How Photovoltaic Cells Work

By: Brady Spatola

Introduction
For years, people have been hoping for a solar revolution; the hope that one day we will no longer rely
on fossil fuels or nuclear power to generate our electricity, but instead harvest the free energy that the
sun provides our planet each and every day. Solar energy has been used for years to power our
calculators or even satellites orbiting our planet, but there is not much progress being made on the
ability to power our homes.
The purpose of this document is to
describe how photovoltaic cells work
(namely, how they convert the suns light
into a viable energy source) and why there
should be a bigger demand for solar
energy research and development. A
photovoltaic cell, otherwise known as a
PV cell or a solar cell, is an electrical
device that converts the light energy into
electricity through a process called the
photovoltaic effect. The photovoltaic
effect is a phenomenon of material
properties that allows for the creation of
voltage or electric current in a material
upon exposure to light or other
electromagnetic radiation.
There are several companies currently involved in the
development and production process of solar equipment such as Suntech, First Solar, and Sharp;
unfortunately, these companies are not receiving enough government grants to delve further into the
field and develop new and more efficient solar technologies. By increasing the budget for research and
development in the solar energy field, it will not only help solve the ongoing energy crisis that our planet
is entering, but it will also help reduce carbon emissions across the globe to help combat air pollution
and climate change. Since these are both two growing issues in todays society, it would be in The
Department of Energys best interest to increase funding and make the switch to solar power.
Terminology Regarding Solar Panels
Band gap energy: Band gap energy is the minimum amount of energy required to energize an
electron to a higher state of excitation.
Figure 1: Diagram of a Solar Panel
http://etap.com/renewable-energy/renewable-
energy-images/solar-panel-diagram-large.jpg
Deep-cycle battery: A deep-cycle battery is a battery that is designed to be able to discharge a large
amount of its energy over a long period of time while still maintaining its longevity.
Doping: Doping is a process that involves introducing impurities into a pure material in order to
change its material characteristics, such as improved electrical properties.
Photon: A photon is a packet of light or other electromagnetic radiation. It carries an amount of
energy that is proportional to its wavelength and it massless.
P-type silicon: P-type silicon is boron doped silicon. The p-type silicon has positively charged (hence,
P-type) holes in it to allow for free electron movement.
N-type silicon: N-type silicon is phosphorous doped silicon. This gives the silicon a negative charge
due to the prevalent free moving electrons.

Converting Sunlight to
Electricity
The process of converting
sunlight to electricity is
rather complex. When p-
type silicon is joined with n-
type silicon, there is an
electric field that is induced
at the p-n junction due to
the charge difference
between the two types. This
electric field is what helps
drive the electrons through
the circuit, which eventually
harvests their energies.
When the energy charged
photons from the suns light
strike the solar panels, the energy from the
photons is absorbed by the extra electrons in
the n-type silicon, which essentially knocks them loose and are forced through the circuit by the
electric field at the p-n junction. The flow of electrons provides the electrical current, and the electric
field provides a voltage. With both current and voltage, power is produced. These excited electrons
travel through a circuit of wires and inverters to convert the DC power into AC power that our homes
and appliances need to operate. Typically, the energy is stored in deep-cycle batteries, such as lead-acid
or nickel-cadmium batteries; that way it is always accessible when you want to use it. Some places in the
country even allow you to sell any unused energy back to the grid, so you can make a small profit off
your solar investment.
Figure 2: Solar System Diagram
http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-
efPJnHVKKFc/UNyYcaL4aDI/AAAAAAAASbk/r55oDR9VVdI/s1600/H
ow+Solar+Panels+Work.jpg




Sources of Energy Loss
There are a few complications with the solar panels design that can lead to energy loss. One of these
problems is that silicon is naturally a very lustrous material, meaning it will reflect a large quantity of the
light that strikes it. To combat this, developers must apply an antireflective coating to the solar panels to
reduce the energy loss that occurs from photon reflection, as well as adding a glass plate to protect it
from the elements. Another problem is that the current weather conditions determine how much
energy you will be able to generate that day. On cloudy or rainy days, the majority of the suns rays are
blocked or scattered in the atmosphere and consequently do not reach the solar panel. This means that
in areas where it is known to have mucky weather, like Seattle for instance, the dream of having a solar
powered home is next to impossible.
Since the sun emits radiation of various wavelengths and energies, some of the photons that strike the
solar panel dont have enough energy to excite an electron-hole pair, in which case it will pass through
the solar panel as if it were transparent. If a photon has a higher energy than the band gap energy of a
material, any excess energy contained in the photon is essentially lost unless the energy is twice the
band gap energy, in which case two electrons will be knocked loose and result in a higher current. These
two instances alone can account for up to 70% of energy lost on the cell. This effect is very difficult to
minimize, since choosing a material with lower band gap energy means a weaker (lower voltage) electric
field. Given that power is a product of voltage and current, scientists have calculated a band gap energy
of approximately 1.4 eV (electron volts) to maximize power output.
Efficiency of Solar Power
Figure 3: Grid Connected PV Graphic
http://www.delberthowardsbuilding.com/Images/Solar%20Initiative/Railroad%20Com
mission%20of%20Texas%20Solar%20graphic.gif
There are many advantages to using solar power, like free and clean energy with zero emissions;
however, there are also disadvantages. In addition to the energy loss mentioned earlier, the efficiency
and cost are huge factors that turn many people away from a solar investment. The current top of the
line solar panels that are available and affordable enough for consumer to buy are only around 20%
efficient. This means that only 20% of the suns energy that strikes the solar panel is actually converted
into AC power. The best solar panels on the market, those used on satellites in orbit, are closer to the
50% mark. This is still not a very viable option for energy production and needs to be developed further.
Depending on how much power a home uses, how much the electricity costs in that area, and how
much average sunlight hits the house on a daily basis, solar panels can take anywhere from 5 to 20 years
to pay themselves off. Many people see this as a waste of an investment since they dont plan to live in
their current home for that amount of time.
Conclusion
With increased funding for research and development, scientists may be able to produce a new material
that is both less lustrous and more receptive to a wider range of radiation energy. This will greatly
reduce the losses currently experienced by todays solar panels and maximize the amount of power that
can be utilized by our sun, the most powerful and consistent source of renewable energy in our solar
system. Another option to improve the efficiency and overall appeal of solar power systems is to
improve the energy density of the deep-cycle batteries. Energy density is the amount of energy that is
stored in a system, in this case a battery, per unit volume. By increasing the energy density of the deep-
cycle battery, it would increase the amount of energy that can be stored from the solar panels, which
would prolong the amount of time that you can use energy off the grid. This would be a great benefit
not only for those living in regions where sunny weather is not prevalent, but also for those that do not
have the roof space to accommodate the number of panels that would be required to power their
homes.

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/solar-cell.htm
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-solar-power-work/