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+1
%
T temperature $%
density $'L
+3
%. 2 1/&(
* 3uality
su#scripts and & denote saturated li3uid and stauarated &apor! respecti&ely
4 t"ermodynamic internal energy $'L
2
T
+2
%. )e also "a&e t"e internal energy per unit
mass! u $L
2
T
+2
%! and t"e internal energy per unit mole! u $'L
2
T
+2
+1
%
5 2 4 6 1- t"ermodynamic ent"alpy $'L
2
T
+2
%. )e also "a&e t"e ent"alpy per unit mass! " 2 u
6 1& $dimensions: L
2
T
+2
% and t"e internal energy per unit mole h $'L
2
T
+2
+1
%
S entropy $'L
2
T
+2
+1
%. )e also "a&e t"e entropy per unit mass! s$L
2
T
+2
+1
% and t"e
internal energy per unit mole s $'L
2
T
+2
+1
+1
%
7 )ork $'L
2
T
+2
%
8 "eat transer $'L
2
T
+2
%
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u
W
6 g,% $'L
2
T
+2
%
Q
= =
@eneral irst la):
+ + +
+ + =
inlet
i
2
i
i i
outlet
i
2
i
i i u
cv
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE
'ass #alance e3uation:
=
outlet
i
inlet
i
cv
m m
dt
dm
Steady+lo) assumptions: 2 0 and 2 0
Steady+lo) irst la):
+ + +
+ + =
inlet
i
2
i
i i
outlet
i
2
i
i i u
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m Q W
'ass #alance or steady lo)s:
=
outlet
i
inlet
i
m m
Steady+lo) irst la) )it" negligi#le A0 B 10:
+ =
inlet
i i
outlet
i i u
h m h m Q W
Second law of thermodynamics and entropy
9asic deinition o entropy:
T
PdV dU
dS
+
=
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@eneral second la):
T
W L
T
Q
s m s m
dt
dS
cv cv
inlet
i i
outlet
i i
cv
+ = +
Second la) ine3uality:
T
Q
s m s m
dt
dS
cv
inlet
i i
outlet
i i
cv
+
Cdia#atic steady+lo)! second la) ine3uality:
0 s m s m
inlet
i i
outlet
i i
Ideal-gas equations
1( T"e gas constant
R
is t"e uni&ersal gas constant )it" dimensions o energy di&ided #y $moles times
temperature%! and
M
R
R = is t"e engineering gas constant )it" dimensions o energy di&ided
#y $mass times temperature%( T"e energy dimensions are sometimes e*pressed as energy
units $e(g(! D%( 5o)e&er! or 1+&+T calculations! t"e energy dimensions are e*pressed in
pressure units times &olume units $e(g(! k1aEm
3
( Some &alues o t"e uni&ersal gas constant are
s"o)n #elo)(
R lbmol
ft psi !"#$ % #0
R lbmol
lb ft "& % #&'&
( )mol
m )P "#' % *
( )mol
)+ "#' % *
R
"
f
"
=
2( 1+-+T calculations )it" mass or moles( T"e e*ample in t"e irst e3uation is air $: 2 0(2;7
kD/kg+A%( 9ot" e*amples are or an ideal gas t"at occupies a &olume o 1 m
3
at a pressure o
100 k1a and a temperature o 25 C 2 2F;(15 A(
m 2 2 2 1(1<F kg
n 2
T R
PV
2
, ( #& % 2-* .
( )mol
m )P "#' % *
, m # ,. )P #00 .
"
"
2 0(0=03= kmol
3( 5eat capacity deinitions and relations and computations o internal energy and ent"alpy
c"anges
a( 9asic rule: or ideal gases! t"e internal energy! ent"alpy! and "eat capacities are
unctions o temperature only(
#( 5eat capacity deinition and relations
v
v
P
P
T
U
/
T
0
/
=
v
v
v
v
v v
v
v
P
P
P
P
P P
P
P
Mc
n
/
T
u
c
M
c
m
/
T
u
c
Mc
n
/
T
h
c
M
c
m
/
T
h
c
= =
= = =
=
= =
= = =
=
Cp G C& 2 m: 2 n
R
cp G c& 2 : R c c
v P
=
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c( :elations"ips or internal energy and ent"alpy
du 2 c&dT d" 2 cpdT u2 G u1 2
2
#
T
T
v
dT c
"2 G "1 2
2
#
T
T
P
dT c
For constant "eat capacity: u2 G u1 2 c&$T2 G T1% and "2 G "1 2 c1$T2 G T1%
From ideal gas ta#les: u2 G u1 2 u
o
$T2% G u
o
$T1% and "2 G "1 2 "
o
$T2% G "
o
$T1%
=( 0ntropy c"anges
a( constant "eat capacity
s
2
+ s
1
2 c
p
ln + : ln 2 c
&
ln + : ln
#( &aria#le "eat capacity #y integration
s
2
+ s
1
2 + : ln 2 6 : ln
c( &aria#le "eat capacity #y ideal gas ta#les
s
2
+ s
1
2 s
o
$T
2
% + s
o
$T
1
% + : ln
5( 0nd states o an isentropic process or an ideal gas )it"
a( constant "eat capacity $k 2 c
p
/c
&
%
T
2
2 T
1
/k
T
2
2 T
1
1
2
2 1
1
k
#( &aria#le "eat capacity using t"e air ta#les
2 2
c( &aria#le "eat capacity using general ideal gas ta#les
s
o
$T
2
% 2 s
o
$T
1
% + : ln
d( &aria#le "eat capacity #y integration o c
p
$T% or c
&
$T% e3uation
2 : ln or 2 : ln
Cycles and efficiencies
In an engine cycle a certain amount o "eat! H85H! is added to t"e cyclic de&ice at a "ig"
temperature and a certain amount o )ork H7H is perormed by t"e de&ice( T"e dierence
#et)een H85H and H7H is H8LH! t"e "eat re?ected rom t"e de&ice at a lo) temperature(
In a rerigeration cycle a certain amount o "eat! H8LH! is added to t"e cyclic de&ice at a lo)
temperature and a certain amount o )ork H7H is perormed on t"e de&ice( T"e sum o H8LH and H
7H is H85H! t"e "eat re?ected rom t"e de&ice at a "ig" temperature(
For #ot" de&ices: H85H 2 H7H 6 H8LH
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0ngine cycle eiciency:
1 Q 1
1 W 1
0
=
:erigeration cycle coeicient o perormance:
W
Q
/2P
L
=
T"e isentropic eiciency! s! compares t"e actual )ork! H)aH! to t"e ideal )ork t"at )ould #e done
in an isentropic $re&ersi#le adia#atic% process! H)sH( 9ot" t"e actual and t"e isentropic process
"a&e t"e same initial states and t"e same inal pressure(
For a )ork output de&ice:
1 3 1
1 3 1
s
s
=
For a )ork input de&ice:
1 3 1
1 3 1
s
s
=
0ngineering 9uilding :oom 1333 'ail Code 1"one: ;1;(<77(<==;
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