BIOLOGY COMMON ESSAY QUESTIONS

Compare the roles of endocrine and nervous systems in control and coordination in
mammals.
The endocrine system is means of communication using hormones that are chemical
messengers which transfer information from one part of the organism to another part.
Hormones are produced in ductless glands which secrete them directly into the blood stream.
These glands are called endocrine glands. Hormones only affect specific target cells as only
these cells have receptors on their cell surface membrane. Example ADH produced by
pituitary gland only affects cells in the walls of the collecting duct as only these cells have
receptors for ADH.
The nervous system is means of communication by electrical signals or action potentials. This
involves cells called neurons. Two types of neurons that are normally involved are motor
neurons and sensory neurons.
The action potential travels along a constructed pathway directed to a target, there is usually a
synapse before it is passed to another neuron. Example reflex arc where the sensory neuron
picks up the information signal and passes it to other neurons in the spinal cord. Motor
neuron picks up the information and produces an action.
Differences :
Hormonal system produces a long lasting effect compared to the nervous system.
Information travels faster in the nervous system than in the hormonal system.
The effect in hormonal system is widespread while the effect in nervous system is more
directed.


Describe the structure of a kidney nephron and its associated blood vessels.
Each kidney contains thousands of microscopic tubes called nephrons. The beginning of each
nephron is a cup-shaped structure called a renal capsule. This is in the cortex of the kidney.
From the renal capsule, the tubule becomes twisted into a structure called proximal
convoluted tubule. The tubule then goes into a long hair-pin loop that goes into the medulla
and back into the cortex. This loop is called the Loop of Henle.
From the Loop of Henle is another twisted region called the distal convoluted tubule which
ends with the collecting duct that extends from the cortex into the pelvis, where it joins the
ureter.
Each nephron has a network of blood vessels associated with it. Blood arrives in the afferent
arteriole from the renal artery, and is delivered to network of capillaries called the glomerulus
in the cup of the renal capsule. Blood leaves the glomerulus in the efferent arteriole, which is
narrower than the afferent arteriole. This leads to another network of capillaries that wraps
around the nephron, before delivering the blood to a branch of the renal vein.

Explain how glomerular filtrate is formed.
Blood in the glomerulus and the renal capsule is separated by the capillary endothelium that
have pores in it, the basement membrane and the cells making up the walls of the renal
capsule which have slits between them, and they are called podocytes.
Blood in the efferent arteriole is at a relatively high pressure than in the afferent arteriole
since the efferent arteriole is narrower.
This forces the blood to move across the three structures. The pores of the capillary
endothelium and the slits between the podocytes allow substances to pass through them, but
the basement membrane acts as a filter and only allow small substances to pass through such
as inorganic ions (Na
2+
, K
+
, Cl
-
) , glucose, water and urea. Plasma proteins, white blood cells
and red blood cells are too big; hence the basement membrane does not allow them to pass
through it.
The substances that seep into the fluid of the glomerulus are called the glomerular filtrates.


Describe the structure of a myelinated sensory neurone.

A sensory neurone has one long Dendron and a shorter axon with a cell body in between the
two.
The cell body of the neurone contains organelles seen in a normal cell including a nucleus,
many mitochondria, as well as RER. A sensory neurone is joined to another neurone by means
of synapse.
The terminal dendrites contain vesicles of transmitter substances which aid in the
transmission of action potentials.
A myelinated neurone is a neurone which is wrapped by layers of Schwann cells. Te resulting
layer is called the myelin sheath. This acts as an insulating layer for the neurone and aids in
speeding up of transmission.
The uncovered parts of the neurone are called the Nodes of Ranvier which are the regions
which conduct action potentials. So action potential jumps from one node to the next.

Explain how an action potential is transmitted along a sensory neurone.
When a receptor receives a stimulus, this can reduce the potential difference across the
membrane of axon, which causes sodium voltage gated channels to open so sodium ions flood
into the neurone, down an electro-chemical gradient. The neurone becomes more positive
compared to the outside.
This quickly reverses the potential difference across the cell membrane, making it much less
negative inside. The neurone is said to be depolarised. Indeed, the sodium ions keep on
flooding in until the cell reaches about +40Mv. The sodium ion channels then close.
This change in potential difference across the membrane causes a set of potassium ion
channels to open. Potassium ions then flood out of the axon down its electro-chemical
gradient, making the inside of the axon less positive. It quickly drops back down to a little
below the value of resting potential. The potassium ion channels then close and resting
potential is restored. This sequence of events is called an action potential.
An action potential that is generated in one part of a neurone travels rapidly along its axon or
Dendron. This happens because the depolarization of one part of the membrane sets up local
circuits with the areas on either side of it. These cause depolarization of these regions as well.
The action potential therefore sweeps along the axon.
The local circuits cannot be set up in parts of the neurone where the myelin sheath is present.
Instead, the action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next. This is called
saltatory conduction; this greatly increases the speed at which the action potential travels
along the axon.






Describe how a nerve impulse crosses a cholinergic synapse.
Where two neurons meet they do not actually touch. There is a small gap between them called
the synaptic cleft. The membrane of the neurone just before the synaptic cleft is called the pre-
synaptic membrane, and the one on the other side is the post-synaptic membrane. The whole
structure is called a synapse.
When the action potential arrives at the pre-synaptic neurone, it causes calcium ion channels
to open. Ca
2+
ions flood into the neurone, down their concentration gradient.
The presynaptic membrane contains many tiny vesicles full of neurotransmitter substance,
acetylcholine. The calcium ions make these vesicles move to the pre-synaptic membrane and
fuse with it, releasing the acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft.
The cleft is very small, so it only takes a millisecond or two for the acetylcholine to diffuse
across it.
On the other side of the cleft, there are receptor molecules in the post-synaptic membrane,
and the acetylcholine molecules fit perfectly into these. Acetylcholine then breaks down by the
enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
This makes sodium ion channels to open, so sodium ions flood in, down their concentration
gradient.
This causes depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane which sets up an action potential in
the post-synaptic neurone.

Explain the roles of synapses in the nervous system.
Synapses ensure that action potentials can only travel one way. This is possible due to the fact
that ONLY the pre-synaptic neurone has vesicles containing the neurotransmitter substance,
and ONLY the post-synaptic neurone has receptor molecules.
One neurone may have synapses with many other neurons. This allows interconnection
between nerve pathways from different parts of the body.
Synapses also allow for a wide variety of responses by effectors. For example, a motor neurone
may need to receive transmitter substance from many different neurons forming synapses
with it before an action potential is generated in it.

Outline with reference to blood glucose concentration, the principles of homeostasis in
mammals.
Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a stable internal environment. This
maintenance is done irrespective of any changes to external environment.
Most control mechanisms use a negative feedback loop which involves a receptor which picks
up information about the parameter regulated and this sets off a series of events which
produces an action by an effector.
In the pancreas, the receptor cells are - and - cells which detect any changes in
concentration of glucose in blood. These receptors are present in a cluster called the Islets of
Langerhans.
- cells produce insulin when glucose concentration is high, while -cells produce glucagon
when glucose concentration is low.
Insulin affects many cells especially those in liver and muscle cells to
Increase absorption of glucose from blood into cells
Increase rate of use of glucose in respiration
Increase rate of conversion of glucose to glycogen
This lowers the glucose concentration in blood.
Glucagon affects the liver cells, but NOT muscle cells, to
Increase rate breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Use fatty acids instead of glucose in respiration
Produce glucose from other compounds
This increases the glucose concentration in blood.
This negative feedback causes the parameter of glucose concentration to return to normal.
The parameter will oscillate around the ideal level because there is a time delay between
detection and action correcting the parameter.

Describe the part played by the proximal convoluted tubule in the functioning of the
kidneys.
Selective reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule
The proximal convoluted tubule is made of epithelial cells which possess large number of villi.
They also have mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport.
Active transport is used to move Na
+
out of the basal membrane of the proximal convoluted
tubule, into the blood.
This lowers the concentration of Na
+
inside the cell, so that Na
+
ions diffuse into the cell from
the fluid inside the tubule via transporter proteins.
As Na
+
ions diffuse through these transporter proteins, they carry along other substances such
as glucose, amino acid, vitamins and Cl
-
. This is called co-transport.
The movement of Na
+
and other substances into the blood decreases the water potential in the
blood. Water therefore moves by osmosis from the fluid inside the tubule, down a water
potential gradient through the epithelial cells and basal membrane, and into the blood.
As a result, all glucose and some water and urea, are reabsorbed.

Explain how the collecting ducts in the kidneys reduce the loss of water from the body.
ADH secretion affects the collecting duct. It binds to a receptor on membrane of the collecting
duct. Once it has binded, it causes a series of enzyme-controlled reactions which ends with the
production of phosphorylase.
Phosphorylase causes the water vesicle channels to move into the walls of the collecting duct.
More water flows from the collecting duct into the blood, down a water potential gradient.
Urine produced is concentrated and in small volume. This happens when water potential in
the body is low. This is a form of negative feedback.

Describe the role of abscisic acid (ABA) in the closure of a stoma.
ABA is a plant growth regulator that is releases when the plant is under stress. For example, if
the conditions are too dry and hot.
The ABA binds to receptors on the cell membrane of the guard cells. This inhibits the pumping
out of H
+
ions out of the guard cells which could have made the inside of the guard cell more
negative.
This may cause K
+
inside the guard cell to diffuse out, causing the water potential inside to
increase.
Water then moves out of the guard cells by osmosis. This causes the volume of guard cells to
decrease and makes the guard cells to become flaccid. As a result, the stoma closes.
This response is quick.



Describe the role of gibberellins in the germinaton of barley seeds.
A barley seed is metabolically inactive when water is absent. Once it absorbs water, the
embryo produces gibberellins.
Gibberellins will stimulate the aleurone layer to produce amylase. Amylase will hydrolyse
the starch that is present in the endosperm. The starch will be converted into maltose, and
then to glucose.
The embryo will use the sugars for respiration.
Energy is used for growth.
Gibberellins affect the genes of mRNA, coding for amylase.

Describe the part played by auxins in apical dominance in a plant shoot.
Auxins act as plant growth regulators and are produced by cells in meristems. In a plant shoot,
the apical bud contains a meristem. Auxin moves down the shoot from cell to cell, by mass
flow in phloem and by diffusion through special auxin transporter proteins in the cell surface
membrane. Auxins stimulate cell elongation and inhibit the lateral bud from growing, so that
the plant grows upwards. Auxins may also interact with other plant growth regulators. For
example, cytokinins that are antagonistic to Auxins.

Explain the role of isolating mechanisms in the evolution of new species.
Allopatric speciation occurs when a geographical barrier arises to split a population into two
groups and prevents them from interbreeding.
Example: a river forms in an area where there used to be no river, and splits a population of
wolves into two. The two groups will not be able meet one another.
Sympatric speciation is the rise of a new species in one area which is commonly seen
through the process of polyploidy. Problems with meiosis may give rise to a new species or
hybrids that are different from their parent species.
Example: S. maritima and S. alterniflora hybridising to form S. townsendii which is infertile
but can reproduce asexually.
Once a population is prevented from interbreeding or only breeds amongst themselves,
there will be no genetic flow between the populations.
Different selection pressures may operate. Natural selection will cause a change in allele
frequencies, leading to different gene pool.
Overtime, differences prevent interbreeding, being reproductively isolated from one
another.

Explain how natural selection may bring about evolution.
In a population, not every individual has exactly the same alleles or exactly the same features.
There will be genetic variation within the population. Those organisms whose particular set of
features are best suited to the environment are most likely to survive. Those with less useful
features are more likely to die. (survival of the fittest)
The organisms with the most useful features are therefore more likely to reach adulthood and
reproduce. Their alleles will be passed on to their offspring.
Over many generations, the alleles that confer useful characteristics on an individual are
therefore likely to become more common.
Over time, a new species may arise from the existing species and cause an evolutionary
change.


Describe and explain, using an example, the process of artificial selection.

Artificial selection is when humans pick the traits to be passed on by cross breeding parents
with the desirable features.
For example if one wants cattle which are large and docile, one would cross-breed two of the
largest and most docile cattle together.
Once the offspring is produced, the ones with the desirable features again are chosen and
cross-breeding is done. This is repeated over many generations to increase the desirable traits
allele frequency and at the same time, reducing the undesirable traits.
This results in loss of hybrid vigour as it increases homozygosity.

Explain how changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA may affect the amino acid
sequence in a protein.
Gene mutation is an unpredictable change in the base sequence in a DNA molecule.
This usually happens during DNA replication
It may be addition of extra base, deletion of a base or substitution of a base in the sequence.
In base addition and base deletion, there is a frame shift which results in a large effect to the
protein made.
In base substitution, there may not be an effect on the protein being made unless a stop codon
is introduced from the substitution which prevents a complete protein to be formed.
Mutation is caused by ionising radiation, ultraviolet radiation and mutagens.
An example of a disease caused by mutation is sickle cell anaemia.
A gene that codes for the polypeptide has the base T where it should have the base A. this
means that one triplet is different, so a different amino acid when the polypeptide chain is
constructed on a ribosome.

Outline the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis.
During Prophase I, chromosomes begin to condense. The homologous chromosomes pair up
and are visible as bivalents.
In Metaphase I, the bivalents are arranged on the equator of the cell. This is when genetic
variation may occur due to independent assortment, where each pair of chromosomes behaves
independently from every other pair so there are many different combinations that can end up
together.
Also in Metaphase I, crossing over may occur as well where as two chromosomes lie side-by-
side, their chromatids form links called chiasmata with each other. When the chromosomes
move apart, a piece of chromatid from one chromosome may swap places with a piece from
the other chromosome which results in each chromosome having different combination of
alleles than it did before.
During Anaphase I, chromosomes move to opposite poles pulled by spindle fibres.
Then in Telophase I, the cell divides.
In Prophase II, chromosomes condense again. After that in Metaphase II, individual
chromosomes line up at the equator of cell. The centromeres split and chromatids move apart
as they are pulled by spindle fibres in Anaphase II. Finally in Telophase II, chromosomes
unwind and cells further divide, resulting in haploid number of chromosomes.




Describe ways in which gene mutation occur.
Gene mutation is an unpredictable change in the base sequence in a DNA molecule.
This usually happens during DNA replication
It may be addition of extra base, deletion of a base or substitution of a base in the sequence.
In base addition and base deletion, there is a frame shift which results in a large effect to the
protein made.
In base substitution, there may not be an effect on the protein being made unless a stop codon
is introduced from the substitution which prevents a complete protein to be formed.
Mutation is caused by ionising radiation, ultraviolet radiation and mutagens.

Discuss the link between the frequency of sickle cell anaemia and the number of cases
of malaria.
The frequency of sickle cell anaemia is highest in areas where malaria is common. The sickle
cell anaemia red blood cells are unable to carry sufficient oxygen capacity.
For homozygous H
S
H
S
, the person may die of sickle cell anaemia.
For homozygous H
N
H
N
, the person may die of malarial infection since 100% of the normal red
blood cells are most likely affected by malarial parasite, such as in countries like Africa.
For heterozygous H
N
H
S
, there is selective advantage where only 50% of the persons red blood
cells are sickle cell. Malarial parasite cannot affect these cells hence the person will unlikely
die of malarial infection. On the other hand, there are 50% normal red blood cells which gives
the person sufficient supply of oxygen.
The selective advantage is dependent on the area of the population.

Describe the structure of photosystems and explain how a photosystem functions in
cyclic phosphorylation.
A photosystem is a light-harvesting cluster of pigments and each consists of a central primary
pigment molecule, which is one of two forms of chlorophyll a with an absorption peak at either
700nm (P700) in photosystem I or 680nm in photosystem II; and surrounding accessory
pigments which are other forms of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and the carotenoids. The
accessory pigments absorb light and pass the energy to the primary pigment.
When a photon of light is absorbed by photosystem I, an electron in the primary pigment
(P700) is excited to a higher energy level and is emitted from the chlorophyll molecule. It is
captured by an electron acceptor and passed back to the pigment by a chain of electron
acceptors. The energy released allows ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Explain briefly how reduced NADP is formed in the light-dependent stage and how it is
used in the light-independent stage.
Describe how non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP and reduced NADP.
Both photosystem I and photosystem II are involved in non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Chlorophyll molecules in PS I and PS II absorb light energy. The energy excites electrons,
raising their energy level so that they leave the chlorophyll. The chlorophyll is said to be
photoactivated.
PS II contains an enzyme that splits water when activated by light (photolysis), where water
splits into hydrogen and oxygen. Each hydrogen atom then loses an electron to become
proton, H
+
. The electrons are picked up by the chlorophyll in PS II to replace the electrons
they lost. Oxygen diffuses out of the chloroplast.
The electrons emitted from PS II are picked up by electron carriers in the membrane of the
thylakoids. They are passed along a chain of these carriers, losing energy as they go. The
energy they lose is used to combine ADP with a phosphate group, producing ATP. This is
called photophosphorylation.
At the end of the electron carrier chain, the electron is picked up by PS I, to replace the
electrons they lost.
The electrons from PS I are passed along a different chain of electron carriers to NADP. The
NADP picks up the hydrogen ions from the split of water. The NADP becomes reduced NADP.

Outline the steps of the Calvin Cycle (light-independent stage of photosynthesis).
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the stroma from the air spaces within the leaf. It enters the active
site of rubisco, which combines it with a 5-carbon compound called ribulose bisphosphate,
RuBP. The products of this reaction are two 3-carbon molecules, glycerate 3-phosphate, GP.
The combination of carbon dioxide with RuBP is called carbon fixation.
Energy from ATP and hydrogen from reduced NADP (that are produced from the light-
dependent stage) are then used to convert the unstable GP into triose phosphate, TP. Triose
phosphate is the first carbohydrate produced in photosynthesis.
Most of the triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP, completing the cycle. This
regeneration requires ATP. The rest is used to make glucose or other substances the plant cell
requires.

Explain how the palisade mesophyll cells of a leaf are adapted for photosynthesis.
Palisade mesophyll cells are the main site of photosynthesis.
The cells are closely packed to absorb maximum light
at right angles to surface of leaf to reduce number of cross walls
large vacuole pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell chloroplasts at edge to provide short
diffusion path for carbon dioxide, and to absorb maximum light
large number of chloroplasts to absorb maximum light
cylindrical cells or air spaces to circulate gases
large surface area for diffusion of gases
moist cell surfaces for diffusion of gases
cell walls thin for maximum light penetration/diffusion of gases
chloroplasts can move towards light at low light intensity
chloroplasts can move away from high light intensity to avoid damage

Describe the structure of ATP and the role of ATP as the energy currency in all living
organisms.
ATP consists of the organic base adenine and the pentose sugar ribose. Together, these make
the nucleoside adenosine. This is combined with three phosphate groups. ATP is therefore a
nucleotide.
ATP is the intermediary molecule between energy-requiring reactions and the energy-yielding
reactions used in a cell.
Each cell must produce its own ATP and recycle it very rapidly. Because it is a small, water-
soluble molecule, it is easily moved from where it is made in a cell to where it is needed.
The loss of a phosphate group leads to energy release. The hydrolysis of the two outer
phosphates release 30.5 kJmol
-1
of energy while the last phosphate releases 14.2kJmol
-1
of
energy.
ADP + Pi ATP (reversible reaction)
ATP is an energy currency molecule as it acts as the immediate donor to the cells energy-
requiring reactions.
The roles of an ATP molecule include binding to a trans-membrane protein so that active
transport can take place, and binding to a protein molecule, changing its shape and causing it
to fold differently to produce movement for such as muscle contraction.

Outline the process of anaerobic respiration in both mammal and yeast cells.
Since oxygen is absent, oxidative phosphorylation cannot take place as there is nothing to
accept the electrons and protons at the end of the electron transport chain. This means that
reduced NAD is not reoxidised, so mitochondrion quickly runs out of NAD or FAD, therefore
the Krebs cycle and the link reaction come to a halt.
Glycolysis however, can still continue whereby glucose is phosphorylated and converted into
two molecules of triose phosphate , which are then converted into pyruvate molecules by the
dehydrogenation of NAD.
In mammals, pyruvate is converted to lactate by reduced NAD via the lactate pathway. The
lactate that is produced (usually in muscles) diffuses into the blood and is carried by the blood
plasma to the liver, where they are converted back to pyruvate.
In yeast and in plants, the pyruvate is first converted to ethanal, which then is converted to
ethanol by reduced NAD and enzyme ethanol dehydrogenase.