Electrical and Electronic Workbook

Petersfield High School
Follow Occupational Health and Safety

Hazard: A circumstance that increases the likelihood or probable severity of a loss. For
example, the storing of explosives in a home basement is a hazard that increases the
probability of an explosion.
Accident: An unexpected and undesirable event, especially one resulting in damage or
harm:
Emergency: A serious situation or occurrence that happens unexpectedly and demands
immediate action.
Developing safe working habits depend on the right working attitude a feeling that you
want to feel safely.
Failing to follow electrical safety rules and practices can in!ure you or others and destroy
property. "hock and burns can result when the body conducts electricity. #roperty may be
damaged by electrical fires started by overheated wires or sparks. $hese dangers must be
prevented if we are to use electric energy safely and efficiently.
As a future worker, you will become familiar with the occupational %ealth and "afety Act
&'%"A(. )ts basic purpose is to ensure that every worker in the nation has safe and
healthful working conditions.
$he main causes of accident in the workshop include:
Carelessness: *hen any !ob is done often enough, it tends to become boring and boredom
easily leads to careless work. For example, a maintenance electrician may continually
check control e+uipment when it is ,live, and become unconscious of the danger. Don,t let
familiarity breed contempt.
Ignorance: Accidents often occur in industry due to the ignorance or inexperience of
workers. -emember that most tasks look easy when done by an expert. Do not attempt a
difficult !ob unless under supervision.
Skylarking: .any young people work in industrial premises without a full realization of the
hazards present. "kylarking may be a legitimate way of ,letting off steam/ in a school
playground, but it can often lead to serious and, sometimes, fatal accidents in a factory or
workshop. "ensible people often do things they would never otherwise do when they are ,dared,.
Electrical and Electronic Technology
1
PERSON! PRO"EC"I#E E$%IP&EN"
$he essence of safety is protection. #ersonal protection re+uires e+uipment designed for
individual safety. *hen wearing personal protective e+uipment, make sure that the e+uip0
ment is in good condition, that it fits, and that it is approved for the specific task being per0
formed. "ince electrical e+uipment is used in nearly every environment, make sure that
your personal protective e+uipment is appropriate for the environment, as well as for the
specific electrical application.
Safety 'lasses
"afety glasses are re+uired in all manufacturing facilities and most school laboratories.
"afety glasses should be worn when soldering, cutting wires, handling chemicals and
television picture tubes, and using machines such as drill presses, portable electric drills,
and grinders.
1lass lenses and some plastic lenses do not +ualify as safety glasses since they can shatter
and cause serious eye in!ury. 1oggles should be worn over safety glasses when there is a
danger of fluids, dust, or rust falling or splashing into the eyes.
Clothing
#ersonal grooming from the safety standpoint has little to do with personal grooming
from the aesthetic standpoint. Flowing hair, heavy !ewelry, and loose clothing may look nice,
but that long hair can easily get caught in machinery or obscure your vision. %eavy !ewelry
can get in the way and conducts electricity. 2oose clothing can interfere with movement,
restrict activity, and get caught in machinery.
3lothing can cover the body to protect it from solder burns, battery acid, and general
external contamination. )n some instances, rubber or latex gloves are necessary to protect
the skin, eg. %igh voltage.
&ask and Respirators
-espirators must be worn by engineers, technicians, and scientists working in
contaminated areas.
Footwear
2
'ne should always wear rubber bottom hard boots to safeguard from electric shocks,
Head 'ear
%elmets are worn where the danger of falling ob!ects exists.
Points of (anger for the Electrician: $hese are as follows:
)* Burns. 4lectrical burns are generally more dangerous &and more painful( than
normal burns, as they are usually caused by an arc containing molten metal.
+* Falls. A very large percentage of industrial accidents are caused by falls, either
from a height or by workers tripping over e+uipment left lying about.
,* Ladders. #oints to note:
&a( 2adders should always be placed at a reasonable angle to the vertical.
(b) 2adders should be anchored on a non0slip surface or effectively wedged.
(c) Aluminium ladders should be used with great caution, particularly near bare
conductors.
(d) Do not attempt to lift heavy, or unwieldy, e+uipment &for example, conduit lengths(
up or down a ladder unaided.
(e) Do not attempt ,acrobatic feats, 0 you may endanger your life and the lives of others
and undermine your right to compensation.
-* Strains. "trains occur through attempts to lift over0heavy weights or by lifting weights
incorrectly. $o lift heavy ob!ects from ground level: place the feet apart, get a good grip
with the fingers, keep the back straight, and lift by straightening the knees
5. Electric shock. $his is one of the main hazards in our craft. )t is not always possible
to work on ,dead, conductors but certain precautions may be taken:
(a) 5ever assume that an installation is ,dead,: check thoroughly before opening
e+uipment, and do not check by touching conductors with fingertips.
(b) 3heck circuit thoroughly before replacing a re0loaded fuse in a ,live, circuit. and, if
still in doubt, replace with gloves6 always keep your face clear.
(c) )f working on an installation to which other people have access &for example, a
crane(, remove fuses and keep them beside you.
.* Moving machinery. 1reat care should be taken when working on moving
machinery6 oil rags &store in appropriate metal container( and ties &should not be worn(
should be kept well clear. Do not remove guards and, if it becomes necessary to remove
a guard, do so when the machinery is stationary. -eplace all guards before leaving a
machine.
1oggles should always be worn when operating a grinder and particular care should
be taken when drilling and grinding soft metals &for example, brass and copper(.
First id
5'$4. First aid is only meant to be a temporary measure until skilled assistance can be
3
obtained.
First/id 0o1* 4very factory and workshop is legally bound to possess a first0aid box.
)ndustrial first0aid kits should contain: sterilized dressings, cotton wool, adhesive plaster,
roller bandages &78 mm and 89mm(, sal volatile, and eye drops.
"reat2ent for Cuts. Do not wash the wound, although the skin round it may be
cleansed with soap and water. Apply a sterilized dressing, or an adhesive wound
dressing, as +uickly as possible.
"reat2ent for 0urns* )f serious, send for a doctor or ambulance. 3over the wound
with a sterilized dressing, do not apply adhesive dressing or ointments.
Chemical burns. Flush with cold water immediately and apply sterilized dressing. :se
antidote if available &solution of bicarbonate of soda for acids and dilute vinegar for
alkalines or buffered phosphate solution for both types of burns(. Alkaline burns are
more serious than acid burns and should receive medical attention as +uickly as
possible. "reat2ent for Electric Shock* An electric shock is caused by the passage of
current through the body &generally hand to hand or hand to feet( causing a paralysis of
the muscles, particularly the heart muscles. 3urrents as low as 9.979 A have been known
to be fatal. $he severity of the shock will depend on: &a( voltage between ,live, metal
and earth, (b) moisture content of skin, (c) proximity of body to effective earth, and (d)
length of time of contact.
"#44D is 4""45$)A2 in treatment for electric shock. A few minutes, delay may make all the
difference between recovery and death.
;. "witch off current before attempting to remove the casualty or, if this is not possible,
remove him with an insulated material &for example, !acket, dry wood or dry newspaper(. Do
not touch or attempt to grasp casualty,s skin.
7. -emove any obstructions to breathing &for example, tight collar or false teeth(.
<. 3ommence artificial respiration, using the mouth0to0mouth method. &$his should
be practiced by everyone working with electricity as efficiency can only come with
practice.(
&outh/to/2outh rtificial Respiration
;. #osition casualty on floor with head tilted backwards &Fig below(.
7. $ake a very deep breath.
4
<. #ress his nose between your fingers.
=. #lace your mouth against his mouth and form an air0tight seal.
8. >low into his lungs until his chest expands.
?. -emove your mouth and watch for the contraction of his chest.
@. -epeat the above until his breathing returns to normal. 5'$4. .outh0to0nose
artificial respiration should be carried out if the casualty,s mouth is blocked &e.g. due to
in!ury(.
ccident 0ook
All employers are obliged by law to enter all accidents in the accident book. $his book
5
is used to register:
(a) Date of accident.
(b) 5ame of patient.
(c) 5ature of in!ury.
(d) 3ause of in!ury.
(e) $reatment.
)t is essential that any in!uries received during working hours be reported by the employee
or claims for industrial benefits may be affected.
C"E'ORIES OF FIRE
Class : those involving ordinary solid combustible materials such as paper, cloth,
plastics, wood, etc.
Class 0: those involving flammable li+uids such as oil, fat, grease, adhesives, paint,
varnish, petrol, etc.
Class C: those involving flammable gas such as 2#1 &li+uefied petroleum gas(, butane,
propane, methane, acetylene, etc.
Class (: those involving metals, molten metals, metal powders, etc.
Electrical: those involving fixed e+uipment such as switchgear, motors, computers,
and portable e+uipment such as hand0held appliances, toasters, hairdriers, etc.
$he following action should be taken in the event of a fire:
a( -aise the alarm.
b( "witch off the supply &if an electrical fire(.
c( 3lose doors and windows to prevent spread of fire.
d( Fight the fire if trained to do so &see = below(.
e( "top fighting the fire if: &i( it is out of control6 &ii( you are threatened by smoke6 or &iii(
your escape route is blocked.
ypes of fire extinguishers:
3ater type: for 3lass A fires only.
&ulti/purpose dry powder: for 3lass A, > and electrical fires, although it does not
penetrate the spaces in e+uipment.
Standard dry powder: for 3lass > fires.
Halon: for small0burning surface 3lass A fires, 3lass > fires and electrical fires.
&ulti/purpose a4ueous fil2/for2ing foa2: for 3lass A and 3lass > fires.
Foa2: 3lass > fires.
Car5on dio1ide &3'7(: 3lass > fires and live electrical e+uipment.
Fire 5lanket: for 3lass A and > fires.
5ote For 3lass 3 fires, if there is no risk of explosion, use multi0purpose dry powder, halon
or 3'7 extinguisher. For 3lass D fires, special training is needed.
5ote >oth halon and 3'7 type extinguishers chemically inhibit combustion, but harmful
fumes can be given off so they should not be used in confined spaces.

Fire !lan"et
Figure 1#4 Types of fire e$tinguisher
%ry powder
&lac" &lue
Foa' (ater
)ed *rea'
%ry powder
&lac" &lue
Foa' (ater
)ed *rea'
+
Fire !lan"et
Figure 1 Types of fire e$tinguisher
"esting 'as leak
)n the event that there is gas leak spray soapy water on the gas line and wait to see
where the bubbles come from to find the location of the leak.
%sing the grinder
"tand to the side of the grinder when starting the grinder
Always wear full0face protection, ear protection, leather gloves and a leather
apron.
As with all other machines ensure that the guard is in place before use.
Do not grind on the side of the wheel because it may cause the wheel to shatter.
.ake sure you understand and observe all legislative and personal safety
procedures when carrying out the following tasks.
)n the event that chips are caught in any machine, stop it then use a wire brush to
remove the obstruction.
Hydraulics is a topic of science and engineering dealing with the mechanical properties
of li+uids. %ydraulics is part of the more general discipline of fluid power. Fluid
mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the
engineering uses of fluid properties.
Hydraulic 2achinery are machines and tools which use fluid power to do work. %eavy
e+uipment is a common example.
,
)n this type of machine, high pressure hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the
machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders. $he fluid is controlled
directly or automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.
Pneu2atics, a subsection of an area called fluid power, is the use of pressurized gas to
effect mechanical motion.
E1a2ples of pneu2atic syste2s:
#neumatic tools:
o #neumatic drill &!ackhammer( used by road workers
o #neumatic nailgun
#neumatic switches
#neumatic actuator
Air compressors
Aacuum pump
O1y/fuel refers to technology that burns oxygen with gaseous fuel. As compared to air,
which contains 79.B8C oxygen, higher temperatures can be reached using pure oxygen.
Approximately the same total energy is produced when burning a fuel with oxygen as
compared to with air6 the difference is the lack of temperature diluting inert gases. $he
most common fuel burned in a torch with oxygen is acetylene6 even though it presents
special handling problems, it has the greatest heat output
-
Electron Theory
Matter is anything that occupies space and has 'ass# (ire. ru!!er. and glass are e$a'ples of
'atter# /atter is 'ade up of tiny particles called molecules. /olecules are 'ade up of e0en
s'aller particles called ato's# 1n ato' is 'ade of tiny particles called electrons. protons. and
neutrons# Electrons are negati0ely charged particles that re0ol0e around the nucleus of an ato'
'uch li"e planets around the sun# Protons, positi0ely charged particles. and neutrons are held
tightly together in the nucleus, or center. of the ato'#
These particles are i'portant !ecause they deter'ine the charge of an ato'#
The electrons are held tightly in place !y the attracti0e force of the electrons#
Since electrons are attracted to protons. it 'eans they !oth ha0e tiny a'ounts of energy#
There is a force 2F3 !etween charges# 4i"e charges repel5 unli"e charges attract#
D The force is directly proportional to charge#
D The force is in0ersely proportional to s6uare of distance#
Electrons ha0e negati0e 273 charges# Protons ha0e positi0e 283 charges# 9eutrons ha0e
no electrical charge# Thus. they are neutral#
The a'ount of the negati0e charge of each electron is e6ual to the a'ount of the positi0e
charge of each proton#
:f an ato' loses an electron. it will attract another electron towards it !ecause unli"e
charges attract electrons fro' ato' to ato' is going on continuously and is affected !y
te'perature#
(hen an electric pressure 2a 0oltage3 is applied across a 'aterial the electrons 'o0e in
one direction only
*on0entional *urrent Flow 0s# Electron Flow
1;
*on0entional Flow< Flow of positi0e charges 2fro' positi0e to negati0e3
Electron Flow< Flow of electrons 2fro' negati0e to positi0e3
Electric *urrent
This uni7directional 'o0e'ent. or flow. of electrons is called a flow of current.
The unit of current is the ampere 2a!!re0iation 13 and the sy'!ol is :#
The current denotes the rate of flow of charges#
Electric *harge
The unit of electric 6uantity is the coulomb 2sy'!ol Q). One coulo'! is the 6uantity of
electricity con0eyed in one second !y a current of one a'pere 2#3 $ 1;
1,
electrons in
one second3#
1 coulo'! * = 1 a'pere 2:3 flowing for 1 second (t)
For'ula< > = : $ t
Energy of the electrons
The electrons recei0e energy fro' the 0oltage source as it cause electrons to flow in the
circuit#
This energy can !e found using the for'ula<
Energy = *harge $ ?oltage
E = > $ ?
Electric Pressure
?oltage is the pressure that cause electrons to 'o0e through a circuit. 'uch li"e pu'p to
water#
The unit of electric pressure is the volt 2?3 One "ilo0olt 2"?3 = 1;;;?
9OTE< Electric pressure. li"e any other pressure 'easure'ent. is 'easured !etween
two points#
Electrical Resistance
The flow of electric current. li"e any other flow or 'o0e'ent. is su!@ect to friction#
The friction. or opposition. which a 'aterial presents to a flow of current is called
resistance.
unit of electrical resistance is the ohm and the sy'!ol is A 2Bree" letter o'ega3#
*onductance is the opposite of resistance# The less the resistance the higher the
conductance# The sy'!ol for conductance is B. and the unit is Sie'ens 2S3#
B = 1C) or B = 1C?C: or B = :C?
Relationship between Voltage, Current, and Resistance
:f the resistance (R) to a flow of current 2:3 is increased. while the 0oltage (V) re'ains
constant. the current will decrease#
2:t is assu'ed that the te'perature of the resistance re'ains constant#3
1n increase in R decreases :# : is in0ersely proportional to )# (I 1/R)
Oh's 4aw
:f the resistance (R) re'ains constant and the 0oltage 2V) increases. the current 2:3 will
increase#
11
1n increase in V increases I. I is directly proportional to V (I V)
:. ?. and ) are related in a general for' "nown as Oh'Ds 4aw#
hm!s "aw states that the current (I) flowin# in a circuit is $irectl% proportional to the
volta#e (V) but inversel% proportional to the resistance (R) when temperature remains
constant.
Fro' Oh's law we deri0e<
: = ?C)
This 'eans that if the 0oltage to a circuit is increased fro' 3? to ? when the resistance
re'ains constant at 3A. then the current will increase fro' 11 to 21#
Braph showing Oh'Es law
1cti0ity
1# 1 relay operates at 4,? and draws 3;1# (hat is its resistanceF
2# (hat current is carried !y a 2+A line cord resistor if the 0oltage drop across it is 4;#5?F
3# 1 5A heating ele'ent draws 151 fro' the power source# Find the 0oltage drop across
the heating ele'entF
/E1SG):9B FG9%1/E9T14 >G19T:T:ES
/easuring resistance
H The oh''eter is used to 'easure s'aller 0alues of resistance5 it is also used for circuit
tracing#
Gsing the oh' 'eter
H Oh''eters are connected in parallel with the ter'inals of the de0ice or circuit to !e
tested# The de0ice or circuit 'ust !e disconnected fro' power and fro' any portion of
the circuit that is not to !e tested# False readings will result if other co'ponents are
connected to the test circuit# %o not let the fingers of !oth hands touch the tips of the test
leads while 'easuring resistance#
:f you do. the oh'7'eter will 'easure the co'!ined resistance of your !ody and the circuit !eing
tested# &e 0ery careful of this when 'easuring high 0alues of resistance. as your !ody resistance
is high and will affect the total resistance of another high resistance# 1 false reading can cause
you to 'a"e a poor decision when trou!leshooting a circuit#
12
Voltmeter
H 1 0olt'eter is a testing de0ice used to 'easure 0oltage# The 'eter test leads or wire
connections are attached to the tested circuit in parallel with the de0ice that is e$pected
to ha0e a 0oltage drop#
Gsing the ?olt'eter
?olt'eters are always connected in parallel to the de0ice or circuit across which the 0oltage is to
!e 'easured# 1 dc 0olt'eter is a polariIed instru'ent# This 'eans that care 'ust !e ta"en to
connect the test leads to the correct polarity. or 8 to 8 and 7 to 7 # :f this is not done. a digital 'eter
will indicate a negati0e 0oltage. which 'ight confuse the data#
H (hen testing for %* 0oltage and a negati0e reading appears it is due to the polarity of
the test leads to the circuit or co'ponent !een tested#
1n ac 0olt'eter can !e connected across two points under test regardless of polarity#
Using Ammeters
H 1''eters are connected in series with the conductors and the load !eing tested 2Fig# 227
-3# They can !e per'anently da'aged if connected into circuits with too 'uch current# 1
dc a''eter should !e connected into a circuit with the correct polarity# 1 digital a''eter
which has !een connected incorrectly will indicate a re0erse polarity on the display# :f a
'o0ing coil 'eter is connected in re0erse. the pointer will 'o0e in the wrong direction
and 'ay !e da'aged# 1n ac a''eter can !e connected into a circuit without regard for
polarity#
)eading the 1nalogue /eter
13
H (hen ta"ing a reading on so'e
parts of electronics the reading fluctuates so 'uch a digital 'eter would !e rendered
useless !ecause the display would ne0er settle down#
%isad0antages
H )esolution of analog 'ulti'eters is li'ited !y the width of the scale pointer. paralla$.
0i!ration of the pointer. the accuracy of printing of scales. Iero cali!ration. nu'!er of
ranges. and errors due to non7horiIontal use of the 'echanical display#
H 1ccuracy of readings o!tained is also often co'pro'ised !y 'iscounting di0ision
'ar"ings. errors in 'ental arith'etic. paralla$ o!ser0ation errors. and less than perfect
eyesight#
1cti0ity
H The figure a!o0e indicates three resistance readings ta"en !y an oh''eter#
write the letters 2J3 . 2K3 and 2L3 # 9e$t to E1*H letter. write the 0alue of reading indicated#
14
P1)TS OF 1 *:)*G:T
1n electric circuit is a co'!ination of parts connected to for' a co'plete path through
which electrons can 'o0e#
The purpose of a circuit is to 'a"e use of the energy of 'o0ing electrons#
Therefore. a circuit is also a syste' of parts. or co'ponents. !y which electric energy
can !e changed into other for's of energy. such as heat. light. or 'agnetis'#
*o'ponents of a circuit
The !asic co'plete circuit has fi0e parts<
13 the ener#% source
23 the con$uctors
33 the load
43 the control $evice
53 the protection
The Energy Source
The energy source in a circuit produces the force that causes electrons to 'o0e# :t is li"e
a pu'p that forces water through a pipe#
:n electricity. this force is called 0oltage. or electromotive force (&).
E$a'ples< *he'ical cell 2!attery3 and a generator
*onductors
The conductors in a circuit pro0ide an easy path through which electrons can 'o0e
through the circuit#
*opper is the 'ost co''only used conductor 'aterial# *opper wire 'ay !e !are or
co0ered with so'e "ind of insulating 'aterial#
The insulation pro0ides a 'ethod to pre0ent the conductors 2wires3 fro' touching each
other or so'e other conducting surface# Thus. the insulation pre0ents a short circuit#
15
*onductors for e0eryday use 'ust !e
(a) of low electrical resistance.
(b) 'echanically strong and fle$i!le. and
(c) relati0ely cheap#
For e$a'ple. sil0er is a !etter conductor than copper !ut it is too e$pensi0e for practical
purposes# Other e$a'ples of conductors are alu'inu'. tin. lead. gold and iron#
:n an auto'o!ile the entire car fra'e ser0es as a conductor# :t co'pletes a nu'!er of
circuits that connect the 0oltage source 2the car !attery3 to 0arious electrical and
electronic de0ices#
:nsulator
1 true insulator is a 'aterial that does not respond to an electric field and co'pletely
resists the flow of electric charge#
:n insulating 'aterials 0alence electrons are tightly !onded to their ato's#
Their function is to support or separate electrical conductors without allowing current
through the'sel0es#
*a!le
1 length of insulated single conductor 2solid or stranded3. or of two or 'ore such
conductors each pro0ided with its own insulation. which are laid up together#
1 ca!le consists of two !asic parts< 2a3 the conductor5 and 2!3 the insulator
4oad
The load is the part of a circuit that changes the energy of 'o0ing electrons into so'e
other useful for' of energy#
1 light !ul! is a 0ery co''on circuit load# 1s electrons 'o0e through the fila'ent of the
la'p. the energy of the electrons in 'otion is changed into heat energy and light energy
*ontrol %e0ice
The 'echanical wall switch is an e$a'ple of a si'ple circuit control de0ice# :t opens and
closes a circuit#
(hen the switch is Mon.M it acts as a conductor to "eep electrons 'o0ing through the
circuit# The circuit is said to !e closed# :n this condition. the circuit has a closed loop#
(hen the switch is Moff.M the circuit path is interrupted# Electrons can no longer 'o0e
1
through the circuit# The circuit is said to !e open5 that is. it has an open loop#
1+
PO(E) 19% E9E)BK
Energy 2sy'!ol E or (3 is the a!ility to do wor" and is 'easured in Noules 2Sy'!ol N3#
Power is the rate of doing wor"
The rate at which an electric circuit does the wor" of con0erting the energy of 'o0ing
electrons into so'e other for' of energy#
The unit of power is the watt 2(3# The power of a de0ice is 1 (att 21(3 if it changes
energy at the rate of 1 Noule per second#
Hence Power P = Energy 2E3 Cti'e 2t3
/a$i'u' power rating
E0ery electronic co'ponent has a 'a$i'u' power rating which should not !e e$ceeded#
For e$a'ple a 1( resistor can safely change 1 N of electrical energy per second into
heat without da'age#
Electrical e6uip'ent is rated in ter's of the a'ount of power. or watts. it uses# E$a'ple<
a light !ul! rated at ; watt. 1;; watt. 1"( etc#
4arger Gnit of /easure'ent of Energy
)ecall< (or" and energy are essentially the sa'e with identical units and E = P $ t
The Noule is a 0ery s'all unit of 'easure'ent. for larger a'ounts of electrical energy the
"(h is used#
1s E = P $ t
"(h = "( $ h
E$a'ple
How 'uch electrical energy Oin "ilowatt hours 2"(h3P is used !y a 15;( light !ul! if it is
on for 12 hoursF
E = P $ t
E = 15;( $ 12h
E = 1,;; (att hours 2(h3 or 1#,"(h
:f the cost of electricity is Q5#1;C "(h then the total cost for the 1#,"(h of energy would
!e<
*ost = energy $ rate
*ost = 1#,"(h $ Q5#1;
*ost = Q-#1,
E$ercise
For the 6uestion that follow. assu'e that the cost of energy is Q,#5; centsC"(h
How 'uch will it cost to run a 5( electric cloc" for 3; daysF
How 'uch will it cost to light a 1;;( !ul! for 3; daysF
1cti0ity
The a0erage wattage ratings of se0eral household electric appliances are gi0en in the ta!le
!elow# 1t the cost of Q-#5 per "(h. co'pute the cost of operating each of these appliances for 3
hour# 1dd this infor'ation to the ta!le#
ppliance 6erage 3attage Rating Cost of Operation for )
hour 7 89*.: per k3h
.icrowave 'ven ;, 899
-efrigeratorEfreezer,
frostless
?79
1,
$elevision, 3olor, "olid
"tate
;89
*ashing machine, 899
/eter )eading
(att7hour 'eters 'easure the electric energy in "ilowatt7hours supplied !y electric power
co'panies to users# Such a 'eter is usually 'ounted on the side of a !uilding# :t is
'onitored. or read. at certain ti'es# This reading is used to calculate the electric !ill for a
period of ti'e. usually one 'onth#
)eading a )esidential /eter
There are se0eral different "inds of 'eters used to 'easure electricity. including the four7
dial. fi0e7dial and digital 'eters# /ost 1ustin Energy ho'es utiliIe the fi0e7dial electric
'eter#
The first. third and fifth hands on the 'eter 'o0e cloc"wise around the dial# The second
and fourth hands 'o0e counter7cloc"wise#
Start with the right dial#
)ecord the nu'!er indicated on the face of each dial#
*ontinue until you ha0e read all fi0e dials#
/eter )eading Tips
1lways record the lowest nu'!er if the hand points !etween two nu'!ers#
So'eti'es. a hand will see' to !e pointing e$actly at a nu'!er# To find out if the hand
has really reached that nu'!er. loo" at the dial to the right# :f the hand on that dial has
passed Iero. then you should record the nu'!er5 otherwise. record the lower nu'!er#
*alculating energy !ills
The electric !ill is calculated using two separate readings i#e# to get the energy usage for
a one 'onth period. there is a first reading then one 'onth ti'e a second reading is
ta"en then the difference !etween these readings would !e the energy usage for the
'onth#
Energy usage = Present reading 7 pre0ious reading
*ost = energy used $ rate
1cti0ity
The figure !elow shows the dials of a four dial watt7hour 'eter for a NPS custo'er#
*alculate how 'uch it would cost the custo'er for the one 'onth period if he pre0ious
reading was 1141 and the rate is Q-#25CR(H#
1-
Other For'ula for Power
Since : = >Ct then > = : $ t 2e6uation 13
The energy of the electrons is found using the for'ula< E = > $ ? 2e6uation 23
)eplacing > with : $ t in e6uation 2
Then E = : $ ? $ t 2e6uation 43
Since P = ECt and E = : $ ? $ t
Then P = : $ ? $ t
t
(e recei0e P = ? $ :
Since ? = : $ ) and P = ? $ :
)eplacing ? with : $ )5 P = : $ ) $ :
P = :
2
$ )
)eplacing : with ?C)5 P = ?C) $ ?
P = ?
2
C)
E$a'ple
1 clothes dryer draws 151 fro' a 22;? line# *alculate the a'ount of power used#
: = 151
? = 22;?
P = F
P = ? $ :
= 22;? $ 151
= 33;;(
E$a'ple
1 2+A resistor has ;#;21 of current flowing through it# *alculate the power dissipation#
) = 2+A
: = ;#;21
P = F
P = : $ : $ )
= ;#;2 $ ;#;2 $ 2+A
= ;#;1;,(
(or"sheet
2;
)esistance
H 1 resistor is a electronic de0ice designed to li'it the current that flows in a circuit#
H Sy'!ol
H Types of resistors<
H *ar!on co'position resistor
H /etal o$ide or 'etal glaIe resistor
H (ire7wound resistor
H 4ight %ependent )esistor 24%)3
H Ther'al resistor 2ther'ister3
*ar!on resistor
H These resistors generally ha0e resistance 0alues fro' ;#1A to 22/A#
H :ts structure consists of a s'all cylinder of car!on which is 'i$ed with a non7conductor# 1
connecting wire is fi$ed into each end. and the resistor is gi0en a coat of paint to protect it
fro' 'oisture which 'ight alter the resistance#
H /ade in range of stoc" fro' 1C, ( to 3(
/etal BlaIe
H 4oo"s rather li"e the car!on resistor fro' the outside. !ut the internal structure is different
H *an !e 'ade to closer tolerances than car!on resistors. and
H *hange their resistance less with changes in te'perature
H /ade in range of stoc" fro' 1C, ( to 3(
(ire7wound )esistor
H Gsed in higher power applications
H The resistance ele'ent of a wire7wound resistor is usually nic"el7chro'iu' wire# This
wire is wound around a cera'ic core# The whole asse'!ly is usually coated with cera'ic
'aterial or a special ena'el
H High resistance 0alues use wire of low conducti0ity. re6uiring 'any turns of fine gauge
wire as well#
H Ha0e resistance 0alues fro' 1A to 1;;"A#
H Power rating range fro' 1 to 5;( in stoc" siIes# There is no li'it in practice
21
Rinds of )esistors
H )esistors 0alue can either !e fi$ed or 0aria!le#
H 1 fi$ed resistor has a single 0alue of resistance which re'ains the sa'e under nor'al
conditions#
?aria!le )esistors< ha0e an ad@usta!le a'ount of resistance in a circuit# The 'ost co''on
0aria!le resistors are called the potentio'eter and the rheostat#
Potentio'eter
H Benerally ha0e car!on co'position resistance ele'ents and are co''only used to 0ary
the 0alue of 0oltage applied to a circuit#
H Potentio'eters are co''only used as control de0ices in a'plifiers. radios. tele0ision
sets and different "inds of 'eters# Typical uses include 0olu'e. !alance. !rightness and
Ieroing ad@ust'ents#
)heostat
H The rheostat is generally 'ade of resistance wire# They are co''only used to control
higher currents. such as those in 'otor and la'p circuits#
1 potentio'eter can !e connected as a rheostat
Precision resistors
H So'e wire7wound and fil' resistors ha0e actual 0alues that are nearly e6ual to their
rated 0alues# These are called precision resistors#
H They are use in special circuits such as in test instru'ents and critical co''unication
22
$he center terminal is connected to the wiper
de0ices# Precision resistors usually ha0e a tolerance !etween 1 and 5S#
4ight %ependent )esistor 24%)3
4%)s or 4ight %ependent )esistors are 0ery useful especially in lightCdar" sensor circuits#
9or'ally the resistance of an 4%) is 0ery high. so'eti'es as high as 1;;; ;;; oh's. !ut when
they are illu'inated with light resistance drops dra'atically#
Ther'istor
H Ther'istors also called ther'al resistors
H 1re se'iconductor de0ices whose use as transducers is due to the fact that their
resistance changes when their te'perature increases#
H its sy'!ol is
H Ther'istors are used for the 'easure'ent and control of te'perature. !eing heated
either e$ternally or internally !y the current they carry#
Gsed as a 'eans of sensing te'perature change# *o''only found e'!edded in 'otor windings
to detect o0erheating#
)esistor *olour *ode
H *ar!on resistors used in electronic circuits are too s'all physically to ha0e their
resistance 0alue printed on the !ody of the resistor#
H :nstead. the resistance can !e indicated with the use of colored !ands or stripes# The
color stripes represents nu'erical 0alues#
23
Color Color Value Value Color Color Value Value
Black Black 0 0 Green Green 5 5
Brown Brown 1 1 Blue Blue 6 6
Red Red 2 2 Violet Violet 7 7
Orange Orange 3 3 Grey Grey 8 8
Yellow Yellow 4 4 !ite !ite " "
E$a'ple
24
H )esistor ?alue = ,2; T 1;S
H Tolerance 1;S $ ,2; = ,2
H Gpper li'it = ,2; 8 ,2 = -;2
H 4ower li'it = ,2; U ,2 = +32
H Tolerance range = +32 to -;2
)esistors in Series *ircuit
H 1 series circuit is a circuit in which the current has only one path#
H :n a series circuit. all of the current passes through each of the co'ponents in the circuit#
Total )esistance
H )T = )1 8 )2 8 )3 # # #
H where )T is the total resistance in the circuit. and )1 through )3 . . . are the resistance
ratings of the indi0idual resistors in the circuit#
H The 0oltage across each resistor is found !y using oh's law ?1 = :T $ )15 ?2 = :T $ )2 V
H ?T = ?1 8 ?2 8 ?3 RirchoffEs ?oltage law 2R?43
H *alculate )T. :T. ?)1. ?)2. ?)3
H )T = )1 8 )2 8 )3
H = 4A 8 3A 8 5A
H = 12A
25
Solution
H :T = ?TC)T
H = 12?C 12A
H = 11
H ?)1 = :T $ )1 ?)2 = :T $ )2 ?)3 = :T $ )3
H = 11 $ 4A = 11 $ 3A = 11 $ 5A
H = 4? = 3? = 5?
E$ercise
H *alculate< )T. :T. ?1. ?2. ?3. PT. P1. P2 and P3
2

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