring
environment.
Method 1, which has proved generally satisfactory
for diagnosis, is illustrated in Figure 40. The squared-
off ends of the core are drilled, and round-headed,
stainless steel reference pegs are securely fixed with
epoxy resin in the centre of each end face.
An alternative, nlethod 2, as shown in Figure 41,
may be more appropriate. In this, the arrangement of
reference studs overcomes the possibility of errors in
measurement caused by the core bending.
Method 1 requires a rigid frame with a digital or dial
gauge, reading to 0.002 mm, set using an invar refer-
ence bar.
In method 2, the expansion is measured using hand-
held mechanical gauges (Demec gauges) to measure
the distance between reference studs fixed to the side
of the cores.
To maintain a uniform, high humidity, the cores are
stored wet, in sealed polythene sleeves, over water,
within individual containers. The storage temperature
is maintained at either 20C or 38C.
38
E
E
o
L.()
(Y')
120 mm
I- - \
~ - - - f - - - Dial or digital gauge
---:It---H-- Hemispherical stud
12 mm rods
- -t---t-t---Concrete core
('.
---w---
Figure 40: Concrete core 'with end reference studs in a
typical measuring frame (method 1).
100 mm
70 to 150 mm
I 1
diameter
Figure 41: Arrangement of Demec studs on a
concrete core (method 2).
H.I.2 Preparation of cores
The dianleter ofthe cores should be at least 70 mm, and
preferably 100 or 150 mnl. The larger diameter is
necessary if the concrete contains 20 or 40 mnl coarse
aggregate. The length/ diameter ratio of the core should
be at least 2.
The gauge length used for method 2 should prefer-
ably be at least 100 mm, and sets of studs should be
fixed to the core to provide a minimunl of three gauge
lengths at 120 to one another round the core (Figure
41). Each gauge length should be nlarked for later
identification.
If a Demec gauge for 100 mm gauge lengths is not
available, intermediate rings of studs can be fixed
between the two end rings. These intermediate gauge
lengths can be measured with a smaller gauge, and the
100 mm gauge length obtained by summing intermedi-
ate gauge lengths along the core. Great care should be
exercised when attaching the studs to the concrete, as
aood readings are only obtainable if the studs are flat
as nearly as possible in the same plane.
Before attaching the studs, the concrete surface
should be allowed to dry for one hour in the laboratory
atmosphere, and should be enlery-papered to remove
any surface irregularities. The De111ec studs should be
abraded lightly, and de-greased if necessary, before
applying the adhesive.
The end reference studs may be 6 mm diameter
stainless steel pegs with hemispherical depressions
machined into their ends, or 6 m111 diameter stainless
steel pegs with henlispherical e11ds. The choice of stud
will depend on the shape of the end of the gauge probe.
Whichever method of 111easurement is selected, the
studs should be fixed to the concrete using an adhesive
which is suitable for warm, moist conditions , and
which is not affected by materials used for other tests
on the specimens , such as the greases sometimes used
to obtain contact for UPV transducers. Resin adhesives
(Araldite, Hard Plastic Padding, Certite X60, or dental
cement) have been found to perform satisfactorily.
If studs are to be fixed to the sides of the core, as in
method 2, there should be at least 25 mm between
studs and the ends of the core, and studs should not be
placed on concrete originally within the outer 50 mm
of the structure, unless specifically required.
H.I.3 Storage conditions
(a) Wrapping cores. Each core should be wrapped in
a double layer of moist cloth and stored separately in
a sealed container. To do this, cut a piece of cotton
cloth approxi111ately 500 nlm long and 10 mm wider
than the length of the core. Saturate the cloth with de-
ionised water and wrap it around the core. Use a sharp
knife to cut a small , neat hole around each Demec stud,
so as to expose the stud. Place the wrapped core in a
single piece of polythene tubing of the same length as
the core. SlllOOth the tubing around the cloth and
secure it with stout rubber bands. Note that no wrap-
ping is applied to the end faces of the core. Cut small
holes or slits in the tubing to expose the Demec studs.
Place the wrapped core in a polythene bag.
Pour 25 nl1 of de-ionised water over the upper face
of the core and seal the bag. This amount is recom-
mended for a core 100 mm in diameter and 200 mm
long. More water may need to be added for substan-
tially larger cores.
Place each bagged core in a container and store at the
required tenlperature. Cores should only be removed
from their containers for measurement. The container
should be sealable, of a suitable size (not too large), and
should contain a spacing piece at the bottom to ensure
that the core does not stand on an end-point during
storage.
A small amount of water may be placed in the
bottom ofthe container, but this must not be sufficient
to reach the bottom of the pol ythene bag containing the
specimen (Figure 42). The cores should not come into
direct contact with water in the outer container.
Container with
airtight I'd L- I
-\
End stu
Spacer
Concret
d
e core
Wrappin g
1
11 0':0. .
'0.
0
,I 0''
'III Conc
core
:1
I
II


'.' 0 .. ,
Detail
000
rete"Q :
of
,: (?:
wrapping
D.
0 '

" , 0'. ',' ,'

layers cotton cloth
hene sleeve
secu
band
red with rubber
s
Seale
Precut
Demec
d polythene bag
holes exposing
studs
I
Clearan
than 5
ce not
mm
less _______
inimum Water, m
depth 2 0 mm
Support to hold
clear of water
core

"-

f---
[Q]
[2]
1
r-----:r
---=-
-::::::
r== -



-----=--c I-r---- .:::
-
I
Figure 42: Container to provide humid environment
around concrete core.
(b) Temperature. The cores should be stored at a
temperature of either 20C or 38C, which should be
lllaintained constant to 2C.
Using anlaximum-minilllum thernlometer, the tenl-
perature of the storage r00111 or cabinet should be
checked daily, and recorded.
H.I.4 Measurements
The cores have to be re1110ved frOlll the storage environ-
lllent for measuring. Measurements should be
completed as quickly as possible after removal, and no
more than a few minutes should elapse before the
cores are returned to storage. The cores should remain
wrapped in their polythene sleeves, and the measure-
ments made through the pre-cut holes. If facilities
permit, cores are best measured at their storage te111-
perature.
Measurements ofthe overall length, or ofindividual
gauge lengths, and of the mass of the core, should be
taken before storage, at 1, 3 and 7 days after the
commencement of storage, and then at every 7 days up
to 56 days.
After 56 days , further 111easurelllents should be
taken at 28 day intervals up to 1 year. The test may be
continued after this time, if required.
At each measurement interval, the wrapped core
should be weighed to 0.1 g. Typically, cores which
show expansion also absorb water, leading to a grad ual
increase in their weights. Weighing provides a check
that the concrete and its wrapping are not drying out
during storage. If drying-out is suspected, the appara-
tus and methods used should be eXllillined, and adjusted
as necessary to ensure that the required conditions are
39
met. If necessary, a further 25 ml of de-ionised water
may be added to the wrapped core to restore the moist
conditions.
Each individual gauge length should be measured at
each time interval.
When using the Denlec gauge, attention is drawn to
the precautions given in BS 1881: Part 206(41). The
bezels of dial gauges should be locked before com-
mencing the test and should not be moved for the
duration of the test. A measurement of the invar bar
should be taken before each set of readings on each
core, and any necessary corrections made. The Demec
gauge should be applied the same way round on the
studs for every reading during the test, and should not
be reversed to average readings.
Readings should be recorded to the nearest whole
division on the dial gauge and compared with previ-
ous readings . Checks should be made if any large
differences or other anomalous results are indicated.
H. I.S Reporting the results
The information recorded and reported should in-
clude core nunlber, the type of test , storage conditions ,
location of studs on core, adhesives, and type of gauge.
If appropriate, individual gauge length readings, the
mean length change, and any corrections for variations
in temperature should be recorded.
If the simple length measurement, method 1, has
been used, it can be recorded directly. If method 2 is
used, the three lines of gauge lengths a
1
b
1
, azb., and a
3
b
3
should be nleasured and a mean value calCUlated.
The core length (method 1), and the individual
gauge lengths and mean length (method 2), should be
converted into strain, either as microstrain, or as per-
centage change in length. This may be expressed in a
tabular and/or graphical form for inclusion in the
report.
The interpretation of laboratory expansion data
must be treated with caution. At present there is no
evidence to support a simple correlation between
expansion in the structure and the unrestrained ex-
pansion of cores taken from the structure and tested in
the laboratory. There is also no clear relationship
between the observed laboratory expansion and the
storage temperature.
Note: 10 microstrain = 0.01 mm/nl = 0.001 %
APPENDIXJ
Expansion test on cores - precision
trial on test method
J.I Int roducti on
The method of measuring the expansion of cores cut
from the structure (see Appendix H on page 38) was
subjected to a precision trial in which ten laboratories
collaborated.
All had previous experience of core expansion test-
ing using various methods. This appendix gives only
a sumnlary of the full findings.
J.2 Manufacture of the cores
The cores were made at the British Cement Associa-
tion.
40
Four symmetricall y reinforced concrete beams were
cast , each 2000 mm x 300 mm x 150 nlm. Beams 1 and
2 were made from one batch of concrete and beams 3
and 4 from a second batch. The alkali content of the
concrete was increased to 7 kg/ n13 by adding sodiunl
and potassiunl hydroxide.
The beams were cured in water for 68 days , followed
by external exposure for a further 6 days. Ten cores
were then cut through the full thickness of each bealll ,
producing a total of 40 cores , each 75 mnl in diameter
and 150 mm long.
Two cores from the same bealll, either beam 1 or
beanl 2, were allocated at random to each laboratory,
for testing at 20C. Two cores from the same beam,
either beam 3 or beam 4, were allocated at random to
each laboratory, for testing at 38C.
The cores were collected by the laboratories , which
then prepared and stored them as described in
Appendix H. The expansions were measured at set
intervals up to 168 days after the commencement of
measurenlents.
All ten laboratories reported measurements taken
by Demec gauges from points on the sides ofthe cores .
The expansions found by each laboratory at each age,
calculated as an average of the results from two cores ,
are shown as graphs in Figure 43.
Not all laboratories were equipped to take end point
readings using a dial gauge, so only six laboratories
reported results measured in this way.
2500
2000
-0- Lab A
c
"iii
--0- Lab B
t; 1500
--t:r- Lab C
e
~ Lab D
u -- Lab E
"E
--
Lab F
1000 -6- Lab G
C
-+- Lab H
0
--*- Lab I "iii
c
500
--
Lab J
co
0.
X
UJ
0
-500
0 28 56 84 112 140 168
Days
(a) Cores stored at 20DC
6000
5000
c
-0- Lab A
" 4000
--0- Lab B
(;)
--t:r- Lab C
0
~ Lab D
~ 3000
-- Lab E
E
--
Lab F
-6- Lab G
g 2000
-+- Lab H
"iii --*-
Lab I
c
-- Lab J co
~ 1000
UJ
0
-1000
0 28 56 84 112 140 168
Days
(b) Cores stored at 38
D
C
Figure 43: Average expansions at ten laboratories.
Measurements by Demec gauge.
J.3 Repeatability and reproducibil ity
J.3.1 Defi nitions
Repeatability conditions - tests on cores from the
same concrete elelnent by the same method over the
same time interval in the same laboratory by the same
operator using the SaIne equipment.
Repeatability limit, r - the value below which the
absolute difference between tests on two cores under
repeatability conditions nlay be expected to lie, with a
probability of 95 %.
Reproducibility conditions - tests on cores from the
same concrete element by the same method over the
same tinle interval in different laboratories with differ-
ent operators using different equipment.
Reproducibility limit, R - the value below which
the absolute difference between tests on two cores
under reproducibility conditions may be expected to
lie, with a probability of 95%.
J.3.2 Results
The repeatabilities and reproducibilities obtained from
this trial are shown in Table 6. Some of the results
shown in Figure 43 were obviously anomalous, so
these were excluded from the calculations.
J.4 Number of cores required
The results enable an estimate to be made of the
number of cores which need to be tested to achieve a
required level of accuracy within 95 % confidence
limits.
This number may be assessed from Table 7. This
shows the number of cores which need to be tested for
various levels of accuracy, at different averaae core
expansions, to obtain results within these confidence
limits.
As an example, to achieve an accuracy of 20% of
the average expansion, eight cores will need to be
teste.d if stored. at 20C, but this accuracy may be
obtaIned by testIng only one core if stored at 38e.
J.5 Concl usions
(1) The data obtained in the experiment allow a
tentative statement to be made of the precision
of the determination of concrete cores using Demec
gauges.
(2) Some laboratories obtained anonlalous results.
If the data from these laboratories are ignored,
the data fronl the r81naining laboratories suaaest
bb
Table 6: Precision of expansions measured by Demec gauge.
Number of Average Repeatability Reproducibility
Day laboratories expansion r R
)lID )lID )lID
1 8 60 120 150
2 8 50 80 140
7 8 60 60 200
14 8 60 80 200
28 8 60 160 200
56 8 112 190 260
91 8 520 560 700
168 8 1610 1140 1380
(a) Cores stored at 20C
Number of Average Repeatability Reproducibility
Day laboratories expansion r R
)lID )lID ~ l I
1 6 190 70 140
2 6 220 90 180
7 6 390 210 470
14 6 950 230 1440
28 6 2010 680 1770
56 6 2750 750 1270
91 6 3090 840 1060
168 6 3250 850 850
(b) Cores stored at 38C
41
Table 7: Values of 95% confidence limits, microns.
Number of
cores tested
1
2
4
8
x = 1000
X 540
X 380
X 270
X 190
(a) Cores stored at 20C
Number of
cores tested
1
2
4
8
X = 2000
X 400
X 290
X 200
X 140
(b) Cores stored at 38C
that the main cause of variation in the data is
variation in the cores themselves, and that the
variation between laboratories is small.
(3) Repeatability limits may be used at early ages,
once some expansion has occurred, to identify
pairs of cores which will give large differences
at later ages.
(4) The results suggest that it is necessary to
measure the expansion of a number of cores
(up to eight) to achieve reasonably narrow
confidence limits.
(5) Comparisons between Demec and dial gauge
readings show that they do not always give
equivalent results.
42
Average core expansion
X = 2000 X = 3000
X 1040
X 740
X 520
X 370
X 1540
X 1090
X 770
X 550
Average core expansion
X = 3000 X = 4000
X 590
X 420
X 290
X 210
APPENDIX K
X 770
X 550
X 390
X 270
The alkali-immersion test
A test surface is cut across the concrete sanlple, using
a diamond saw, and then lapped flat using silicon
carbide grinding powders. The procedure nlay be
applied to a concrete sanlple of any size, but it is
important for the test surface to be reasonably repre-
sentative. Hence itis recomlnended that the dimensions
ofthe surface should not be less than 100 Inmx 100 mm
for any concrete with coarse aggregate of up to 20 mm
maximum particle size.
The prepared sample is inlmersed in a freshly-
Inixed alkaline solution of 1-normal concentration, so
that the test surface is completely covered. The solu-
tion should contain 20 gil NaOH, 28 gil KOH and be
saturated with lime by adding 0.2 gil CaO and using
the solution after the excess linle has settled. (Caution:
the alkali solution is very caustic and must be kept
from contact with the skin.)
It is necessary to prevent evaporation of the alkaline
solution during the test, and storing the immersed
concrete samples in transparent plastic 'lunch boxes'
has been found to be effective. The test is normally
performed at 20C 2C for up to 28 days, although the
use of elevated temperatures, say 38C, may produce
earlier results .
References
1. INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS.
Structural effects of alkali-silica reaction.
Technical guidance on the appraisal of existing
structures. Report of an ISE task group. London,
CITO Ltd, 1992. 48 pp.
2. SIM, 1. ASR: UK experience. In SWAMY, R N.
(Ed). The alkali-silica reaction.
3. BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT. Alkali
aggregate reactions in concrete. Garston, BRE,
1988. 8 pp. Digest 330.
4. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Alkali-silica reaction, mini-
mising the risk of damage to concrete. Guidance
notes and model specification clauses. Slough,
Concrete Society, 1987. 34 pp. Technical
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6. INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS.
Appraisal of existing structures. London, ISE,
1980.60 pp.
7. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE COMMIT-
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8. CONCRETE SOCIETY. Non-structural cracks in
concrete; report of a "working party. Slough,
Concrete Society, 1982. 38 pp. Technical Report
22. (53.038).
9. BUNGEY, J.H. The testing of concrete in
structures. Glasgow, Surrey University Press,
second edition, 1989.228 pp.
10. STARK, D. The moisture condition of field
concrete exhibiting alkali-silica reactivity. ACI
special publication: SP 126, vol 2. Durability of
Concrete. pp. 973-987.
11. BLIGHT, G.E. The moisture condition in an
exposed structure danlaged by alkali-silica
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No. 157, Decenlber 1991. pp. 249-255.
12. NATESAIYER, K. and HOVER, K.C. Further study
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1989. pp. 770-778.
13. POOLE, A.B., McLACHLAN, A. and ELLIS, D.J.
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14. SIMS,1.,HUNT,B.J. andMIGLIO, B.F. Quantifying
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15. STARK, D. Handbook for the identification of
alkali-silica reactivity in highway structures.
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SHRP-C/FR-91-101. 49 pp.
16. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Testing
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17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Testing
Concrete. Part 204: Recommendations on the use
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59 pp. Technical Report 11 (53.056).
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Determination of the chloride and cement
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practice for site investigations. Milton Keynes,
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43
28. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. Testing
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36 pp. BS 1881: Part 124: 1988.
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31. CHANA, P.S. and KOROBOKIS, G.A. Structural
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Transport and Road Research Laboratory.
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alkali-silica reaction: its effect on concrete.
Structural Engineering Review, Vol 2, No 2, 1990.
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33. CLAYTON, N., CURRIE, R.J. and MOSS, R.M. The
effects of alkali -silica reaction on the strength of
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34. SOMERVILLE. G. Engineering aspects of alkali-
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Criteria for structural adequacy of buildings.
London, ISE. 1976. 35 pp.
36. FRENCH, \!\T.J. Concrete petrography: a review.
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44
.. '1 N" M"A T 1-' 0 - ..... ' .
b R E ( 0 M MEN D A T ION S F () R B CAP U '8 L I ( A T ION
f _. _ _ _ , ' , '. _ _
THE DIAGNOSIS
OF ALKALI-SILICA REACTION
Since publication of the second edition of this report in July 1992,
there have been further analysis and discussions on the method of expansion
testing of cores taken from the structure, as described in Appendix H,
and on the results of the precision trial on this method, summarized in
Appendix J. These have lead to the following amendments to the
recommendations given in the report, aimed at improving the
reliability of the test results.
Section 3.2 (page 13)
Insert new paragraph after second paragraph
Where cores are being taken for expansion testing
(see 4.8 and Appendix H) it is recommended that four
cores should be taken and tested for assessment of a
particular location.
Section 4.8.4 (page 26)
Insert new second paragraph
The results of the precision trial on the method of
expansion testing (see Appendix J) indicate that, for
the length of time taken in the trial, the variability
when storing the cores at 20C is greater than that
when storing at 38C. Until more experience of storage
at 20C is obtained, it is recommended that the test
should be conducted on cores stored at 38C when
fewer than four cores are available from any location.
January 1993
Insert to 45.042
Second edition 1992
ISBN 0 7210 1369 4
British Cement Association 1993
Section H.I.I (page 38)
Insert new paragraph before last paragraph
Following experience with these methods ,
it is recommended that method 2 should be used,
partly because the loss of an individual measurement
point would not then cause premature termination of
the test.
Section H.I.2 (page 39)
Add to end of penultimate paragraph
Some adhesives (e.g. some rapid-hardening varieties
of epoxy resin) are moisture sensitive and will soften
with time, causing the Demec studs to fall off.
Section H.I.3(a) (page 39)
First paragraph, penultimate line
Delete 'or slits'. (Note: it has been found that errors
can be caused by taking Demec readings through slits
in the tubing). '
British Cement Association
Century House
Telford Avenue
Crowthorne
Berks RG11 6YS
Telephone 0344 762676
Fax 0344 761214
All advice or information from the British Cement Association is intended for those who will evaluate the significance and limitations of its
contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice
or information is accepted. Readers should note that all BCA publications are subject to revision from time to time and should therefore ensure
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