Digital Electronics

UNIT II
Boolean arithmetic
Let us begin our exploration of Boolean algebra by adding numbers together:
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 1
The first three sums mae perfect sense to anyone familiar !ith elementary addition" The
last sum# though# is $uite possibly responsible for more confusion than any other single statement
in digital electronics# because it seems to run contrary to the basic principles of mathematics"
%ell# it does contradict principles of addition for real numbers# but not for Boolean numbers"
&emember that in the !orld of Boolean algebra# there are only t!o possible 'alues for any
$uantity and for any arithmetic operation: 1 or 0" There is no such thing as()( !ithin the scope of
Boolean 'alues" *ince the sum(1 + 1( certainly isn+t 0# it must be 1 by process of elimination"
,t does not matter ho! many or fe! terms !e add together# either" -onsider the follo!ing
sums:
0 + 1 + 1 = 1
0 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 1
Tae a close loo at the t!o.term sums in the first set of e$uations" Does that pattern loo
familiar to you/ ,t should0 ,t is the same pattern of 1+s and 0+s as seen in the truth table for an
1& gate" ,n other !ords# Boolean addition corresponds to the logical function of an(1&(
gate# as !ell as to parallel s!itch contacts:
There is no such thing as subtraction in the realm of Boolean mathematics" *ubtraction
implies the existence of negati'e numbers: 2 . 3 is the same thing as 2 + 4.35# and in Boolean
algebra negati'e $uantities are forbidden" There is no such thing as di'ision in Boolean
mathematics# either# since di'ision is really nothing more than compounded subtraction# in the
same !ay that multiplication is compounded addition"
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8ultiplication is 'alid in Boolean algebra# and thanfully it is the same as in real.number
algebra: anything multiplied by 0 is 0# and anything multiplied by 1 remains unchanged:
0 9 0 = 0
0 9 1 = 0
1 9 0 = 0
1 9 1 = 1
This set of e$uations should also loo familiar to you: t is the same pattern found in the
truth table for an :;D gate" ,n other !ords# Boolean multiplication corresponds to the logical
function of an(:;D( gate# as !ell as to series s!itch contacts:
Lie(normal( algebra# Boolean algebra uses alphabetical letters to denote 'ariables" 7nlie
(normal( algebra# though# Boolean 'ariables are al!ays -:<,T:L letters# ne'er lo!ercase"
Because they are allo!ed to possess only one of t!o possible 'alues# either 1 or 0# each and
e'ery 'ariable has a complement: the opposite of its 'alue" =or example# if 'ariable(:( has a
'alue of 0# and then the complement of : has a 'alue of 1" Boolean notation uses a bar abo'e the
'ariable character to denote complementation# lie this:
,f: :=0# Then: :=1
,f: :=1 Then: :=0
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,n !ritten form# the complement of(:( denoted as(:.not( or(:.bar(" *ometimes a(
prime( symbol is used to represent complementation" =or example# :+ !ould be the complement
of :# much the same as using a prime symbol to denote differentiation in calculus rather than the
fractional notation d>dt" 7sually# though# the(bar( symbol finds more !idespread use than the
?prime( symbol# for reasons that !ill become more apparent later in this chapter"
Boolean complementation finds e$ui'alency in the form of the ;1T gate# or a normally closed
s!itch or relay contact:
The basic definition of Boolean $uantities has led to the simple rules of addition and
multiplication# and has excluded both subtraction and di'ision as 'alid arithmetic operations" %e
ha'e a symbology for denoting Boolean 'ariables# and their complements"
@ REVIEW:
@ Boolean addition is e$ui'alent to the OR logic function# as !ell as parallel s!itch contacts"
@ Boolean multiplication is e$ui'alent to the AND logic function# as !ell as series s!itch
contacts"
@ Boolean complementation is e$ui'alent to the NOT logic function# as !ell as normally closed
relay contacts"
Basic Laws
,n mathematics# an identity is a statement true for all possible 'alues of its 'ariable or
'ariables" The algebraic identity of x + 0 = x tells us that anything 4x5 added to Aero e$uals the
original (anything#( no matter !hat 'alue that (anything( 4x5 may be" Lie ordinary algebra#
Boolean algebra has its o!n uni$ue identities based on the bi'alent states of Boolean 'ariables"
The first Boolean identity is that the sum of anything and Aero is the same as the
original(anything"( This identity is no different from its real.number algebraic e$ui'alent:
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;o matter !hat the 'alue of :# the output !ill al!ays be the same: !hen :=1# the output
!ill also be 1B !hen :=0# the output !ill also be 0"
The next identity is most definitely different from any seen in normal algebra" Cere !e
disco'er that the sum of anything and one is one:
;o matter !hat the 'alue of :# the sum of : and 1 !ill al!ays be 1" ,n a sense# the(1(
signal overrides the effect of : on the logic circuit# lea'ing the output fixed at a logic le'el of 1"
;ext# !e examine the effect of adding : and : together# !hich is the same as connecting both
inputs of an 1& gate to each other and acti'ating them !ith the same signal:
,n real.number algebra# the sum of t!o identical 'ariables is t!ice the original 'ariable+s
'alue 4x + x = )x5# but remember that there is no concept of()( in the !orld of Boolean math#
only 1 and 0# so !e cannot say that : + : = ):" Thus# !hen !e add a Boolean $uantity to itself#
the sum is e$ual to the original $uantity: 0 + 0 = 0# and 1 + 1 = 1"
,ntroducing the uni$uely Boolean concept of complementation into an additi'e identity#
!e find an interesting effect" *ince there must be one(1( 'alue bet!een any 'ariable and its
complement# and since the sum of any Boolean $uantity and 1 is 1# the sum of a 'ariable and
,ts complement must be 1:
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Eust as there are four Boolean additi'e identities 4:+0# :+1# :+:# and :+:+5# so there
are also four multiplicati'e identities: :x0# :x1# :x:# and :x:+" 1f these# the first t!o are no
different from their e$ui'alent expressions in regular algebra:
The third multiplicati'e identity expresses the result of a Boolean $uantity multiplied by
itself" ,n normal algebra# the product of a 'ariable and itself is the square of that 'ariable 43 x 3 =
3) = F5" Co!e'er# the concept of(s$uare( implies a $uantity of )# !hich has no meaning in
Boolean algebra# so !e cannot say that : x : = :)" ,nstead# !e find that the product of a
Boolean $uantity and itself is the original $uantity# since 0 x 0 = 0 and 1 x 1 = 1:
The fourth multiplicati'e identity has no e$ui'alent in regular algebra because it uses the
complement of a 'ariable# a concept uni$ue to Boolean mathematics" *ince there must be one
(0( 'alue bet!een any 'ariable and its complement# and since the product of any Boolean
$uantity and 0 is 0# the product of a 'ariable and its complement must be 0:
To summariAe# then# !e ha'e four basic Boolean identities for addition and four for
multiplication:
:dditi'e
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: + 0 = :
: + 1 = 1
: + : = :
: + : = 1
8ultiplicati'e
0: = 0
1: = :
:: = :
:: = 0
Basic Boolean algebraic identities
:nother identity ha'ing to do !ith complementation is that of the double complement: a
'ariable in'erted t!ice" -omplementing a 'ariable t!ice 4or any e'en number of times5 results in
the original Boolean 'alue" This is analogous to negating 4multiplying by .15 in real.number
algebra: an e'en number of negations cancel to lea'e the original 'alue:
Boolean algebraic properties
:nother type of mathematical identity# called a (property( or a (la!#( describes ho!
differing 'ariables relate to each other in a system of numbers" 1ne of these properties is no!n
as the commutative property# and it applies e$ually to addition and multiplication" ,n essence# the
commutati'e property tells us !e can re'erse the order of 'ariables that are either added together
or multiplied together !ithout changing the truth of the expression:
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:long !ith the commutati'e properties of addition and multiplication# !e ha'e the
associative property# again applying e$ually !ell to addition and multiplication" This property
tells us !e can associate groups of added or multiplied 'ariables together !ith parentheses
!ithout altering the truth of the e$uations"
Lastly# !e ha'e the distributive property# illustrating ho! to expand a Boolean expression
formed by the product of a sum# and in re'erse sho!s us ho! terms may be factored out of
Boolean sums.of.products:
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To summariAe# here are the three basic properties: commutati'e# associati'e# and distributi'e"
Basic Boolean algebraic properties
:4B + -5 = :B + :-
:dditi'e
: + 4B + -5 = 4: + B5 + -
: + B = B + :
8ultiplicati'e
:4B-5 = 4:B5-
:B = B:
DeMorgans Theorems
: mathematician named De8organ de'eloped a pair of important rules regarding group
complementation in Boolean algebra" By group complementation# ,+m referring to the
complement of a group of terms# represented by a long bar o'er more than one 'ariable" Iou
should recall from the chapter on logic gates that in'erting all inputs to a gate re'erses
that gate+s essential function from :;D to 1&# or 'ice 'ersa# and also in'erts the output" *o#
an 1& gate !ith all inputs in'erted 4a ;egati'e.1& gate5 beha'es the same as a ;:;D gate#
and an :;D gate !ith all inputs in'erted 4a ;egati'e.:;D gate5 beha'es the same as a ;1&
gate" De8organ+s theorems state the same e$ui'alence in (bac!ard( form: that in'erting the
output of any gate results in the same function as the opposite type of gate 4:;D 's" 1&5 !ith
in'erted inputs:
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: long bar extending o'er the term :B acts as a grouping symbol# and as such is entirely
different from the product of : and B independently in'erted" ,n other !ords# 4:B5+ is not e$ual
to :+B+" Because the (prime( symbol 4+5 cannot be stretched o'er t!o 'ariables lie a bar can#
!e are forced to use parentheses to mae it apply to the !hole term :B in the pre'ious sentence"
: bar# ho!e'er# acts as its o!n grouping symbol !hen stretched o'er more than one 'ariable"
This has profound impact on ho! Boolean expressions are e'aluated and reduced# as !e shall
see"
De8organ+s theorem may be thought of in terms of breaking a long bar symbol" %hen a long bar
is broen# the operation directly underneath the brea changes from addition to multiplication# or
'ice 'ersa# and the broen bar pieces remain o'er the indi'idual 'ariables"
To illustrate:
Boolean algebra finds its most practical use in the simplification of logic circuits" ,f !e
translate a logic circuitKs function into symbolic 4Boolean5 form# and apply certain algebraic rules
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to the resulting e$uation to reduce the number of terms and>or arithmetic operations# the
simplified e$uation may be translated bac into circuit form for a logic circuit performing the
same function !ith fe!er components" ,f e$ui'alent function may be achie'ed !ith fe!er
components# the result !ill be increased reliability and decreased cost of manufacture"
To this end# there are se'eral rules of Boolean algebra presented in this section for use in
reducing expressions to their simplest forms" The identities and properties already re'ie!ed in
this chapter are 'ery useful in Boolean simplification# and for the most part bear similarity to
many identities and properties of LnormalL algebra" Co!e'er# the rules sho!n in this section are
all uni$ue to Boolean mathematics"
This rule may be pro'en symbolically by factoring an L:L out of the t!o terms# then
applying the rules of : + 1 = 1 and 1: = : to achie'e the final result:
<lease note ho! the rule : + 1 = 1 !as used to reduce the 4B + 15 term to 1" %hen a rule
lie L: + 1 = 1L is expressed using the letter L:L# it doesnKt mean it only applies to expressions
containing L:L" %hat the L:L stands for in a rule lie : + 1 = 1 is any Boolean 'ariable or
collection of 'ariables" This is perhaps the most difficult concept for ne! students to master in
Boolean simplification: applying standardiAed identities# properties# and rules to expressions not
in standard form"
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=or instance# the Boolean expression :B- + 1 also reduces to 1 by means of the L: + 1 = 1L
identity" ,n this case# !e recogniAe that the L:L term in the identityKs standard form can represent
the entire L:B-L term in the original expression"
The next rule loos similar to the first one sho!n in this section# but is actually $uite
different and re$uires a more cle'er proof:
;ote ho! the last rule 4: + :B = :5 is used to Lun.simplifyL the first L:L term in the
expression# changing the L:L into an L: + :BL" %hile this may seem lie a bac!ard step# it
certainly helped to reduce the expression to something simpler0 *ometimes in mathematics !e
must tae Lbac!ardL steps to achie'e the most elegant solution" 6no!ing !hen to tae such a
step and !hen not to is part of the art.form of algebra# Must as a 'ictory in a game of chess almost
al!ays re$uires calculated sacrifices"
:nother rule in'ol'es the simplification of a product.of.sums expression:
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:nd# the corresponding proof:
To summariAe# here are the three ne! rules of Boolean simplification expounded in this section:
arna!gh map
The 6arnaugh map# lie Boolean algebra# is a simplification tool applicable to digital
logic" The 6arnaugh 8ap !ill simplify logic faster and more easily in most cases"
Boolean simplification is actually faster than the 6arnaugh map for a tas in'ol'ing t!o
or fe!er Boolean 'ariables" ,t is still $uite usable at three 'ariables# but a bit slo!er" :t four
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input 'ariables# Boolean algebra becomes tedious" 6arnaugh maps are both faster and easier"
6arnaugh maps !or !ell for up to six input 'ariables# are usable for up to eight 'ariables" =or
more than six to eight 'ariables# simplification should be by CAD 4computer automated design5"
Relationship between a arna!gh Map an" a Tr!th Table
Each ro! in the table 4or minterm5 is e$ui'alent to a a cell on the 6arnaugh 8ap"
Example N1:
Cere is a t!o.input truth table for a digital circuit:
&o! ,nputs 1utput
The corresponding 6.map is:
Example N):
Cere is a three.input truth table for a digital circuit:
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The corresponding 6.map is:
Example N3:
Cere is a four.input truth table for a digital circuit:
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The corresponding 6.map is:
#impli$%ing Boolean E&pressions !sing arna!gh map
To simplify the resulting Boolean expression using a 6arnaugh map adMacent cells
containing one are looped together" This step eliminated any terms of the form AA "
:dMacent cells means:
1" -ells that are side by side in the horiAontal and 'ertical directions 4but not diagonal5"
)" =or a map ro!: the leftmost cell and the rightmost cell"
3" =or a map column: the topmost cell and the bottom most cell"
D" =or a D 'ariable map: cells occupying the four corners of the map"
-ells may only be looped together in t!os# fours# or eights" :s fe! groups as possible
must
be formed" Oroups may o'erlap one another and may contain only one cell"
The larger the number of 1s looped together in a group the simpler is the product term
that the group represents"
Example N1:
*implifying the corresponding 6.map of a t!o.input truth table for a digital circuit:
,n Loop 1 the 'ariable : has both logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" B has a 'alue of
1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = B
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,n Loop ) Pariable B ha'e both logic 0 and 1 'alues in the same loop" : = 1# hence minterm
e$uation is: F = A
The o'erall Boolean expression for = is therefore: F = A + B
Example N):
*implifying the corresponding 6.map of a three.input truth table for a digital circuit# ,n
Loop 1 the 'ariable - has both logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" : has a 'alue of 0 and
B has a logic 'alue of 1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = AB
,n Loop ) the 'ariable - has both logic 0 and 1 'alues in the same loop" : = 1 and B = 0# hence
minterm e$uation is: F = AB "
,n Loop 3 the t!o 'ariables : and B both ha'e logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" - has
a 'alue of 1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = C
The o'erall Boolean expression for = is therefore: F = AB + AB + C
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Example N3:
*implifying the corresponding 6.map of a four.input truth table for a digital circuit# ,n
Loop 1 the t!o 'ariables : and D both ha'e logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" - has a
'alue of 0 and B has a 'alue of 1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = BC
,n Loop ) the t!o 'ariables B and - both ha'e logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same
loop" : has a 'alue of 1 and D has a 'alue of 0" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = AD
,n Loop 3 the 'ariable D has logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" : and B both
ha'e a 'alue of 0 and - has a 'alue of 1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = ABC
,n Loop D the t!o 'ariables B and - both ha'e logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same
loop" : has a 'alue of 0 and D has a 'alue of 1" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = AD
,n Loop 2 the 'ariable - has logic 0 and logic 1 'alues in the same loop" : and D both ha'e a
'alue of 1 and B has a 'alue of 0" Cence minterm e$uation is: F = ABD"
The o'erall Boolean expression for = is therefore: F = BC + AD + ABC + AD + ABD
'!ine(Mc)l!s*e% algorithm
The QuineR8c-lusey algorithm 4or the method of prime implicants5 is a method used
for minimiAation of Boolean functions !hich !as de'eloped by %"P" Quine and Ed!ard E"
8c-lusey" ,t is functionally identical to 6arnaugh mapping# but the tabular form maes it more
efficient for use in computer algorithms# and it also gi'es a deterministic !ay to chec that the
minimal form of a Boolean function has been reached" ,t is sometimes referred to as the
tabulation method"
The method in'ol'es t!o steps:
1" =inding all prime implicants of the function"
)" 7se those prime implicants in a prime implicant c!art to find the essential prime
implicants of the function# as !ell as other prime implicants that are necessary to co'er
the function"
)omple&it%
:lthough more practical than 6arnaugh mapping !hen dealing !ith more than four
'ariables# the QuineR8c-lusey algorithm also has a limited range of use since the problem it
sol'es is ;<.hard: the runtime of the QuineR8c-lusey algorithm gro!s exponentially !ith the
number of 'ariables" ,t can be sho!n that for a function of n 'ariables the upper bound on the
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number of prime implicants is 3
n
>n" ,f n = 3) there may be o'er G"2 S 10
12
prime implicants"
=unctions !ith a large number of 'ariables ha'e to be minimiAed !ith potentially non.optimal
heuristic methods# of !hich the Espresso heuristic logic minimiAer is the de.facto standard"
Example
*tep 1: finding prime implicants
8inimiAing an arbitrary function:
: B - D f
m0 0 0 0 0 0
m1 0 0 0 1 0
m) 0 0 1 0 0
m3 0 0 1 1 0
mD 0 1 0 0 1
m2 0 1 0 1 0
mG 0 1 1 0 0
mH 0 1 1 1 0
mJ 1 0 0 0 1
mF 1 0 0 1 x
m10 1 0 1 0 1
m11 1 0 1 1 1
m1) 1 1 0 0 1
m13 1 1 0 1 0
m1D 1 1 1 0 x
m12 1 1 1 1 1
1ne can easily form the canonical sum of products expression from this table# simply by
summing the minterms 4lea'ing out donKt.care terms5 !here the function e'aluates to one:
fA#B#C#D = AKBCKDK + ABKCKDK + ABKCDK + ABKCD + ABCKDK + ABCD"
1f course# thatKs certainly not minimal" *o to optimiAe# all minterms that e'aluate to one
are first placed in a minterm table" DonKt.care terms are also added into this table# so they can be
combined !ith minterms:
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;umber of 1s 8interm Binary &epresentation
............................................
1 mD 0100
mJ 1000
............................................
) mF 1001
m10 1010
m1) 1100
............................................
3 m11 1011
m1D 1110
............................................
D m12 1111
:t this point# one can start combining minterms !ith other minterms" ,f t!o terms 'ary
by only a single digit changing# that digit can be replaced !ith a dash indicating that the digit
doesnKt matter" Terms that canKt be combined any more are mared !ith a LSL" %hen going from
*iAe ) to *iAe D# treat K.K as a third bit 'alue" Ex: .110 and .100 or .11. can be combined# but not
.110 and 011." 4Tric: 8atch up the K.K first"5
;umber of 1s 8interm 0.-ube T *iAe ) ,mplicants T *iAe D ,mplicants
..............................T...................T......................
1 mD 0100 T m4D#1)5 .100S T m4J#F#10#115 10..S
mJ 1000 T m4J#F5 100. T m4J#10#1)#1D5 1..0S
..............................T m4J#105 10.0 T......................
) mF 1001 T m4J#1)5 1.00 T m410#11#1D#125 1.1.S
m10 1010 T...................T
m1) 1100 T m4F#115 10.1 T
..............................T m410#115 101. T
3 m11 1011 T m410#1D5 1.10 T
m1D 1110 T m41)#1D5 11.0 T
..............................T...................T
D m12 1111 T m411#125 1.11 T
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T m41D#125 111. T
;ote: ,n this example# none of the terms in the siAe D implicants table can be combined any
further" Be a!are that this processing should be continued other!ise 4siAe J etc5"
*tep ): prime implicant chart
;one of the terms can be combined any further than this# so at this point !e construct an
essential prime implicant table" :long the side goes the prime implicants that ha'e Must been
generated# and along the top go the minterms specified earlier" The donKt care terms are not
placed on top . they are omitted from this section because they are not necessary inputs"
D J 10 11 1) 12
m4D#1)5S U U .100
m4J#F#10#115 U U U 10..
m4J#10#1)#1D5 U U U 1..0
m410#11#1D#125S U U U 1.1.
Cere# each of the essential prime implicants has been starred . the second prime implicant
can be Kco'eredK by the third and fourth# and the third prime implicant can be Kco'eredK by the
second and first# and neither is thus essential" ,f a prime implicant is essential then# as !ould be
expected# it is necessary to include it in the minimiAed Boolean e$uation" ,n some cases# the
essential prime implicants do not co'er all minterms# in !hich case additional procedures for
chart reduction can be employed" The simplest Ladditional procedureL is trial and error# but a
more systematic !ay is <etricKs 8ethod" ,n the current example# the essential prime implicants
do not handle all of the minterms# so# in this case# one can combine the essential implicants !ith
one of the t!o non.essential ones to yield one of these t!o e$uations:
Both of those final e$uations are functionally e$ui'alent to this original 4'ery area.
expensi'e5 e$uation:
;ote: &efer to the boo by <"* 8anoharan titled LDigital <rinciples and *ystem DesignL
for more detailed and easier explanation"
Basic +ates
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Boolean functions may be practically implemented by using electronic gates" The
follo!ing points are important to understand"
Electronic gates re$uire a po!er supply"
Oate IN,UT# are dri'en by 'oltages ha'ing t!o nominal 'alues# e"g" 0P and 2P
representing logic 0 and logic 1 respecti'ely"
The -UT,UT of a gate pro'ides t!o nominal 'alues of 'oltage only# e"g" 0P and 2P
representing logic 0 and logic 1 respecti'ely" ,n general# there is only one output to a
logic gate except in some special cases"
There is al!ays a time delay bet!een an input being applied and the output responding"
Tr!th Tables
Truth tables are used to help sho! the function of a logic gate" ,f you are unsure about
truth tables and need guidance on ho! go about dra!ing them for indi'idual gates or logic
circuits then use the truth table section lin"
Logic gates
Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates" These gates are the :;D#
1&# ;1T# ;:;D# ;1&# EU1& and EU;1& gates" The basic operations are described belo!
!ith the aid of truth tables"
.ND gate
The :;D gate is an electronic circuit that gi'es a high output 415 only if all its inputs are
high" : dot 4"5 is used to sho! the :;D operation i"e" :"B" Bear in mind that this dot is
sometimes omitted i"e" :B
-R gate
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The 1& gate is an electronic circuit that gi'es a high output 415 if one or more of its
inputs are high" : plus 4+5 is used to sho! the 1& operation"
N-T gate
The ;1T gate is an electronic circuit that produces an in'erted 'ersion of the input at its
output" ,t is also no!n as an inverter" ,f the input 'ariable is :# the in'erted output is no!n as
;1T :" This is also sho!n as :K# or : !ith a bar o'er the top# as sho!n at the outputs

N.ND gate
This is a ;1T.:;D gate !hich is e$ual to an :;D gate follo!ed by a ;1T gate" The
outputs of all ;:;D gates are high if an% of the inputs are lo!" The symbol is an :;D gate !ith
a small circle on the output" The small circle represents in'ersion"

N-R gate
This is a ;1T.1& gate !hich is e$ual to an 1& gate follo!ed by a ;1T gate" The
outputs of all ;1& gates are lo! if an% of the inputs are high" The symbol is an 1& gate !ith a
small circle on the output" The small circle represents in'ersion"

E/-R gate
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Digital Electronics
The KE&cl!si0e1-RK gate is a circuit !hich !ill gi'e a high output if either2 b!t not both# of its
t!o inputs are high" :n encircled plus sign 4 5 is used to sho! the E1& operation"
E/N-R gate
The KE&cl!si0e1N-R3 gate circuit does the opposite to the E1& gate" ,t !ill gi'e a lo!
output if either2 b!t not both# of its t!o inputs are high" The symbol is an EU1& gate !ith a
small circle on the output" The small circle represents in'ersion"

The ;:;D and ;1& gates are called universal functions since !ith either one the :;D
and 1& functions and ;1T can be generated"
;ote:
: function in sum of products form can be implemented using ;:;D gates by replacing all
:;D and 1& gates by ;:;D gates" : function in product of sums form can be implemented
using ;1& gates by replacing all :;D and 1& gates by ;1& gates"
Table 4: Logic gate s%mbols
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Digital Electronics
Table ) is a summary truth table of the input>output combinations for the ;1T gate together !ith
all possible input>output combinations for the other gate functions" :lso note that a truth table
!ith KnK inputs has )
n
ro!s" Iou can compare the outputs of different gates"
Table 5: Logic gates representation !sing the Tr!th table

The "Universal" NAND Gate
The Logic N.ND +ate is generally classed as a L7ni'ersalL gate because it is one of the
most commonly used logic gate types" ;:;D gates can also be used to produce any other type
of logic gate function# and in practice the ;:;D gate forms the basis of most practical logic
circuits" By connecting them together in 'arious combinations the three basic gate types of :;D#
1& and ;1T function can be formed using only ;:;DKs# for example"
Vario!s Logic +ates !sing onl% N.ND +ates
:s !ell as the three common types abo'e# Ex.1r# Ex.;or and standard ;1& gates can be
formed using Must indi'idual ;:;D gates"
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Digital Electronics
The "Universal" NOR Gate
Lie the ;:;D gate seen in the last section# the ;1& gate can also be classed as a
L7ni'ersalL type gate" ;1& gates can be used to produce any other type of logic gate function
Must lie the ;:;D gate and by connecting them together in 'arious combinations the three basic
gate types of :;D# 1& and ;1T function can be formed using only ;1&Ks# for example"
Vario!s Logic +ates !sing onl% N-R +ates
:s !ell as the three common types abo'e# Ex.1r# Ex.;or and standard ;1& gates can also be
formed using Must indi'idual ;1& gates"
Department of Electronics 6arpagam 7ni'ersity
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