University of Cape Town

Department of Electrical Engineering

EEE 3044S:2014 POWER IN SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
pp. 263-275; pp. 289-300; pp. 335-343; 347-348 (prescribed book 11
th
edition)

Power is the rate of change of energy with respect to time. The power p(t) in watts being absorbed by a load at any instant is the
product of the instantaneous voltage drop v (t) across the load in Volts and the instantaneous current i(t) into the load in
Amperes. That is,
) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t p =

If p(t) is positive, energy is delivered to the load, if p(t) is negative, energy is being transferred from the load into the system to
which the load is connected. Power oscillations between the source and the load occur whenever the load is able to
instantaneously store energy. Both inductors and capacitors store energy. Inductors store energy in a magnetic field, which
results from the current flowing in the wire of the inductor. Capacitors store energy in an electric field, which results from the
voltage difference between the plates of the capacitor.

For a resistive load, the energy is dissipated in the same way as a direct current dissipates energy in a resistor. In the case of
reactive (capacitive or inductive) load, the energy is delivered to the load and then returned to the source.

Instantaneous power in a purely resistive

For purely resistive load R, the current into the load is in phase with the load voltage. If the instantaneous voltage is
v
R
= V
Rm
sinet, and the current is i
R
=v
R
/R = I
Rm
sinet, then the instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is

( )
2
1 cos 2
sin
2
R R R Rm Rm Rm Rm
t
p v i V I t V I
e
e
| |
= = =
|
\ .
(1)

where: V
Rm
and I
Rm
arre the maximum values of the voltage and current, respectively.
Note that: sinAsinB = [cos(A-B)-cos(A+B)]/2 is used in (1)
The average power can be derived from the formal analysis of the power waveform.
Note that e =2tf =2t/T T= 2t/e
2 2
2 2
0 0 0
1
( sin ) ( ) (sin )
2 2
T
R Rm Rm Rm Rm
P p dt V I t dt V I t dt
T
t t
e e
e e
e e
t t
= = =
} } }

=
2
0
1 cos 2
( ) ( )
2 2
Rm Rm
t
V I dt
t
e
e e
t

}
=
2
0
sin 2 2
( ) ( )
2 2 4 2 2
Rm Rm Rm Rm
t t
V I V I
t
e e e e t
t e t e
(
=
(


=
2 2 2
Rm Rm Rm Rm
R R
V I V I
V I = =
Therefore, the average power (i.e., active power or real power) in the resistor is given by:
R I
R
V
I V P
R
R
R R R
2
2
= = = (2)















Note that for a purely resistive load, the instantaneous power will never become negative.


Instantaneous power in inductive load
Fig.1 Power voltage and current waveform in a resistor
t
v,i, p
e
t
2
t
e
t
2
3
t
e
t

e
t 2
t
p = i
2
R
v

i
Average power

For purely inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90. Therefore, if the applied votage is v
L
= V
Lm
sinet, then the current
is i
L
= I
Lm
sin (et - 90) = -I
Lm
coset. The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is given by

p
L
= v
L
i
L
= V
Lm
I
Lm
sinet sin(et- 90) = -V
Lm
I
Lm
sin2et/2 =-V
L
I
L
sin2et= -Q
L
sin2et (3)

where V
L
= V
Lm
/\2 and I
L
= I
Lm
/\2 and Q
L
=V
L
I
L
=eLI
L
2
=V
L
2
/eL is the amplitude of the instantaneous power oscillation.
This is also the reactive power and has unit VAr (Volt-Ampere reactive).
The average power can be derived from the formal analysis of the power waveform as follows.
2 2
0 0 0
1 sin 2
( sin cos ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
T
L Lm Lm Lm Lm
t
P p dt V I t t dt V I dt
T
t t
e e
e e e
e e
t t

= = =
} } }

=
2
0
cos 2
( ) 0
2 4
Lm Lm
t
V I
t
e e e
t e
(
=
(


= 0

The instantaneous power absorbed by an inductor is a double frequency sinusoid with zero average value.

In a purely inductive circuit, the value of the instantaneous power is positive for half of the time and negative for the other half
of the time. The average power over the entire cycle is zero. Power oscillates with double the system frequency. In a purely
inductive circuit there is no transfer of energy (i.e., energy transfer per cycle is zero). Figure 2 shows the power in a purely
inductive circuit.


Figure 2 Power in an inductive load
Instantaneous power in a capacitive load

For purely capacitive load, the current leads the voltage by 90, if the voltage is v
C
= V
Cm
sinet, and the current is
i
C
= I
Cm
sin (et +90) = I
Cm
cos et, the instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor is given by:

p
C
= v
C
i
C
= V
Cm
I
Cm
sinet sin(et+ 90) = V
Cm
I
Cm
sinet coset =V
Cm
I
Cm
sin2et/2 = V
C
I
C
sin2et= Q
C
sin2et (4)

where V
C
= V
Cm
/\2 and I
C
= I
Cm
/\2 and Q
C
=V
C
I
C
=(I
C
)
2
/eC = eC(V
C
)
2
is the amplitude of the instantaneous power oscillation

The mechanism of energy flow into a capacitive load is similar to the flow of energy into an inductive load. The value of the
instantaneous power is positive for one half of the cycle and negative for the other half of the cycle. The power flow between
the source and the load (the capacitor) is opposite from the power flowing between the source and the inductor. That is, when
power if flowing from the source to the inductor, power is flowing from the capacitor to the source. When the energy stored in
the inductor is at its lowest, the energy stored in the capacitor is at its highest. The average power over the entire cycle is zero.
Power oscillates with double the system frequency.
Also there is no transfer of energy in a purely capacitive circuit.
The average power can be derived from the formal analysis of the power waveform as follows.

2 2
0 0 0
1 sin 2
( sin cos ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
T
C Lm Lm Lm Lm
t
P p dt V I t t dt V I dt
T
t t
e e
e e e
e e
t t
= = =
} } }

=
2
0
cos 2
( ) 0
2 4
Lm Lm
t
V I
t
e e e
t e
(
=
(


The instantaneous power absorbed by a capacitor is a double frequency sinusoid with zero average value.

deg
Instantaneous power in a general load

Consider a single-phase sinusoidal voltage supplying a load made up of resistive and reactive parts as shown in Fig. 3. Assume
that the instantaneous load voltage and current are expressed by:
v = V
m
sinet and i= I
m
sin(et-)








Fig.3 Sinusoidal source supplying a general load

The instantaneous power is: p= vi = V
m
I
m
sinet sin(et-)

The instantaneous power p can assume positive and negative values depending on the interval of time under consideration. The
instantaneous power is obviously positive when both v and i are positive and becomes negative when v and i are opposite in
sign. A positive power p indicates a transfer of energy from the source to the load, while a negative p corresponds to a transfer
of energy from the load to the source. The net energy flow to a passive circuit during one cycle is, therefore, positive or zero.
The equation for instantaneous power p can be rewritten as:


sin I sin( )
m m
p vi V t t e e = =


1
I [cos cos(2 )]
2
m m
V t e =

1 1
I cos I cos(2 )
2 2
m m m m
V V t e =

)] sin 2 sin ) 2 cos 1 ( [cos
2
1
e e t t I V
m m
=
From the above equation, it can be seen that the instanteneous value of power consists of two components:

1. ) 2 cos 1 ( cos
2
1
t I V
m m
e which has average value of cos
2
1

m m
I V . This component is associated with the resistive
component of the load.
2. )] sin 2 sin ) 2 cos 1 ( [cos
2
1
e e t t I V
m m
which has average value of zero and a term 2et indicating that it varies at
twice the supply frequency. This means the power undergoes two cycles of variation for one cycle of the voltage
waveform. This is component is associated with the power absorbed by the reactive (inductive and/or capacitive)
component of the load
Hence, average power over one cycle is:

I 1
I cos cos
2 2 2
m m
m m
V
P V = =

= VIcos

(5)

where 2 /
m
V V = and 2 /
m
I I =


Real power or average power

The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistive component of the load is made up of a constant (average) value P and a
double frequency sinusoid. The average value is:

P = VIcos (W) (6)

where P is the average power, also called the real or active power, and cos is the power factor.


v
Z
i
Power factor (pf or cos)

The phase angle which is the angle between the voltage and the current is known as power factor angle or phase angle. The
power factor cos is given by:

P/S= cos (7)

where S=VI is the apparent power.

An inductive circuit is said to have a lagging power factor, and a capacitive circuit is said to have a leading power factor. In
other words, the terms lagging power factor and leading power factor indicate, respectively, whether the current is lagging or
leading the applied voltage. By convention, the power factor is positive, i.e., cos lies between 0 and 1.

For supply systems operating at a constant voltage amplitude with a specified current capacity, the power factor and hence
energy which can be delivered in a given time is maximum when the power factor is unity, i.e., = 0.

As the power factor decreases below unity, i.e., > 0, the active power that can be generated by a given generator decreases. In
some instances where equipment operates at lower power factors it is economically advantageous to improve the power factor
to increase the supply efficiency. Some utility companies have a tariff structure, which encourages customers to keep their
power factor as close to unity as possible. Note however, that incorrect application of capacitors can lead to equipment damage.


Reactive power

The instantaneous power absorbed by the reactive (inductive or capacitive) part of the load is called the instantaneous reactive
power p
X
. It expresses the flow of energy alternately toward the load and away from the load. It has a double frequency sinusoid
with zero average value. The maximum value of this pulsating power, designated by Q is called reactive power or reactive
volt-amperes (VAr) and is very useful in describing the operation of a power system. The reactive power is given by:

Q = VIsin (VAr) (8)

Although it has the same units as the real power, the usual practice is to define units of reactive power as volt-amperes reactive,
or VAr.

Apparent power

The product of the voltage and the current in an a.c. circuit is termed the apparent power

S = VI =
2 2
Q P + (VA) (9)

The relation between apparent power, active power and power factor is given below

cos
P
S = (10)

Complex power and power triangle

The two components P and Q of power play different roles and may not be added together. However, they may be written
conveniently in complex form as

S = P+ j Q = VI *=VIcos +jVIsin

where S, V and I are complex numbers and * is the complex conjugate. The real part of S equals to the average power P and the
imaginary part is equal to the reactive power Q. A leading phase angle determines a leading Q (negative) while a lagging phase
angle indicates a lagging Q (positive).

Most big loads (particularly those found in industry) run at lagging, rather than leading power factor. Therefore, a power
system will usually be supplying lagging vars (along with real power).

Equations associated with the active, apparent and reactive powers can be represented geometrically. It is simply the triangle of
the impedance Z scaled by the factor I
2
as shown in Fig.4 below (inductive case).





(a) Impedance (b) Power
Fig.4 Power triangle, inductive load

Two conventions in power system:

1.Generator convention: current leaves the positive terminal
If P (Q) > 0, then positive real (reactive) power is delivered.
If P (Q) < 0, then positive real (reactive) power is absorbed.


2. Load convention: current enters the positive terminal
If P (Q) >0, then positive real (reactive) power is absorbed
If P (Q) < 0, then positive real (reactive) power is delivered.

Alternative formulae for S

The complex power can be written in terms of the complex impedance. From V =ZI , we have

2 * *
ZI ZII VI S = = = (11)

The complex power can also be written in terms of the complex admittance. From I =V/Z=YV, we have

* 2
Y V S = (12)

( )
2 2 2
/ / RI Z R V Z R VI P = = = ( )
2 2 2
/ / XI Z X V Z X VI Q = = =

Summation of complex power

For several loads in parallel or in series, the total complex power is the sum of individual complex powers. It follows that the
total real power P is the sum of the individual average powers. The total reactive power Q is the sum of the individual reactive
powers.
If the power data for the individual branches are not important, the network may be replaced by its equivalent admittance, and
this is used directly to compute S.

S = S
1
+S
2
+ + S
n
(13)

From which

P = P
1
+P
2
+ + P
n

Q = Q
1
+Q
2
+ + Q
n

| cos =
S
P
(i.e., the power factor of the whole system)
The efficiency is given by q =
in
out
P
P
(14)





Q
P
S

ZI
2

RI
2

XI
2



Example 1: Three loads are connected in parallel to a 6 kV ac line. Given P
1
= 10 kW, pf
1
= 1; P
2
= 20 kW, pf
2
= 0.5
lagging; P
3
= 15 kW, pf
3
= 0.6 lagging.
Find the total P, Q, S (apparent power), pf and the current I.








FigureE.1: Example 1- Loads in parallel

Solutions

1 ) cos(
1 1
= = | pf , 0 ) tan(
1
= | , 0 ) tan(
1 1 1
= = | P Q
5 . 0 ) cos(
2 2
= = | pf 73 . 1 ) tan(
2
= | , 6 . 34 ) tan(
2 2 2
= = | P Q kVAr
6 . 0 ) cos(
3 3
= = | pf , 33 . 1 ) tan(
3
= | Q
3
= P
3
tan (|
3
) kVAr
Then P, Q, S, pf are

P = P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= 10 + 20 + 15 = 45 kW

Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3
= 0 + 34.6 + 20 = 54.6 kVAr

75 . 70
2 2
= + = Q P S KVA

pf = cos(|) =P/S = 0.64

8 . 11
6
75 . 70
= = =
V
S
I A
The current I

is lagging the voltage by |=50.5.


Example 2: A load of 300 kW, with power factor 0.65 lagging, has the power factor improved to 0.90 lagging by parallel
capacitors. How many kVAr must these capacitors furnish, and what is the resulting percent reduction in apparent power?

Solutions

The angles corresponding to the power factors are obtained:

1
=cos
-1
0.65 = 49.46
2
=cos
-1
0.90 = 25.84
Q
1
= 300tan (49.46) = 350. 76 kvar (before correction)
Q
2
= 300tan (25.84) = 145. 28 kvar (after correction)
Kvar delivered by the capacitors:

Qc = Q
1
Q
2
= 350.76- 145.28 = 205.4 kvar Qc

Since
54 . 461
65 . 0
300
1
= = S kVA or 33 . 333
90 . 0
300
2
= = S kVA
The reduction is: % 8 . 27 %) 100 (
54 . 461
33 . 333 54 . 461
=

P
1

V
P
2

I
1
I
2

Q
1
Q
2

I
3

P
3

Q
3

I

Maximum Power Transfer

It can be shown that if the load is a resistive load, the maximum power transfer occurs when the load resistance is equal to the
internal source resistance. The maximum current and hence power is developed when the current is in phase with the supply
voltage.
Assume that E is the source e.m.f, r the internal resistance of the source and R the load resistance

Then I = (E/R+r) and the power transferred to the load is: P= RI
2
=
2 2
2
2
2
2 ) ( R rR r
R E
R
R r
E
+ +
=
+









Fig.5 Maximum Power transfer to a resistive load Fig. 6 Maximum Power transfer to an impedance load

The maximum power transfer occurs when the derivative of the power equation is zero. That is,

4
2 2
2
) (
) (
R r
R r
E P
dR
d
+

= = 0. That is, r = R.

Thvenins theorem

If there are more than one source (and resistance), an equivalent source and resistance should be used based on Thvenins
theorem. According to Thvenins theorem , any two-terminal a.c. network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source V
th
equal to the open circuit voltage at the terminals and a series impedance Z
th
equal to the internal
impedance as seen from the terminals.

Assume that the internal source impedance is Z= R+ jX. The maximum power transfer is achieved when the load impedance Z
L
= R
L
+ jX satisfies the following: R = R
L
and X = - X
L
.
This comes from the observation that maximum current and hence maximum power can be developed only when the current is
in phase with the supply voltage. The current will be in phase with the voltage provided the total reactance is zero.


Example 3: An induction motor with a shaft power output of 1.5 kW has an efficiency of 85%. At this load, the power factor
is 0.80 lagging. Give complete input power information.

Solutions

85 . 0 =
in
out
P
P
Or
kw P
in
765 . 1
85 . 0
5 . 1
= =

= 36.87
in in
P Q ) tan( =

Q
in
= 1.3237 kVAr

Example 4 (do it yourself)
An electric bulb is marked 40 W, 220V. Another is marked 40W, 11 V. Calculate:
(1) The ratio of their resistance
(2) The energy dissipated by each bulb in 1 hour.


Answers: 4, 14400J or 40Wh.

Homework:

pp 276, No. 3, No. 7; pp. 349, No.6, pp. 350, No. 16 (11ed.). To be hand in on August 13, 2014.
r
I
R
+
E
-
Z=R+jX
I
Z
L
= R j X +
E
-