SPC Training Contents and Techniques

Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.
2004 1
Zero Defect Consultants
Statistical Process Control
WELCOME TO ALL
WELCOME TO ALL
Contact:- Mob: 93412 41356
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 2
Training Contents Training Contents
Introduction to SPC
Types of Process Controls
Introduction to Statistics
Understanding Mean, Mode, Median, Range, Standard Deviation
Concept of Variation Special cause & common causes
Stable & Unstable Process
Approach towards identification of Special Causes
Histogram An illustration
Normal Distribution
Process Capability
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Training Contents Training Contents
Introduction to Control Charts
Types of Control Charts
Understanding application, methodology, interpretations of various
types of charts (Variable and Attribute type covered)
Exercises on Control Charts
SPC implementation methodology
Role of Operator in implementing SPC.
Common mistakes done in implementing SPC
Conclusion
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Introduction to SPC
Process:-
Convert input to output using Man, Machine, Material, Method,
Measurement.
Process
(Man, M/c, Material,
Method)
Input
Output
Measure & give
Feedback
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Process Control:-
Variation in the output of the process is natural. Hence the process needs to
be controlled in order to ensure that output is meeting the customer
requirements.
Tools for Process Control:-
Detection :- A strategy that attempts to identify unacceptable output
after it has been produced and then separate it from the good output.
Prevention :- A future oriented strategy by analysis and action toward
correcting the process itself so that unacceptable parts will not be
produced.
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Techniques for Process Control
Mistake Proofing :- In this technique 100% process control is achieved by
preventing all types of failures by using modern techniques to get defect
free product. Here causes are prevented from making the effect.
100% Inspection : In this technique 100% checking of all the parameters of
all products has been done to get defect free product. Here only defects are
detected.
Statistical Process Control : In this Statistical technique such as Control
Chart, Histogram etc. are used to analyses the process to achieve and
maintain state of statistical control to get defect free product. Causes are
detected and prompting CA before defect occurs
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Statistics
Collection of Data, Analysis and Conclusion
It is a value calculated from or based upon sample data (e.g. a subgroup
average or range) used to make inferences about the process that produces
the output.
E.g. Analysis of rejection data and initiating actions to reduce the rejection
level.
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What is Statistical Process Control
The use of Statistical techniques such as control charts to analyze a process
or its outputs so as to take appropriate actions, to achieve and maintain a
state of statistical control and to improve the process capability.
SPC is
A tool to detect variation
It identifies problems, it does not solve problems
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Introduction to Statistics
Data:
Any facts or numbers or observations made.
Set of observations forms the data.
Types of Data:
Variable data
Attribute data
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Variable Data
Data generated by
Physically measuring the characteristic using an
instrument
Assigning an unique value to each item
Examples:
Hardness, Strength, Weight, Diameter, etc.
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Attribute Data
Data generated by
Classifying the items into different groups based on some criteria
No physical measurement is involved
All the items classified into a group will have same value I.e OK
or Not Ok.
Examples:
Sex, Shade Variation, Surface Defects, Go-No GO, etc.
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Statistical Properties of Data
Observations collected needs to be analyzed using various properties.
Statistical properties of data helps in arriving at one value representing
all observations.
Two types of properties
Measure of location
Measure of Dispersion
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Measure of Location
Mean (Average)
Median
Mode
Measure of Dispersion
Range
Standard Deviation
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Mean:
Numerical value indicating the central value of data
Sum of all data / Total number of data
Suppose x
1
, x
2
, - - - x
n
be the data, then
Mean = (x
1
+ x
2
+ - - -+ x
n
) / n = x
i
/n
Example Hardness Data
Mean:
= (55 + 65 + 59 + 59 + 57 + 61 + 53 + 63 + 59 + 57 + 63 + 55 + 61 + 61 + 57 +
59 + 61 + 57 + 59 + 63) / 20
= 1184 / 20 = 59.2
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Median:
Middle Value
Value which divides data arranged in ascending or descending order
into two equal halves
Case 1: Total number of data is odd
Median: Middle Value
Case 2: Total number of data is even
Median: Average of two middle values
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Median: Example Productivity Data
1.02
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.01
0.99
1.01
0.99
1.01
0.98
1.00
0.98
1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00
1.00 0.99 0.99 0.97
Total Number of data: 20 (even)
The middle Values : 1.00 & 1.00 (10
th
value and 11
th
value)
Median: Average of 2 middle value
(1.00 + 1.00) / 2 = 1.00
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Mode:
Highest no. of times an observation has occurred (Highest frequency)
Mode: Example Productivity Data
1.02
1.00
1.02
1.00
1.01
0.99
1.01
0.99
1.01
0.98
1.00
0.98
1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00
1.00 0.99 0.99 0.97
0.97 - 1
0.98 - 2
0.99 - 4
1.00 - 5 - 1.00 is Mode as this occurred more no. of times
1.01 - 4
1.02 - 3
1.03 - 1
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Range: Definition
Range: Maximum value Minimum Value
Example:
2 5 8 9 15
2 3 7 4 5
Maximum Value = 15
Minimum Value = 2
Range = 15 2 = 13
Range: Issues
It depends only on extreme values
Hence affected by outliers
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Range: Issues
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Range
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Standard Deviation: Definition
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Square root of the average squared deviation from mean
Indicates On an average how much each value is away from the Mean
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Below data indicates the Money held by ten students in a class room.
Standard Deviation: Example:
2 5 8 9 15
2 3 7 4 5
Step 1:
Calculate Mean
Mean = 6
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2 5 8 9 15
2 3 7 4 5
Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
-4 -1 2 3 9
-4 -3 1 -2 -1
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Step 2:
Take deviations from Mean
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Step 3:
Since some values are positive & rest are negative, while
taking sum they will cancel out.
So square the values & Sum
16 1 4 9 81
16 9 1 4 1
Sum = 142
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Step 4:
Standard Deviation = (Sum of Squares / (n -1))
= (142 / (10 -1))
= 15.77 = 3.972
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Variation
No two things are exactly alike
It is impossible to produce or process two items exactly alike
Variation is natural.
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Example:
Time to reach office : 9:30 am
It is not possible to reach office exactly at 9:30 everyday
Normally there will be a small variation around 9:30 as follows:
9:31 9:34 9:27 9:26 9:34
9:25 9:29 9:28 9:33 9:31
This small variation is difficult to explain.
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Generally
Looking at the past values, it is possible to give some range
around 9:30 am (e.g.: 9:30 5 Minutes) to reach office
Normally it is possible to reach office within this range
Suppose
A particular day , there is vehicle break down
that day it may not be possible to reach office at 9:30 5 Minutes
Say, you reach office at 9:50 am
In other words
If you reach office too late (beyond normal range of 9:30 5 minutes),
there will be some special reason for that or
it is easy to find out the reason for such variation
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Assignable Cause of Variation (Special Causes)
Variations of large magnitude
Easy to identify the causes of variation
Easy to eliminate the cause of variation
Common Cause of Variation
Variations of small magnitude
Difficult to identify the causes of variation
Difficult to eliminate the cause of variation
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Stable Process
No Assignable Causes are present
Process is operating under common causes only
Stable process will be predictable & Statistically under control.
If a process is stable & the data follows normal distribution
Then the variation will be Mean 3 x Standard deviation
Unstable Process
Assignable Causes are present
Process is operating under assignable & common causes.
Unstable process is unpredictable & not under Statistical control.
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HISTOGRAM
Histogram is a graphical representation of data and shows the
frequency of data.
Histogram provides the easiest way to understand the distribution of
data. It gives the Birds eye view of the variation in Data set.
Portrays the information on location, spread and shape that enables
the user to interpret the Process behavior.
It indicates whether the process is operating under Normal / stable
conditions.
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DEFINITIONS
Class:- Is a category with lower and upper boundary value.
Class Width:- Width of the class.
Frequency:- No. of observations falling in the class.
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM
Collect Min 50 no. of readings (N). 50 readings should be continuous
data.
Determine Max value and Min value & Calculate Range.
Range = Max Min.
Record the measurement unit (MU) used. This is usually controlled by
the measuring instrument least count.
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM Contd..
Determine No. of classes (k), as below.
No. of Class (k) = N
Determine Class Width (CW), as below
Class Width (CW) = Range / k
Construct the Frequency Distribution Table, as shown in the next
slide.
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Where L1 = Minimum value (1/2*Measurement Unit)
U1 = L1 + Class Width
L2 = U1,
U2 = L2 + Class Width & so on.
N Total
Upto Max value
L2 U2
L1 U1
Frequency Tally Class
Frequency Distribution Table
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STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING HISTOGRAM Contd..
Determine the axis for the graph. Place Class on X axis and
Frequency on Y axis.
Mark off the classes, and draw rectangles with heights corresponding
to the measurement frequencies in that class.
Title the histogram. Give an overall title and identify each axis.
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HISTOGRAM HISTOGRAM GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION.
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HSITOGRAM INTERPRETATIONS:
NORMAL
Depicted by a bell-shaped curve. Most frequent measurement
appears as center of distribution & less frequent measurements taper
gradually at both ends of distribution.
Indicates that a process is running normally (only common causes are
present).
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BIMODAL
Distribution appears to have two peaks. May indicate that data from
more than one process are mixed together
Materials may come from 2 separate vendors
Samples may have come from 2 separate machines.
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SKEWED
Appears as an uneven curve; values seem to taper to one side.
Can be skewed left side or right side.
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Normal Distribution
Consider the following data on the case depth(mm) of 9 jobs:
2.3 2.7 2.4 2.6 2.5
2.5 2.4 2.5 2.6
Plot of the Data:
0
1
2
3
4
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
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Plot of the Data:
0
1
2
3
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
Bell Shaped
Symmetric
Total Area under the curve is 1
Then : Normal Curve & Data follows Normal Distribution
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Standard Normal Distribution:
If
Data follows Normal Distribution
then
(Data - Mean) / SD will follow Standard Normal Distribution
For Standard Normal Distribution:
Mean = 0
SD = 1
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Standard Normal Distribution: Properties
0
1
2
3
4
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
68.26%
95.46%
99.73%
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Normal Distribution: Properties
Between
Mean 1 SD : 68.26 % of Values will lie
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 46
Process Capability
A methodology to check whether a process is capable of meeting customer
requirements
Expressed as Process Capability Indices
Process Capability Indices
1. Process Potential Index ( Pp or Cp )
2. Process Performance Index ( Ppk or Cpk )
Types of Process Capability Study
1. Preliminary Process Capability Study (Pp & Ppk)
2. Ongoing Process Capability Study (Cp & Cpk)
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Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp)
A methodology to check whether the process have the potential to meet the
customer requirements
Generally
Customer requirements are given as specification on product characteristics
Example
Specification on Heat Treatment Process:
Hardness should be within 55 5 HRC
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Customer Requirement:
Variation allowed by the customer Or
Variation acceptable to customer
Example:
Specification: 55 5 HRC
Meaning:
As long as Hardness of the heat treated jobs are between 50 HRC to 60
HRC, Customer is satisfied
Customer requirements are also expressed as
Lower Specification Limit (LSL) = 50 HRC
Upper Specification Limit (USL) = 60 HRC
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 49
Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp(:
A process have the potential to meet customer requirement, if
Total variation in process < Allowed variation
Example:
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 52 HRC to 58 HRC
Total Variation < Allowed variation
Hence
Process have the potential to satisfy customer
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 50
Example:
Allowed variation = 50 HRC to 60 HRC
Total Variation = 48 HRC to 62 HRC
Total Variation > Allowed Variation
Then
Process doesnt have the potential to satisfy customer
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Process Potential Index Pp:
If the data is normally distributed, then
Total variation : Mean 3 SD
Example:
Mean = 55 HRC & SD = 1HRC
Total Variation = 55 3 x 1 to 55 + 3 x 1
= 52 HRC to 58 HRC
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 52
Process Potential Index Pp: Definition
Ratio of allowed variation to Total variation
Pp = Allowed variation / total variation
= (USL LSL) / ((Mean + 3 SD) (Mean - 3 SD))
= (USL LSL) / 6 SD
A Process has the potential to meet customer requirements if
total variation < allowed variation
6 SD < (USL LSL)
Pp > 1
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Process Potential Index Pp: Example
20 data on acid content (mm) is given in the table below. If the specification on
acid content is 0.70 0.2 mm. Check whether the process has the potential to
meet the customer requirement ?
0.60
0.70
0.75
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.75
0.75
0.65 0.50 0.85 0.75 0.80
0.60 0.75 0.80 0.60 0.85
Specification = 0.70 0.2 mm
USL = 0.90 mm
LSL = 0.50 mm
Mean = 0.715
SD = 0.092
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Process Potential Index Pp: Example
Pp = (USL LSL) / 6 SD
= (0.90 0.50) / (6 x 0.092)
= 0.4 / 0.552 = 0.72
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Process Potential Index (Pp or Cp): Issues
Pp or Cp checks only whether the process has the potential to meet the
requirements
Pp or Cp never checks whether the Process is actually meeting requirements
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 56
Process Performance Index (Ppk or Cpk): Definition
Ppk = Min [Ppl, Ppu]
Ppl = (Mean LSL) / 3 SD
Ppu = (USL - Mean) / 3 SD
Ppk checks whether the process is centered at the middle of the specification
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 57
Process Performance Index Ppk: Graphical Representation
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
USL
LSL
Mean + 3 SD 3 SD
b a
c d
Ppl = a / c = (Mean LSL ) / 3 SD
Ppu = b / d = (USL - Mean ) / 3 SD
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 58
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12
6
Mean + 3 SD - 3 SD
4 2
3 3
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
Mean : 8 SD : 1
Ppu = 4 / 3 = 1.33
Ppl = 2 / 3 = 0.66
Ppk = Min [1.33,0.66] = 0.66
Ppk < 1, performance is not OK
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 59
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12
6
Mean + 3 SD - 3 SD
3 3
3 3
Example:
USL : 12 LSL: 6
Mean : 9 SD : 1
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
Ppk = 1
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0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
12
6
Mean + 3 SD - 3 SD
3 3
3 3
Conclusion:
Ppu = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppl = 3 / 3 = 1
Ppk = Min [1 , 1] = 1
Pp = (USL LSL) / 6 SD = 6 /6 = 1
When Mean is at middle of
Specification [(USL + LSL) / 2] then
Ppu = Ppl = Ppk = Pp
Otherwise
Ppk < Pp
When Ppk < Pp
Performance is not optimum
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 61
Preliminary Process Capability Study
Is a Short term Study performed during New Product Development.
Indices are represented as Pp & Ppk.
Standard deviation calculated using first principle formulae - Sigma(n-1).
Acceptance value for Pp / Ppk is Min 1.66
Ongoing Process Capability Study
Is a Long term Study performed to monitor the ongoing Production.
Indices are represented as Cp & Cpk.
Standard deviation calculated using sigma = Rbar/d2
Acceptance value for Cp / Cpk is Min 1.33
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A statistical tool to ensure that process is stable or in control
A statistical tool to detect the presence of Assignable Causes in the process.
CONTROL CHARTS
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For Normally distributed Data
If the process is stable then
Variation will be between Mean 3 x SD
Theory of Control Charts
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A Graphical Tool with three horizontal lines
1. Lower Control Limit (LCL)
2. Center Line (CL)
3. Upper Control Limit (UCL)
Control Charts
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
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UCL & LCL are such that
if the value lies between UCL & LCL then the process is stable or in
control
Control Charts
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
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For Normal Data
UCL =Mean + 3 x SD
CL = Mean
LCL = Mean 3 x SD
Control Charts
UCL
CL
LCL
Control Chart
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1. Calculate the Control Limits from past data
2. Plot the values in the chart
3. If the values are within the limits, the process is stable. Otherwise not.
Control Charts: Working
Control Chart
0
2
4
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Continuous Data
Xbar & R Chart ( or Median R Chart)
Individual X & Moving range Chart
Xbar & S Chart ( or Median S Chart)
Types of Control Charts
Discrete Data
Control Chart for Defectives
p chart
np chart
Control Chart for Defects
c chart
u chart
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 69
Determine
Characteristics to be
charted
Are the data
variable
Is interest in
monitoring %
bad parts
Is it
homogeneous
in nature
Selection Procedure for Control Charts
Use X-MR Chart
Is interest in
monitoring
nonconformities
Is the sample
size constant
Is the sample
size constant
Can sub group
avg. easily
calculated
Is the subgroup
size 9 or more
Is s,
calculated
easily
Use Xbar-S Chart
Use Median Chart
Use Xbar-R Chart
Use Xbar-R Chart
Use U Chart
Use C Chart
Use p Chart
Use np Chart
Y
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 70
Xbar R Chart: Methodology
Conduct initial study :-
Decide on the Total Number of Samples N . (N >19)
Decide on Sub Group Size n. (n > 3)
Decide on Frequency of Sampling. ( eg: Once in a hour, Once in 2 hours,
Once in every 50 items, etc.)
Collect Data & Calculate Control Limits
Plot Control Chart
Calculate Process Capability Indices (Pp/Ppk).
If Capable, Set Control Limits for Ongoing study.
Monitor Process through plotting control chart.
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Xbar R Chart: Example
Process: Turning Characteristic: Inner diameter (4.90 5.10)
Sample Size N: 9 Sub Group Size n: 4
Frequency of Sampling: Once in a Hour
Step 1: Collect Data
5.00 5.00 5.01 5.02 10:00 3
5.00 5.00 4.98 5.01 9:00 2
5.00 4.98 5.01 5.00 8:00 1
4.98 5.00 4.99 5.02 13:00 6
4.99 5.01 4.98 4.98 12:00 5
5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 11:00 4
16:00
15:00
14:00
Hour
4.98 5.01 5.00 4.98 9
5.00 5.02 5.01 5.00 8
4.98 4.98 4.99 4.99 7
x4 x3 x2 x1 Sample No.
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Step 2: Calculate Sub Group Mean & Range
4.98
5.00
4.98
4.98
4.99
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
x4
5.01
5.02
4.98
5.00
5.01
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.98
x3
0.02 5.008 5.01 5.02 10:00 3
0.03 4.998 4.98 5.01 9:00 2
0.03 4.998 5.01 5.00 8:00 1
0.04 4.998 4.99 5.02 13:00 6
0.03 4.990 4.98 4.98 12:00 5
0.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 11:00 4
16:00
15:00
14:00
Hour
0.03 4.993 5.00 4.98 9
0.02 5.008 5.01 5.00 8
0.01 4.985 4.99 4.99 7
Range Mean x2 x1 Sample No.
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Step 3: Calculate Control Limits for R Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Rbar = Sum of all Range Values / Total Number
of Values
= 0.21 / 9 = 0.0233
Upper Control Limit
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = D
4
Rbar, For n = 4, D
4
= 2.282
= 2.282 x 0.0233 = 0.053
Lower Control Limit
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = D
3
Rbar, For n = 4, D
3
= 0
= 0 x 0.0233 = 0.0
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Step 4: Plot R values in R chart as shown below:
R Chart
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Step 5: If any value is beyond Control Limits, Do Homogenization
Homogenization:
Remove the out of control value
Recalculate the limits
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Step 6: Calculate Control Limits for Xbar Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xdoublebar = Sum of all Means / Total Number
of Values
= 44.975 / 9 = 4.997
Upper Control Limit
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = xdoublebar + A
2
Rbar, For n = 4, A
2
= 0.729
= 4.997 + 0.729 x 0.0233 = 5.014
Lower Control Limit
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = xdoublebar - A
2
Rbar, For n = 4, A
2
= 0.729
= 4.997 - 0.729 x 0.0233 = 4.98
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Step 7: Plot mean values in xbar chart as shown below:
xbar Chart
4.96
4.98
5
5.02
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Step 9: If all values are within limit, Calculate Standard deviation
.
= Rbar/d2 , Where d2 is constant
= 0.023/2.059
= 0.0111
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Step 10: Calculate Process Capability Indices
Cp = Tol / 6 = 0.2 / 6 * 0.0111 = 3.03
Cpk = Min { (Xbar LSL)/3 , (USL-Xbar)/3 }
Cpk = Min { 2.91 , 3.09 } = 2.91.
Process is Capable.
Step 11: If Capable, Set the Control limits for ongoing monitoring.
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 78
Control Chart Constants
n d2 A2 D3 D4 E2
2 1.128 1.880 0 3.268 2.66
3 1.693 1.023 0 2.574 1.77
4 2.059 0.729 0 2.282 1.46
5 2.326 0.577 0 2.114 1.29
6 2.534 0.483 0 2.004 1.18
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 79
Xbar R Chart: Exercise
6.3
5.7
6.0
5.2
5.0
5.5
6.5
5.2
6.9
6.1
x3
6.4
4.9
5.8
5.1
5.2
6.5
5.7
5.8
6.4
5.8
x2
4.3
5.5
6.0
5.6
5.8
6.7
5.0
5.5
5.2
6.0
x1
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Sample
Number
6.8 5.2 6.2 14
7.4 6.9 6.1 13
6.2 7.1 6.7 12
5.0 6.9 6.2 11
6.8 7.0 6.6 18
6.7 6.5 5.4 17
6.1 6.4 7.0 16
6.6 6.6 4.9 15
6.7 5.4 6.7 20
7.1 6.2 4.7 19
x3 x2 x1 Sample
Number
The following are the data on Time (in Minutes) to Process Transactions in a
BPO company. Construct an Xbar R chart to monitor the process
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 80
Individual X & Moving Range Chart: Example
2.1 7
2.5
2.9
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.3
2.5
Data
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
Sample Number
For Short Run Process / Bulk Material Processing. Can be used when the
testing method is a destructive type.
Not possible to collect data in Sub Groups
Process: Heat Treatment Characteristic: Case Depth
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 81
2.5
2.1
2.9
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.3
2.5
Date
0.8 7
0.4
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.2
MR
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
Sample Number
Step 2: Calculate Moving Range
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 82
Step 3: Calculate Control Limits for M R Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = MRbar = Sum of all MR Values / Total Number
of Values
= 2.8 / 7 = 0.4
Upper Control Limit
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = D
4
MRbar, For n = 2, D
4
= 3.276
= 3.276 x 0.4 = 1.31
Lower Control Limit
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = D
3
MRbar, For n = 2, D
3
= 0
= 0 x 0.4 = 0.0
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 83
Step 4: Plot MR values in MR chart as shown below:
MR Chart
0
0.5
1
1.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 84
Step 6: Calculate Control Limits for Individual X Chart
Center Line
CL = Mean = Xbar = Sum of all Data / Total Number
of Values
= 20.1 / 8 = 2.512
Upper Control Limit
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = xbar + A
2
MRbar, For n = 1, A
2
= 2.66
= 2.512 + 2.66 x 0.4 = 3.58
Lower Control Limit
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = xbar - A
2
MRbar, For n = 1, A
2
= 2.66
= = 2.512 - 2.66 x 0.4 = 1.45
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 85
Step 7: Plot individual values in Individual X chart as shown below:
Individual X Chart
0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 86
Individual X & Moving Range Chart: Exercise
The data given below are surface Finish values of 30 jobs after chromium
plating. Construct an Individual X & Moving Range chart to monitor the
process?
0.08
0.073
0.075
0.074
0.08
0.074
0.073
0.081
0.076
0.068
0.08
0.077
0.075
0.078
0.079
0.07 0.074 0.076 0.081 0.072
0.074 0.078 0.082 0.079 0.075
0.077 0.078 0.069 0.072 0.078
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 87
Control Charts for Defectives: np Chart
Used when sample size is constant
Used to measure no of nonconforming items in an inspection.
42 2
47 1
58 4
48 3
38 6
32 5
68 8
53 7
37
45
Number of Defectives
10
9
Sample Number
Example: Inspection results of video of the month shipment to customers for 10
consecutive days are given in table. The number of inspection each day
is constant and is equal to 1000. Construct np chart to control the
defectives?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 88
np Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / total Number Inspected
= 468 /(1000*10) = 0.0468
Mean = npbar = 1000 x 0.0468 = 46.8
SD = npbar(1-pbar) = (46.8 x (1-0.0468) = 6.67
CL = npbar = 1000 x 0.0468 = 46.8
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = 46.8 + 3 x 6.68 = 66.84
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = 46.8 - 3 x 6.68 = 26.76
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 89
Plot the number of defectives in np chart as shown below:
np Chart
0
20
40
60
80
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If any value is beyond Control Limits, Do Homogenization
np chart: Example
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 90
np Chart: Exercise
0
3
7
6
2
20
6
4
6
3
Number of
Defectives
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Sample
Number
9 2
6 1
6 4
5 3
4 6
7 5
7 8
5 7
0
5
10
9
Sample
Number
The following are the data on defectives in payment of dental insurance
claims. Control the dental insurance payment process with np chart.
Sample Size is 300
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 91
Control Charts for Defectives: p Chart
Used when sample size is not constant
650
475
600
450
550
700
625
700
550
500
Number Inspected
6 2
5 1
9 4
8 3
8 6
7 5
6 8
10 7
6
9
10
9
Sample Number
Example: The daily inspection results for electric carving knives are given
below. Construct a control chart to monitor the process ?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 92
p Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean 3 SD
pbar = Sum of Defectives / Total Number Inspected
= 74 / 5800 = 0.0128
Mean = pbar = 0.0128
SD = pbar(1-pbar) / n
i
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 93
p Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
0.009
0.019
0.010
0.022
0.015
0.010
0.014
0.011
0.011
0.010
p
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
LCL
6
9
6
10
8
7
9
8
6
5
Number of
Defectives
0.026
0.028
0.027
0.029
0.027
0.026
0.026
0.026
0.027
0.028
UCL
650
475
600
450
550
700
625
700
550
500
Number
Inspected
2
1
4
3
6
5
8
7
10
9
Sample
Number
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 94
Plot the proportion of defectives in p chart as shown below:
p Chart
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
p chart: Example
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 95
p Chart: Exercise
159
141
167
175
170
165
189
165
115
181
Number
Inspected
180
195
155
45
170
137
135
170
167
171
Number
Inspected
36
30
11
3
30
26
13
8
6
31
Number of
Defectives
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Sample
Number
33 2
38 1
15 4
26 3
35 6
16 5
6 8
12 7
26
50
Number of
Defectives
10
9
Sample
Number
Daily inspection results for the model 305 electric range assembly line are
given in the table. Construct a control chart to monitor the process?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 96
Control Charts for Defects: c Chart
Used when sample size is constant
19 2
8 1
18 4
14 3
16 6
11 5
15 8
8 7
8
21
Number of nonconformities
10
9
Day
Example: A leading bank has compiled the data in the table showing the
count of nonconformities for 100 accounting transactions per
day. Construct a control chart to monitor the process?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 97
c Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean 3 SD
cbar = Sum of nonconformities / No. of days
= 138 /10 = 13.8
Mean = cbar = 13.8
SD = cbar = 13.8 = 3.71
CL = cbar = 13.8
UCL = Mean + 3 SD = 13.8 + 3 x 3.71 = 24.93
LCL = Mean - 3 SD = 13.8 - 3 x 3.71 = 2.67
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 98
Plot the number of nonconformities in c chart as shown below:
c Chart
0
10
20
30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c chart: Example
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 99
c Chart: Exercise
29
31
11
34
16
20
17
25
29
22
Number of
Nonconformities
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Day
10 2
15 1
23 4
33 3
15 6
27 5
17 8
17 7
22
19
Number of Nonconformities
10
9
Day
100 product labels are inspected every day for surface nonconformities.
The data for the past 20 days is given below. Construct a suitable control
chart to monitor the nonconformities
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 100
Control Charts for Defects: u Chart
Used when sample size is not constant
8
8
8
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
Number Inspected
51 2
45 1
48 4
36 3
5 6
42 5
27 8
33 7
22
31
Number of Defects
10
9
Lot Number
Example: The inspection results for the surface finish of rolls of white
paper for 10 lots is given below. Construct a control chart to
monitor the process ?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 101
u Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
CL = Mean
UCL = Mean + 3 SD
LCL = Mean 3 SD
ubar = Sum of Defects / Total Number Inspected
= 340 / 93 = 3.66
Mean =ubar = 3.66
SD = (ubar / n
i
)
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 102
u Chart : Calculation of Control Limits
2.8
3.9
3.4
3.3
0.5
4.2
5.3
3.6
5.1
4.5
u
2.44
2.63
2.56
2.66
1.09
2.77
2.83
2.70
2.86
2.80
LCL
22
31
27
33
5
42
48
36
51
45
Number of
Defects
5.69
5.69
5.69
5.47
5.47
5.47
5.57
5.47
5.47
5.47
UCL
8
8
8
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
Number
Inspected
2
1
4
3
6
5
8
7
10
9
Lot
Number
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 103
Plot the defects / unit (u) of in u chart as shown below:
u Chart
0
2
4
6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
u chart: Example
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 104
u Chart: Exercise
52
40
40
40
40
40
52
52
52
52
Number of
bottles
Inspected
52
52
52
52
52
40
40
40
40
40
Number of
bottles
inspected
54
73
50
60
79
62
43
33
40
45
Number of
Defects
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
Sample
Number
74 2
55 1
61 4
43 3
32 6
43 5
33 8
45 7
28
50
Number of Defects
10
9
Sample
Number
Construct a suitable control chart for the data in the table for empty bottle
inspections of a soft drink manufacturer?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 105
Interpretation of Control Charts
A Process Under Control
A1 Values are distributed uniformly
within control limits:
UCL The course of process is
determined only by common
causes
No intervention is required.
LCL
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 106
B. Process Out of Control
B1 Points outside the control Limits
UCL Find out the reasons
immediately
Sort out the parts
manufactured
LCL
Document remedial actions
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 107
B2 Trend : 7 and ,More consecutive
points are within the control limits
but ascending or descending pattern
UCL
Has the manufacturing process a trend ?
Had the interference with
process been too late?
Trend (reasons) more than
LCL
normal?
Other influences (4M)?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 108
B3 Repeated patterns of points within
control limits
UCL
Is it possible to attribute
external influence (shift change
temperature variations)
Since when these samples
LCL
are experienced?
Remedial actions ?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 109
B4 Shift in average value :7 and more
points to one side of average
(Central Positions)
UCL
QC Chart is not understood ?
any deliberate shop practice?
Has the process ,despite
resetting not reacted?
LCL
Different material Charge?
Why the process scatter is
less (Is it always so )?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 110
B 5 Low scatter : more than2/3 of all
points are within 1/3 of control limits
UCL
Control limits : are they
calculated correctly?
Measuring instruments :
correctly calibrated ? If So:
LCL
Determine reasons for
reduced process variation
How can this conditions be
maintained permanently ?
Calculate control limits a fresh
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 111
B 6 Big scatter : more than 2/3 of all
points are between the outer
thirds of Control limits
UCL
Distribution of process
is it normal ?
Why does the process
fluctuate ?
LCL
Are Control Limits calculated
correctly
Measuring instrument:
Correctly calibrated ?
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 112
Select the
characteristics &
Process for SPC
Plan for Data
Collection
Is Process
Capable
Is Process
Stable
Establish Control
Limits
Improve the Process
Find
Assignable
Cause & Fix it
N
N
Y
Y
Perform MSA Study
Collect Data & Plot
Control Chart
Prepare Reaction Plan
Ongoing Process
Control
SPC Implementation:-
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 113
Collect Data
Is Process in
Control (I.e no
special cause)
Refer Reaction Plan
N
Y
Plot on the Control
Chart
Take Corrective Action
Take Disposition
action, if required
Operator Role in SPC:-
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 114
REACTION PLAN
Corrective
Action
Disposition Action Possible
Causes
Condition Chart
Doc No.:-
Rev. No./Date:-
Process:-
Parameter:-
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 115
Any Questions
Rev No:02, Date: 01.08.2004 116
Thank You

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