410 61 Chapter-1-Mobile-communications-overview MobCom2e (Q and A) Ch-1

1 Raj Kamal: Mobile Computing (2/e)
Chapter 1: Mobile Communications: An Overview

Question Bank
OXFORD H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n
Oxford University Press, 2012. All rights reserved.

Q1. How would you represent a periodic signal?

The signal, s(t), at an instant t is given by the classical sinusoidal-equation:

s(t) =s
0
sin [(2t c/ t) +
t0
]
=s
0
sin [(2t f t) +
t0
] (1.1)

where s
0
is the peak amplitude (amplitude varies between s
0
and

s
0
), c is the velocity of the transmitted
wave,
t0
is the phase angle of the signal at t =0 (a reference point with respect to which t is considered),
and f is the signal frequency.

At the instant t
0
(t =0), the signal amplitude is s
0
sin(
t0
) and this value is repeated after every interval of
T =f
1
, i.e., f times in one second.

The phase angle term, (2t f t )+
t0
, varies between 0 and 2t radian during the interval t to t +T. The
angular frequency, e, is 2t f =2t / T.

Any periodic wave can also be defined by another classical equation called the Fourier equation:
s (t) =Ea
n
sin (2t n f t) +Eb
n
cos (2t n f t) +0.5 a
0
(1.2)

Here, a
n
and b
n
are the Fourier coefficients. The signal has basic frequency component f and harmonics of
frequencies 2f, 3f, 4f,

Page reference:
Signal: Page 2

Q2. What is the relationship between frequency and wavelength?

Refer Section 1.1.2.1.Frequency, f, in MHz and wavelength, , in meter of electromagnetic radiation are
related by the classical formula:

f MHz =c / =(300/) because velocity of electromagnetic waves =3 10
8
m/s =300 10
6
m/s (1.3a)
meter =c / f =(300/ f MHz) (1.3b)

Page reference:
Frequency and Wavelength: Pages 3 and 4

Q3. What are the frequencies of a GSM channel? What are the wavelengths in GSM 900 MHz band?

Frequencies in GSM 900 MHz band
Refer Figure 1.2 Section 1.1.2.1. GSM 900 MHz band is from 890 MHz to 960 MHz.

Wavelengths in GSM 900 MHz band
According to Eq. (1.3), is from (300 /890) m to (300/960) m =33.7 cm to 31.25 cm.

Question Bank
Page reference:
Figure 1.2 Section 1.1.2.1.: Page 4

Q4. What is the role of antenna?
Refer Sections 1.1.2.2. Electrical signals are transmitted by converting them into electromagnetic radiations.
These radiations are transmitted via antennae that radiate electromagnetic signals. Antennae are devices that
transmit and receive electromagnetic signals. Most antennae function efficiently for relatively narrow
frequency ranges. If an antenna isnt properly tuned to the frequency band in which the transmitting system
connected to it operates, the transmitted or received signals may be impaired. The forms of antennae are
chiefly determined by the frequency ranges they operate in and desired radiation pattern in space. The form
can vary from a single piece of wire to a parabolic dish. Mobile phone has printed metallic strip on Printed
Circuit Board that functions as the antenna.

Page reference:
Section 1.1.2.2: Pages 5 to 7

Q5. What does a radiation pattern give?

Refer Figures 1.3 and 1.4 and Section 1.1.2.2. The radiation pattern of a given antenna defines a path on
which each point will have identical signal strength at any given instant t. The radiation pattern is an
important feature of an antenna. A circular pattern means that radiated energy, and thus signal strength, is
equally distributed in all directions in the plane. A pattern in which the signal strength is directed along a
specific direction is shown in Fig. 1.4. A directed radiation pattern is required between a mobile user and the
base station.

Page reference:
Radiation patterns Figures 1.3 and 1.4: Page 5 to 7

Q6. How do MIMO antennae function?
Consider an example of use of two different colour sources from two neighbouring points.
Assume that two sources are physically separated by a distance. Assume a red light beam
from a source and a red or green light beam from another source reaching same point. The
beams are using different paths. Since phase of a signal depends on time and hence on
distance travelled, the colour which is visible after superimposition of the signals of two
sources will be different from the colour when only one source is used. This is because the
radiations from both sources follow a slightly different path. The colour intensity difference
between the sources will determine the end resultant intensity at receiver.

MI MO communication technology entails use of more than one physically spaced antenna.
The multiple antennae outputs are used for transmission, analogous to the use of two different
colour sources from two neighbouring points. The paths to the end-points for each output
(beam) will differ for each antenna output.

The two or more antennae which are appropriately spaced are used to communicate signals of
two or more sources along these different paths, and their frequencies and phase angles are
also appropriately selected then at the receiver end. The end multi-inputs are processed and
original voice or data recovered. 4G technology entails use of MI MOs.

Page reference:
Section 1.1.2.3: Page 8
Question Bank

Q7. Why is GSM 900 MHz suitable for mobile phones?

Refer Sections 1.1.2.1 and 1.1.2.2 and Example 1.3. The 900 MHz band is usually allotted for applications
other than the Defence. Attenuation in atmosphere is negligible at these wavelengths. is from 300 m/890
to 300m /960 =33.7 cm to 31.25 cm and hence antennae for these wavelengths are easier to fabricate and fit
into the pocket size devices. The transmitted signals reflect from the objects which are bigger than and
reach the receiver. The reflection causes delay and there are multi-hop paths. There are digital signal
processing techniques to eliminate the distortions due to delays from direct and multiple paths so that the
original signal is recovered in sufficient strength at the receiver.

Page reference:
Example 1.3: Page 7;
Propagation of signals: Pages 9 to 11.

Q8. Define modulation and digital modulation. Name the different methods of modulation used for
voice and digital signal communication.

Modulation is a technique by which f
c,
or a set of carrier frequencies is used for wireless transmission such
that peak amplitude, s
c0
, or frequency, f
c
, or phase angle
ct0
varies with t in proportion to the peak amplitude
of the modulating signal, s
m
(t) at instant t. The s
m
(t) is the voice or data signal to be communicated. The
modulation is referred to as amplitude, frequency, or phase modulation depending upon which parameter of
the carrier is varied.
Digital Modulation
Digital modulation is a technique by which amplitude, frequency, or phase angle parametersof carrier or
sub-carrier frequencies are varied according to the variation in modulating signal bit 1 or 0, or in the
modulating bit-pair, or in a set of bits.
Different methods of voice modulation
1. Amplitude modulation (AM)
2. Frequency modulation (FM)
3. Phase modulation (PM)
Different methods of digital signal modulation
1. Amplitude shifted keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shifted keying (FSK)
3. Phase shifted keying (PSK) BPSK and QPSK
4. QAM 16-QAM and 64-QAM.
5. Gaussian Minimum shift keying (GMSK)

(a) The modulation is called amplitude shift keying (ASK) modulation when the amplitude shifts as per 1 or
0.
(b) The modulation is called frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation when the frequency shifts as per 1 or
0.
(c) The modulation is called phase shift keying (PSK) modulation when the phase shifts as per 1 or 0 or as
per pair 00, 01, 10 or 11 or as per set of bits.
(d) The modulation is called quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulation when the frequency shifts as
per pair 00, 01, 10 or 11 or as per set of bits.
Page reference:
Modulation: Page 11; Name of different methods: Page 13 to 16;
Question Bank

Q9. Define bandwidth. What is the bandwidth of a GSM channel? What is the bandwidth of a CDMA
channel?
Analog signal bandwidth or radio bandwidth or frequency bandwidth in Hz or kHz or MHz is equal to the
range of frequencies in which Fourier transform of the signal is not zero. Analog signal bandwidth is also
considered as the difference between lower and upper cut-off frequencies in the signal. A cut-off frequency
is defined as frequency where amplitude becomes of the maximum or 3 dB less than the maximum.
Digital signal bandwidth is considered as equal to data rate or bit per second or throughput per second.

GSM Channel Bandwidth:
Refer Table 1.2 rows 1 and 2. Each radio-carrier has analog signals of bandwidth 200 kHz.

CDMA Channel Bandwidth:
Refer Table 1.3. CDMA 2000 1x has 1.2288 Mbps and CDMA 3x uses three channels 3 1.2288 Mbps.
Page reference:
Bandwidth: Pages 13 to 15; GSM Channel: Page 20. CDMA Channel: Page21

Q10. Define multiplexing. Explain space division multiplexing (SDM), time division multiplexing
(TDM) and frequency di vision multiplexing (FDM).

Multiplexing means that different channels, users, or sources can share a common space, time, frequency, or
code for transmitting data.
Space di vision multiplexing (SDM)
Space division multiplexing means a division of the available space so that multiple sources can use the
medium at the same time. SDM is a technique in which a wireless transmitter transmits the modulated
signals and uses a space slot and another transmitter uses another space slot such that signals from both can
propagate in two separate spaces in the medium without affecting each other. For example, if there are four
sets of A, B, C, and D of mobile users and four different regional space slots, R1, R2, R3, and R4, then set A
uses R1, B uses R2, C uses R3, and D uses R4 for transmitting and receiving signals to and from a base
station.
Page reference:
SDM: Page 19

Q11. Define time division multiplexing and frequency division multiplexing.
Time di vi sion multiplexing (TDM)
Time division multiplexing entails different sources using different time-slices for transmission of signals.
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) means that multiple users, data services, or sources are allotted different
time-slices to use a channel. The available time-slice is divided among multiple modulated-signal sources.
These sources use the same medium, the same set of frequencies, and the same channel for transmission of
data. For example, if there are eight radio-carriers (e.g., mobile phones) C
1
, C
2
, C
3
, C
4
, C
5
, C
6
, C
7,
and C
8
transmitting signals in a GSM channel, then the GSM channel provides for eight TDMA time-slices, one for
each radio carrier.
Question Bank

Frequency divi sion multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency multiplexing means that there is a separation of frequency bands used for transmission by
different channels. The available frequency range is divided into bands, which are used by multiple sources
or channels at the same time. Various channels are allotted distinct frequency bands for transmission.
Page references:
Multiplexing TDM and FDM : Pages 19 and 20

Q12. Explain code division multiplexing (CDM).

CDM (Code Division Multiplexing) means use of different codes (sequences of symbols) by different users.
The multiple users are allotted to access the same channel (set of frequencies) but different code. [A symbol
is a bit (0 or 1), which is transmitted after encoding and processing bits of data such as text, voice, pictures,
or video.]

Each code is uniquely made up of n symbols and is used for transmitting the signals of frequencies f
c0
, f
c0
+
f
s
, f
c0
+2f
s
, , f
c0
+(n2) f
s
, f
c0
+(n1) f
s
by the same channel. These frequencies are also called chipping
frequencies in one method and called hopping frequencies in another method.

First method is the DSSS (direct sequence spread spectrum). Second method is the FHSS (frequency
hopping spread spectrum).

DSSS method is that the frequencies are used in direct sequence f
c0
, f
c0
+f
s
, f
c0
+2f
s
, , f
c0
+(n2) f
s
, f
c0
+
(n1) f
s
. But the amplitude of each frequency component is 1 or 0 that depends upon the code used by the
user. It means at first instance frequency f
c0
, second instance f
c0
+f
s
, third instance f
c0
+2f
s
, and so on with
signal amplitude sequences =1, 1, 0, , if the code is 110 The signal amplitude sequences are called the
chips.

FHSS has frequencies hopping in the sequence as per the code among the f
c0
, f
c0
+f
s
, f
c0
+2f
s
, , f
c0
+(n2)
f
s
, f
c0
+(n1) f
s
. It means at an instance there is p
th
frequency, then at next instance q
th
, then at next instance
r
th
and so on in the CDM signal. The p, q, r, depend on the code used for a channel.
Page reference:
CDM: Pages 20 to 23

Q13. Explain circuit switching.

Switching means establishing a communication channel so that data can transmit from the source to
destination till the switch disconnects. There are two switching methods
Circuit switching
Circuit switching is a method of data transmission in which a circuit (communication channel or path) once
established continues to be used till the transmission is complete. Let us assume, for example, that there are
four routers or base stations, A, B, C, and D. A radio carrier (mobile device) T1 wants to communicate with
a receiver R1. Circuiting provides a path from the beginning to the termination of the transmission. A circuit
is established and a path T1 B D R1 is provided in a circuit switched transmission.

Question Bank

Each data frame transmitted along the path will take the same interval of time and the channel B D is not
available to any other circuit till the present circuit (interconnection) is terminated irrespective of whether T1
is idle during certain time intervals.

Circuit switching uses a protocol. The protocol specifications provides for the ways for establishment of the
connection, for adding header and appending trailing bits in the data frames, and for termination of the
connection (circuit).

Page reference:
Circuit Switching: Page 24

Q14. Explain packet switching. Can the packets be sent using circuit switching?

A packet is a formatted series of data, which follows a distinct path (circuit) directed by a router from among
a number of paths available at that instant. Packet switching improves the efficiency of the available
transmission capacity.

Let us go back to the example cited for circuit switching. If the transmission is packet switched, then
sequences of data from T1 are framed into packets. Let us say that the path T1 B D R1 is available
and at the same time the path T1 A B C D R1 is also available. In such a scenario T1
simultaneously transmits one packet through T1 A B C D R1 and another through T1 B
D R1. The packets following the first and the second paths take different amounts of time and hence have
different delays. Also, a packet may not reach their destination in a sequential manner. However, a unique
number called the sequence number is also transmitted along with each packet. Using these sequence
numbers the receiver sequentially arranges the messages and constructs full sequences of messages
transmitted through multiple packets.

Packet switching uses a protocol. The protocol specifications provides for the ways for adding header to
each packet. For example, an IP (internet protocol) packet has an IP header, which specifies the source and
destination IP addresses.
Packet Transmission using circuit switching
Circuit switching protocol can be used to send the packets formatted according to a circuit switching
protocol between the transmitter A and receiver R. There will be two headers, one is used for transmission
along a circuit (path) A to R and then the router at the R obtains the packet and uses it. The other header is
used in the packet for further redirection. The packet is used for further transmission or obtaining the data
frames. An advantage of this approach is that between A and R the packets can be transmitted fast as well
as in sequence with uniform delays.

Page reference:
Packet switching: Pages 24 and 25

Q15. What is the GSM voice oriented data communication standard?

The GSM (Groupe Spciale Mobile) was founded in Europe in 1982. It is a voice oriented data
communication standard. The group led to a communication standard being founded in 1988, which is also
called GSM (Global System for Mobile).

Question Bank
GSM uses GMSK [Section 1.1.2.5 Page 16] for transmitting 1s and 0s. GSM uses FDMA (page 20) for
channels and TDMA (page 19) for user access in each deployed channel. Up to 8 radio-carrier analog-
signals are transmitted using one common digital channel of bandwidth 200 kHz. [Example 1.13].

GSM 900 operates at 890-915 MHz for uplink and 935-960 MHz for downlink. Uplink and downlink
frequency bands of 25 MHz each provide FDMA access for each channel. Each link thus provides 124
channels, each of 200 kHz. Each channel during provides eight TDMA access for each user (radio-
carrier) every 4.615 ms. Users have time-slices of 577 s each. The data rates of a GSM mobile-
communication network are at maximum 14.4 kbps (kilobyte per second).

Page references:
GSM: Pages 25 and 26

Q16. Describe GPRS.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a packet-oriented service [Section 1.1.2.8] for data communication
of mobile devices and utilises the unused channels in the TDMA mode in a GSM network. GPRS is used for
providing Internet connectivity on the GSM system.

The system is connected to the SGSN (serving GPRS support node) and GGSN (gateway GPRS support
node) systems. The gateway connects to Internet.

A gateway means a system to receive the signals using one protocol and transmit using another protocol.

The details about the GPRS are given in Section 3.9.

Page reference:
GPRS: Page 27

Q17. What is the CDMA 2000 mobile communication standard?

The CDMA 2000 1x transmits data at f
s
=1.2288 Mbps. It is also backward compatible to 2.5G cdmaOne
IS-95.

3GPP2 is used for voice communication, for circuit as well as packet switched communication [Section
1.1.2.8], Internet Protocol (IP) packet transmission, and multimedia and real time multimedia applications.
CDMA2000 1x supports higher data rates, synchronous operations and 5, 10, 20, 40, or 80 ms frame length.
Each frame length is modulated by QPSK and BPSK for uplink and down link, respectively.

CDMA 2000 1x EVDO (Evolution for Data Optimized) and CDMA 2000 1x EVDV (Evolution for high
speed integrated data and voice) are enhancements, accepted as standards in 2004.

CDMA 2000 3x uses three 1.2288 Mbps channels.

Page references:
CDMA 2000: Pages 27 to 29

Question Bank

Q18. Describe UMTS standard.

UMTS (universal mobile telecommunication system) supports both 3GPP (3G partnership project) and
3GPP2. It communicates at data rates of 100 kbps to 2 Mbps. It combines CDMA for bandwidth efficiency
and GSM for compatibility. It supports several technologies for transmission and gives a framework for
security and management functions. It uses DS (direct sequence) CDMA and supports 3.84 Mbps chipping
rate.

For example, the BlackBerry 7130e device has CDMA 2000 1x EVDO (Evolution Data Optimized) support
and can also be used as a wireless tethered modem. [Tethered modem means when a laptop or PC is
connected to the device, the device works as wireless modem for it.]

Page reference:
UMTS: Page 228

Q19. Describe 4G standard.

Refer Section 1.1.6. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Advanced and WiMax 802.16m standards will provide the
features of 4G (1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) data rates).

Long Term Evolution (LTE) Advanced and WiMax 802.16m standards provide the features of 4G (1000
Mbps (1 Gbps) data rates).MIMOs are used in LTE and WMax 802.16m.

Page reference:
4G: Page 23

Q20. Describe Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN). What are the protocols used in the WPANs?

A wireless personal area network (WPAN) enables wireless communication between devices that are at
short distances from each other. Figure 1.10 shows a wireless based personal area network. It facilitates
communication of mobile devices with home computers and with other devices at short distances.

A WPAN standard is Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1. It operates at a frequency of 2.4 GHz radio spectrum, which
is identical to that of the IEEE 802.11b WLAN standard. Bluetooth provides short distance (1 m to 100 m
range as per the radio spectrum) mobile communication. The data rates between the wireless electronic
devices are up to 1 Mbps. Examples of such communications are transmissions between the mobile phone
handset and headset for hands-free talking, between the computer and printer, or computer and mobile phone
handset. Bluetooth facilitates object exchanges using OBEX protocol. An object can be a file, address book,
or presentation. Bluetooth thus enables user mobility in a short space with other Bluetooth enabled devices
or computers in the vicinity. It uses frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS).

A WPAN standard that is IEEE 802.15.4 based is called ZigBee. It has lower stack size (28 KB) in the
protocol and thus a lower network-joining latency when compared to Bluetooth (250 KB). Low transmitting
power systems use ZigBee. It is an interoperable standard based on RF wireless communication, designed
for robotic control, industrial, home, and monitoring applications. ZigBee is expected to provide large-scale
automation and the remote controls up to a range of 70 m with data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps, and 20 kbps
at the spectra of 2.4 GHz, 902 MHz to 928 MHz, and 868 MHz to 870 MHz, respectively. It uses (direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

Question Bank
Infrared-based communication devices are also used for short distance communication when there are no
obstacles, such as walls, between the devices. The devices use the IrDA (Infrared Data Association) 1.0
protocol for data rates up to 115 kbps. IrDA 1.1 supports data rates of 1.152 Mbps to 4 Mbps. Section 12.8
describes IrDA.

Page reference:
WPAN, Bluetooth, ZigBee and IrDA: Pages 32 and 33

Q21. Show a WLAN network.

Page references:

WLAN network: Pages 33 and 34.

Fig. 1.15 Communication between mobile devices using a WLAN network through access points (hot-spots)

INTERNET

802.11 or
Bluetooth
Host Computers or PCs

Router
Access
Router LAN

Host Computers or PCs
802.11 or
Bluetooth
Access

LAN

Question Bank

Q22. What is meant by WiMax?

WiMax uses IEEE 802.16. It is a new generation innovative technology that delivers high-speed,
broadband, fixed, and mobile services wirelessly to large areas with much less infrastructure.

Page reference:

WiMax Page 31.

Q23. How does broadband access is made using wireless?

BWA (Broadband Wireless Access) is used for wireless access using broadband. Broadband means
instantaneous bandwidth greater than or near to 1 MHz. Wireless broadband (WiBB) using BWA supports
the data rates greater than or near to 1.5 Mbps. BWA service is up to 50 km from a BWA tower.

Page references:
BWA: Pages 214 and 215

Q24. What are the programming languages used in mobile computing?

A variety of programming languages is used in the mobile-computing architecture. One popular language
used for mobile computing is J ava. This is because of the most important characteristic of Java, i.e.,
platform independence. This means that the program codes written in J ava are independent of the CPU and
OS used in a system. This is due to a standard compilation into byte codes.

J ava 2 has a standard edition called J 2SE. It has two limited memory sized editions J 2ME (J ava2 Micro
edition) and J avaCard (J ava for smart card). These two are the most used languages for mobile computing
and for developing applications for a mobile device platform. The J ava enterprise edition (J 2EE) is used for
web and enterprise server based applications of mobile services. Chapters 13 and 14 will describe the
language features and development tools in detail.

C, C++and C#are other widely used programming languages. Program compilation depends on the CPU
and OS used. One can use the in-line-assembly codes directly in a C/C++program. The advantage of C/C++
is that it gives compact machine-specific codes.

C#, Visual C++and Visual Basic are also used for developing applications on a Pocket PC with a Windows
dot net platform.

Q25. What are the Operati ng Systems used in mobile computing?

An operating system (OS) enables the user to run an application without considering the hardware
specifications and functionalities. OS also provides OS functions, which are used for scheduling the multiple
tasks in a system. The OS provides management functions (such as creation, activation, deletion, suspension,
and delay) for tasks and memory. It provides the functions required for the synchronization of multiple tasks
in the system. A task may have multiple threads.

OS provides for synchronization and priority allocation of threads. It also provides interfaces for
communication between software components at the application layer, middleware layers, and hardware
devices. It facilitates execution of software components on diversified hardware.
Question Bank

An OS provides configurable libraries for the GUI (graphic user interface) in the device. User applications
GUIs, VUI (voice user interface) components, and phone API are a must in many user-operated devices. The
OS supplies these. The OS also provides the device drivers for the keyboard, display, USB, and other
devices.

Sections 14.214.5 describe some popular operating systems used in mobile computing (Windows Mobile,
Windows Phone 7, Android and Symbian)

Linux is also used in mobile devices for mobile computing. Android is a new OS from Google for mobile
computing. Android runs on the Linux kernel. It allows developers to write managed tools in J ava. A
mobile device runs the J ava libraries developed by Google. It supports the ARM and MIPS processors.
Android supports connectivity technologies including GSM, Edge, CDMA, EvDo, UMTS, Bluetooth and
WiFi.

Page references:
Programming Languages: Pages 39 and 40
OSes: Pages 40 and 41

Q26. What are the cryptographic algorithms for the security in mobile computing systems?

Various cryptography algorithms are used for encryption and decryption of transmitted data. These
algorithms enable the receiver and the sender to authenticate data as well as discover if the data security has
been compromised during transmission.

Cryptography algorithms generally use a secret key, to encrypt data into secret codes for transmission. For
example, the RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) algorithm is a cryptography algorithm uses private key
generation. Cryptography algorithms can be classified into two categories, symmetric and asymmetric.
Cryptographic algorithms are used to create a hash of the message or a MAC (message authentication code).

A hash function is used to create a small digital fingerprint of the data to be transmitted. This fingerprint is
called the hash value, hash sum, or, simply, hash. The hash of the message is a set of bits obtained after
applying the hash algorithm (or function). This set of bits is altered in case the data is modified during
transmission. Message authentication codes (MAC) are also used to authenticate messages during
transmission. The MAC of a message is created using a cryptographic MAC function, which is similar to the
hash function but has different security requirements. The receiver reviews the hash or the MAC of the
received message and returns it to the sender. This exchange enables the sender and the receiver to find out
if the message has been tampered with and thus helps verify message integrity and authenticity. Following
are the various standards for the security.

Question Bank

(a) Symmetric key based algorithm
Standard Description
DES Data Encryption Standard (DES) uses 56-bits for a key plus 8 bits for parity.
Block length is 64 bit. [Maximum block size =2
64
bits.] Triple DES is an
enhance version of DES, in which there can be multiple encryptions or
encryption-decryption-encryption steps in the cryptic message. There is a
different key at each step for cryptic message creation.
AES Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) has 9 possible combinations of key
lengths and block lengths. The key-length can be chosen as 128, 192, or 256
bits. The block lengths can also be chosen as 128, 192, or 256 bits. [Block
length of 128 bits means maximum block length =2
128
bits.]
(b) Asymmetric key based standards
RSA The RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Alderman) algorithm uses 128, 256, 512, or 1024
bit prime numbers for encryption.

Page reference:
Cryptographic algorithms: Pages 49 to 50

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1 Raj Kamal: Mobile Computing (2/e)

Chapter 1: Mobile Communications: An Overview

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