Unit 12 1

UNIT 12 THE RANKINE CYCLE

Unit Structure

12.0 Overview
12.1 Learning Objectives
12.2 Introduction to Vapour Power Cycle
12.2.1 Carnot Vapour Power Cycle
12.2.2 The Rankine Cycle
12.2.3 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
12.2.4 Deviation of Actual Vapour Power Cycle from Idealised Ones
12.2.5 Increasing Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle
12.3 Introduction to Refrigeration Cycle
12.3.1 The Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
12.4 Air Conditioning
12.4.1 Parameters in Air Vapour Mixture
12.4.2 The Psychrometric Chart
12.5 Summary
12.6 Answers to Activities


12.0 OVERVIEW

Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration. Both power generation and refrigeration are usually accompanied by
systems that operate on thermodynamics cycles.

In this unit, we will consider two important areas of application for thermodynamics,
power generation and refrigeration. Power generation is comprised of vapour power
cycles for which the working fluid is alternately vaporised and condensed. The
limitations of the Carnot cycle will be analysed and some innovative modifications to
the basic vapour power cycle will be proposed, leading to the elaboration of the
Unit 12 2
Rankine Cycle. Also, the refrigeration cycle will be discussed and the Psychometric
chart, used in air conditioning, will be introduced.


12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit you will be able to do the following:-

1. Identify the different types of thermodynamic cycles.
2. Define vapour power cycles.
3. Analyse the Rankine cycle.
4. Determine all parameters in the Rankine cycle and its thermal efficiency.
5. Sketch the Rankine Cycle on a h-s diagram.
6. Explain refrigeration cycles.
7. Read the Psychrometric chart.


12.2 INTRODUCTION TO VAPOUR POWER CYCLES

Thermodynamics cycles can be classified as follows:
a. Power and Refrigeration Cycles.
b. Gas and Vapour Cycles
c. Closed and Open Cycles

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines
and the thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles.
Power cycles
Thermodynamic cycles can further be categorised as gas cycles or vapour cycles,
depending on the phase of the working fluid the substance that circulates through
the cyclic device.

Unit 12 3
In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase, throughout the entire
cycle whereas in vapour cycles, the working fluid exists in the vapour phase during
one part of the cycle and in the liquid phase during another part.

Thermodynamic cycles
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorised as closed and open cycles. In closed
cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is
re-circulated.

In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being
re-circulated. For example, an automobile engine is operated on a power cycle as it
produces a net work output. It is also called an open gas cycle since the working fluid
(mixture of air and fuel) is a gas and the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced
by fresh fuel at the end of each cycle.

12.2.1 The Carnot Vapour Cycle

As shown previously in Unit 9, the Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be
executed between a thermal energy source and sink. As such, the Carnot cycle could
have been used as an ideal cycle on which vapour power plants could operate.

However, there are several impracticabilities that make it difficult to build an engine,
which closely approximates the Carnot cycle.

The Carnot vapour cycle is shown below and steam is the most common working
fluid due to its low cost and availability.






The impracticabilities associated with Carnot cycles are as follows:-
1 2
3 4
T
s
1 2
3
4
Boiler
Condenser
Compressor Turbine
Figure 12.1: Carnot Vapour Cycle
Unit 12 4
1. Limiting heat transfer processes to 2 phase systems limits the maximum
temperature which in turn limits the thermal efficiency.
2. Process 4-1 involves compressing a liquid vapour mixture to a saturated liquid,
which is quite difficult to control. Also, it is not practical to design a compressor
handling 2 phases.

Conclusion: The Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in actual devices and is not a
realistic model for vapour power cycles.

12.2.2 The Rankine Cycle

Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser, as
shown on the T-s diagram (Figure 12.3). The cycle results in the Ideal Rankine
Cycle, which is the ideal cycle for vapour power plants.

The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of
the following four processes:

1-2 : Isentropic Compression in a Pump
2-3 : Constant Pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 : Isentropic Expansion in a Turbine
4-1 : P = constant heat rejection in a condenser










At state 1, water enters the pump as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically
to the operating pressure of boiler.
2
3
4 1
Boiler
Condenser
Pump
Turbine
Figure 12.2: Ideal Rankine Cycle
W
turb
, out
W
pump
, in
q
in

q
out

Unit 12 5
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and leaves as superheated
vapour at state 3. The superheated vapour at state 3 enters the turbine where it
expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an
electrical generator. The pressure and temperature of the superheated vapour drop
during this process to values at state 4 where steam enters the condenser. Steam is
condensed at constant pressure and rejects heat to a cooling medium. Steam leaves
the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump completing the cycle.








Activity 1

Show the heat transferred to water in boiler, the heat rejected in the condenser and the
net work produced during the cycle.

12.2.3 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle

All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the pump, boiler, turbine and
condenser) are steady flow devices.

Hence, all four processes that make up the Rankine cycle can be analysed as steady
flow processes. The Kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually
small relative to the work and heat transfer terms, and are usually neglected.
Then the steady flow energy equation per unit mass of steam reduces to
q w = h
e
h
i
(kJ/kg)

The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, therefore
Boiler (w = 0) q
in
= h
3
h
2

T
s
1
4
2
3
Figure 12.3
Unit 12 6
Condenser (w = 0) q
out
= h
4
h
1


The pump and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic

Turbine (q = 0) w
turbine
= h
3
h
4

For pump (q = 0) w
pump
= h
2
h
1


or also w
pump
= (P
2
P
1
)

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is

n
th
=
in
out
in
net
q
q
q
w
= 1
and w
net
= w
turb
w
pump

Activity 2

Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine cycle. The steam
enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350
0
C, and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.

12.2.4 Deviation of Actual Vapour Power Cycles from Idealised
Ones.

If you look at figure 11.4, you will see that the actual vapour power cycle (1-2-3-4)
differs from the ideal Rankine cycle,
(1-2-3-4) as a result of irreversibilities in various components. Fluid friction and
undesired heat loss to the surroundings are the two most common sources of
irreversibilities.




Pressure drop
in boiler
Actual cycle---------
Ideal cycle_______
Unit 12 7







1. Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler and the condenser. As a result,
steam leaves the boiler at a somewhat lower pressure.

2. Also, there are irreversibilities in the turbine and pump. A pump requires a
greater work input and a turbine produces a smaller work output. The derivations
can be accounted for, by utilising adiabatic efficiencies defined as

1 2
1 2
h h
h h
n
a
s
p

= and
s
a
T
h h
h h
n
4 3
4 3

=
where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump and turbine respectively
and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case.

Activity 3

Consider the steam power plant in Activity 2. If the adiabatic efficiency of the
turbine is 87% and the adiabatic efficiency of the pump is 85%, determine
a. the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
b. the net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s

12.2.5 Increasing Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle
Thermal Efficiency of Carnot cycle is
H
L
T
T
1 . To increase the thermal efficiency of
the Rankine cycle, either T
H
should be increased or T
L
decreased as low as possible.

Three ways of accomplishing them are:
1 Lowering the condenser pressure.
T
S
Figure 12.4: Actual Rankine Cycle
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
Irreversibilities
in pump
Pressure drop in condenser
Irreversibilities
in turbine
Unit 12 8
This lowers the temperature (T
L
) at which heat is rejected and therefore increases
W
net
.

Figure 12.5: Effect of lowering condenser pressure on Rankine cycle

2 Superheating the steam to high temp
This raises the temperature (T
H
) at which heat is added to steam and both the net
work and heat outputs are increased.








Figure 12.6:Effect of superheating the steam to high temperature on Rankine
cycle

3 Increasing the boiler pressure
This raises the temperature (T
H
) at which boiling takes place and therefore raises the
temperature at which heat is added to steam.
Unit 12 9


Figure 12.7: Effect of increasing the boiler pressure on Rankine cycle


12.3 INTRODUCTION TO REFRIGERATION CYCLES

As shown previously, the most efficient refrigeration cycle would be the reversed
Carnot Cycle. However, there are several impracticalities associated with reversed
Carnot Cycle such as:
Compression of a liquid vapour mixture (process 2-3 on Figure 12.8) requires a
compressor that handles two phases.
Expansion of high moisture refrigerant represented by (process 4 to 1 on Figure
12.8)
T





s


The reversed Carnot cycle cannot be attained in actual devices and is not a suitable
model for refrigeration cycles.
Figure 12.8: Representation of
Reversed Carnot Cycle on T-s diagram
1 2
3
4
Unit 12 10

12.3.1 The Ideal Vapour Compression Refrigeration Cycle.

Many impracticalities associated with the reversed Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
vaporising the refrigerant completely before it is compressed and by replacing the
turbine by an expansion valve.
The cycle that results is called the ideal vapour compression refrigeration cycle and is
shown below.








At state 1, refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated vapour and is compressed
isentropically to the pressure of the condenser. The temperature of the refrigerant
increases during this isentropic compression. At state 2, refrigerant enters the
condenser as superheated vapour and leaves as saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of
heat rejection to atmosphere. At state 3, saturated liquid refrigerant is throttled to the
pressure of the evaporator.

At state 4, refrigerant enters evaporator as low quality saturated mixture and
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. This completes
the cycle.

1 - 2 : Isentropic compression in compressor.
2 - 3 : Constant pressure heat rejections.
3 - 4 : Throttling in expansion device.
4 - 1 : Constant heat absorption in evaporator.
3
2
1 4
Condenser
Evaporator
Figure 12.9: Representation of Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
2
1
3
4
T
s
Compressor
Throttling
Valve
Unit 12 11
Figure 12.7 shows an ordinary household refrigerator.





QL






Figure 12.7: Ordinary Household Refrigerator

Activity 4

Outline differences between ideal Rankine cycle and ideal Refrigeration cycle.

Activity 5

Write equations outlining energy analysis of ideal refrigeration cycles.


12.4 AIR CONDITIONING

In air conditioning, the air-water vapour mixture is used, and since the vapour may
condense out of the mixture during a process, forming a two-phase mixture, it has to
be treated differently from an ordinary gas mixture.

12.4.1 Parameters in Air-vapour Mixture

Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, small amounts of other gases and normally
contains some water vapour and is referred to as ATMOSPHERIC AIR. By contrast,
air that contains no water vapour is called dry air.

Freezer
Evaporator Coils
Valve
Q
H
Kitchen Air
Condenser Coils
Compressor

Unit 12 12
The amount of water vapour in the air can be specified in various ways:

Absolute or Specific Humidity

It is defined as the actual amount of water vapour in 1 kg of dry air.
( ) dryair kg vapour water kg
m
m
W
a
v
/ =

Relative Humidity

It is defined as the ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in air to the maximum
amount of water vapour that air can hold at this temperature.

|
|
|
|
|

\
|
= .

x
of ass
e temperatur same at hold
can air moisture of amount imum ma
tempT a at vapour m
m
m
g
v


Relative humidity is expressed in Percent

Other Parameters are:

1. Dry bulb temperature is the ordinary temperature of atmospheric air.
2. Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature at which condensation
begins if air is cooled at cst pressure.
3. Wet bulb temperature is used to determine specific humidity and is measured
with a wet bulb thermometer.






Unit 12 13
12.4.2 The Psychrometric Chart

Data about air-vapour mixtures (atmospheric air) are shown on chart known as
Psychrometric charts, and these are used extensively in air conditioning applications.
These charts are drawn for atmospheric pressures.
Basic Features of Psychrometric Charts:
Horizontal axis: Dry bulb temperature
Vertical axis: Specific humidity
Left end curve: Saturation line which shows relative humidity


Lines having downhill appearance
1. Constant Specific Volume
2. Constant enthalpy
3. Constant wet bulb temperatures- - - - - - -


The Psychrometric chart services as a valuable aid in visualising air conditioning
processes.
Ordinary heating or cooling will appear as horizontal lines. Any derivation from a
horizontal line indicates that moisture is added or removed from the air during the
process.

Activity 6
Consider a room which contains air at 1 atm, 35
0
C and 40 percent relative humidity.








Figure 12.8: Psychrometric Chart
Dry bulb temperature
Humidify
Dehumidify
Cool Heat
Cool and Dehumidify
Unit 12 14

Using the psychrometric chart, determine
(a) Specific humidity (kg water/kg air)
(b) Enthalpy (KJ/kg air)
(c) Wet bulb temperature (
0
C)
(d) Dewpoint temperature (
0
C)
(e) Specific volume of the air (m
3
/
kg air)


12.5 SUMMARY

It has been seen in this unit that the Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapour
power cycles because it cannot be approximated in practice. The model cycle for
vapour power cycles is the Ideal Rankine cycle, which is composed of four internally
reversible processes.

Actual processes have irreversibilities which are accounted for in the actual Rankine
cycle, by adiabatic efficiencies for expansion in turbine and compression in pump.

Similarly, for refrigerators, the reversed Carnot Cycle has many impracticabilities and
cannot be approximated in practice. The model cycle is the vapour compression
refrigerator cycle, which consists of isentropic compression in the compressor,
followed by a constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser, throttling in a
throttling valve and finally, constant heat absorption in evaporator.

Finally, the Psychrometric chart which indicates properties of air water vapour
mixtures and widely used in air conditioning was explained.

In the next unit, you will see gas power cycles, the basis for the operation of
automobile engines.



Unit 12 15


12.6 ANSWER TO ACTIVITIES

Activity 1

..

= Tds Q
then Q
in
= area under 2 3
Q
out
= area under 4 1
s

Then W
net
= Q
in
- Q
out


W
net
= area enclosed by 1 2 3 4

Activity 2

Superheated Region
Point 3
kJ/kg.K 6.7428 s
kJ/kg 3 . 3115 h

3

350
3
3
0

=
=

=
MPa P
C T


Point 4
g 3.2 kJ/k 24 h
0.886 x
s s
MPa P
0

.K kJ/kg 7428 . 6
775 . 0
4
3 4
=
=

= =
=


Point 1

=
=
= =
J/kg k 1.2130 s
/kg 0.001037m sat liquid
384.3kJ/kg h MPa P
1
3
1
k
075 . 0
1


w
pump
=
1
(P
2
-P
1
) = 3.033 kJ/kg

1
2
3
4
Figure 12.9
T
Unit 12 16

Point 2

= + =
=
KJ/kg 42 . 387
3
1 2
2
pump
W h h
MPa P

n
th
=
( )
260 . 0
78 . 2727
9 . 2018
1 =

Activity 3

If turbine has adiabatic efficiency of 0.87, then

S
a
h h
h h
.
4 3
4 3
87 0

=
From previous example; h
3
= 3115.3 kJ/kg
h
4S
= 2403.2 kJ/kg

h
4
a kg J / k 7 . 2495 3 . 3115 ) 2 . 2403 3 . 3115 ( 87 . 0 = +

Point 1: h
1
=384.3 kJ/kg

Pump has n
th
= 0.85
Then 0.85 =
a a
isen
a
S
h h
P P v
h h
W
h h
h h
2 1
1 2
2 1 2 1
2 1
) (

( )
kJ/kg 9 . 386
65 . 0
1
1 2
2
=

+ =
P P v
h h
a


[ ] [ ]
[ ]
MW . . 15 2726.4 Output Net Power
/kg 2726.4 kJ .9) 38 (3115.3 - ) -h (h q
) (n 15 q
-q q 15
-q q m w m Output Net Power
0.226
h h
h h
1
q
q
1 n
2a 3 in
th in
out in
out in i net i
2 3
1 4
in
out
th
25 9 226 0
6
= =
= = =
=
=
= =
=

= =

1
2
3
4
Figure 12.10
S
75 kPa
350
0
C
3 MPa
T
Unit 12 17


Activity 4

Ideal Rankine Cycle Ideal Refrigeration Cycle
1) Power Cycle Refrigeration Cycle
2) Consists of Condenser - Condenser
- Evaporator - Evaporator
- Pump - Throttling value
- Turbine - Compressor
- Gas/Vapour - Refrigerant

Activity 5

All four components are steady flow devices, and all four processes that make up the
cycle can be analysed as steady flow processes.
q w = he - hi
Processes 2 3 and 4 1 do not involve any work. Process 1 2 is adiabatic.
Then, the
1 2
4 1
h h
h h
w
q
COP
net
L
R

= =

Activity 6

P = 1 atm; T = 35
0
C, = 40%
(a) Specific humidity,
= 0.0142 kg H
2
0/kg dry air
(b) Enthalpy of air,
h = 71.5 kJ/kg dry air
(c) Wet bulb temperature
T
wb
= 24
0
C
(d) Dewpoint temperature
T
dp
= 19.4
0
C
(e) Specific volume
= 0.893 m
3
/kg air
= 40%
T= 35
0
C
Figure 12.11