College of Engineering and Computer Science

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mechanical Engineering 370
Thermodynamics
Spring 2003 Ticket: 57010 Instructor: Larry Caretto
Summary of Important Equations in Thermodynamics
Basic notation and definition of terms
Fundamental dimensions o mass! lengt"! time! temperature! and amount o su#stance $mol% are
denoted! respecti&ely as '! L! T( ! and in t"e a##re&iations #elo)( For e*ample! t"e
dimensions o pressure are 'L
+1
T
+2
( T"ermodynamic properties are said to #e e*tensi&e i t"ey
depend on t"e si,e o t"e system( -olume and mass are e*amples o intensi&e properties.
intensi&e properties! suc" as temperature and pressure! do not depend on t"e si,e o t"e system(
T"e ratio o t)o e*tensi&e properties is an intensi&e property( T"e ratio o an e*tensi&e property!
suc" as &olume! to t"e mass o t"e system! is called t"e speciic property. e(g(! t"e ratio o
&olume to mass is called t"e speciic &olume(
' molecular )eig"t $'/%
m mass $'%
M
m
n = num#er o moles $%
0 0nergy or general e*tensi&e property
m
E
e = Speciic molar energy $energy per unit mass% or general e*tensi&e property per
unit mass
eM
n
E
e = = Speciic energy $energy per unit mole% or general e*tensi&e property per unit mole
1 pressure $'L
+1
T
+2
%
- &olume $L
3
%. )e also "a&e t"e speciic &olume or &olume per unit mass! & $L
3
'
+1
%
and t"e &olume per unit mole v $L
3

+1
%
T temperature $%
density $'L
+3
%. 2 1/&(
* 3uality
su#scripts and & denote saturated li3uid and stauarated &apor! respecti&ely
4 t"ermodynamic internal energy $'L
2
T
+2
%. )e also "a&e t"e internal energy per unit
mass! u $L
2
T
+2
%! and t"e internal energy per unit mole! u $'L
2
T
+2

+1
%
5 2 4 6 1- t"ermodynamic ent"alpy $'L
2
T
+2
%. )e also "a&e t"e ent"alpy per unit mass! " 2 u
6 1& $dimensions: L
2
T
+2
% and t"e internal energy per unit mole h $'L
2
T
+2

+1
%
S entropy $'L
2
T
+2

+1
%. )e also "a&e t"e entropy per unit mass! s$L
2
T
+2

+1
% and t"e
internal energy per unit mole s $'L
2
T
+2

+1

+1
%
7 )ork $'L
2
T
+2
%
8 "eat transer $'L
2
T
+2
%
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u
W

: t"e useul )ork rate or mec"anical po)er $'L

2
T
+3
%
m : t"e mass lo) rate $'T
+1
%
2
2
V

: t"e kinetic energy per unit mass $L

2
T
+2
%
g,: t"e potential energy per unit mass $L
2
T
+2
%
0tot: t"e total energy 2 m$u 6
2
2
V

6 g,% $'L
2
T
+2
%
Q

: t"e "eat transer rate $'L

2
T
+3
%
: t"e rate o c"ange o energy or t"e control &olume( $'L
2
T
+3
%
Mass and energy balance equations
T"e e3uations #elo) use t"e standard t"ermodynamic sign con&ention or "eat and )ork( 5eat
added to a system is positi&e and "eat re?ected rom a system is negati&e( T"e opposite
con&ention "olds or )ork( 7ork done #y a system is positi&e. )ork done on $added to% a system
is negati&e( In terms o t"e 7in! 7out! 8in! and 8out terms used in t"e te*t )e can make t"e
ollo)ing statements(
8 2 8in + 8out 7 2 7out + 7in
T"ese e3uations may #e su#stituted or any o t"e "eat! 8! or )ork! 7 terms #elo)(
:elation o mass lo) to &elocity! speciic &olume and area:
v
A V
A V m

= =
@eneral irst la):

+ + +

+ + =
inlet
i
2
i
i i
outlet
i
2
i
i i u
cv
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE

'ass #alance e3uation:

=
outlet
i
inlet
i
cv
m m
dt
dm

Steady+lo) assumptions: 2 0 and 2 0
Steady+lo) irst la):

+ + +

+ + =
inlet
i
2
i
i i
outlet
i
2
i
i i u
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m Q W

'ass #alance or steady lo)s:

=
outlet
i
inlet
i
m m
Steady+lo) irst la) )it" negligi#le A0 B 10:

+ =
inlet
i i
outlet
i i u
h m h m Q W

Second law of thermodynamics and entropy
9asic deinition o entropy:
T
PdV dU
dS
+
=
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@eneral second la):
T
W L
T
Q
s m s m
dt
dS
cv cv
inlet
i i
outlet
i i
cv

+ = +

Second la) ine3uality:
T
Q
s m s m
dt
dS
cv
inlet
i i
outlet
i i
cv

+

Cdia#atic steady+lo)! second la) ine3uality:
0 s m s m
inlet
i i
outlet
i i



Ideal-gas equations
1( T"e gas constant
R
is t"e uni&ersal gas constant )it" dimensions o energy di&ided #y $moles times
temperature%! and
M
R
R = is t"e engineering gas constant )it" dimensions o energy di&ided
#y $mass times temperature%( T"e energy dimensions are sometimes e*pressed as energy
units $e(g(! D%( 5o)e&er! or 1+&+T calculations! t"e energy dimensions are e*pressed in
pressure units times &olume units $e(g(! k1aEm
3
( Some &alues o t"e uni&ersal gas constant are
s"o)n #elo)(
R lbmol
ft psi !"#$ % #0
R lbmol
lb ft "& % #&'&
( )mol
m )P "#' % *
( )mol
)+ "#' % *
R
"
f
"

=
2( 1+-+T calculations )it" mass or moles( T"e e*ample in t"e irst e3uation is air $: 2 0(2;7
kD/kg+A%( 9ot" e*amples are or an ideal gas t"at occupies a &olume o 1 m
3
at a pressure o
100 k1a and a temperature o 25 C 2 2F;(15 A(
m 2 2 2 1(1<F kg
n 2
T R
PV
2
, ( #& % 2-* .
( )mol
m )P "#' % *
, m # ,. )P #00 .
"
"

2 0(0=03= kmol
3( 5eat capacity deinitions and relations and computations o internal energy and ent"alpy
c"anges
a( 9asic rule: or ideal gases! t"e internal energy! ent"alpy! and "eat capacities are
unctions o temperature only(
#( 5eat capacity deinition and relations
v
v
P
P
T
U
/
T
0
/

=
v
v
v
v
v v
v
v
P
P
P
P
P P
P
P
Mc
n
/
T
u
c
M
c
m
/
T
u
c
Mc
n
/
T
h
c
M
c
m
/
T
h
c
= =

= = =

=
= =

= = =

=
Cp G C& 2 m: 2 n
R
cp G c& 2 : R c c
v P
=
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c( :elations"ips or internal energy and ent"alpy
du 2 c&dT d" 2 cpdT u2 G u1 2

2
#
T
T
v
dT c
"2 G "1 2

2
#
T
T
P
dT c
For constant "eat capacity: u2 G u1 2 c&$T2 G T1% and "2 G "1 2 c1$T2 G T1%
From ideal gas ta#les: u2 G u1 2 u
o
$T2% G u
o
$T1% and "2 G "1 2 "
o
$T2% G "
o
$T1%
=( 0ntropy c"anges
a( constant "eat capacity
s
2
+ s
1
2 c
p
ln + : ln 2 c
&
ln + : ln
#( &aria#le "eat capacity #y integration
s
2
+ s
1
2 + : ln 2 6 : ln
c( &aria#le "eat capacity #y ideal gas ta#les
s
2
+ s
1
2 s
o
$T
2
% + s
o
$T
1
% + : ln
5( 0nd states o an isentropic process or an ideal gas )it"
a( constant "eat capacity $k 2 c
p
/c
&
%
T
2
2 T
1
/k
T
2
2 T
1
1
2
2 1
1
k

#( &aria#le "eat capacity using t"e air ta#les
2 2
c( &aria#le "eat capacity using general ideal gas ta#les
s
o
$T
2
% 2 s
o
$T
1
% + : ln
d( &aria#le "eat capacity #y integration o c
p
$T% or c
&
$T% e3uation
2 : ln or 2 : ln
Cycles and efficiencies
In an engine cycle a certain amount o "eat! H85H! is added to t"e cyclic de&ice at a "ig"
temperature and a certain amount o )ork H7H is perormed by t"e de&ice( T"e dierence
#et)een H85H and H7H is H8LH! t"e "eat re?ected rom t"e de&ice at a lo) temperature(
In a rerigeration cycle a certain amount o "eat! H8LH! is added to t"e cyclic de&ice at a lo)
temperature and a certain amount o )ork H7H is perormed on t"e de&ice( T"e sum o H8LH and H
7H is H85H! t"e "eat re?ected rom t"e de&ice at a "ig" temperature(
For #ot" de&ices: H85H 2 H7H 6 H8LH
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0ngine cycle eiciency:
1 Q 1
1 W 1
0
=
:erigeration cycle coeicient o perormance:
W
Q
/2P
L
=
T"e isentropic eiciency! s! compares t"e actual )ork! H)aH! to t"e ideal )ork t"at )ould #e done
in an isentropic $re&ersi#le adia#atic% process! H)sH( 9ot" t"e actual and t"e isentropic process
"a&e t"e same initial states and t"e same inal pressure(
For a )ork output de&ice:
1 3 1
1 3 1
s

s
=
For a )ork input de&ice:
1 3 1
1 3 1

s
s
=
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