1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
ABSTRACT iii
LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................iv

1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL...............2
1.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS..................................5

2.CONSTRUCTION
2.1 ENGINE CONSTRUCTION....................................................................7
2.2 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS.............................................................7
2.3 VALVE DESIGN......................................................................................8
2.4 FUEL FEED.............................................................................................11
3.WORKING
3.1 PROBLEM WITH HIGH CAPACITY BIKES.......................................13
3.2 COMBUSTION BEFORE DTS-I TECHNOLOGY................................14
3.3 HOW DTS-I SOLVES THE PROBLEM................................................14
3.3.1 TRICS III..................................................................................16
3.3.2 C.D.I..........................................................................................17
3.3.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES................................................................18
3.3.4 IGNITION.................................................................................20
3.4 MATHEMATICAL MODEL.................................................................23

4. ADVANCEMENTS
2

4.1 TECHNICAL IMPROVISATIONS......................................................26
4.1.1 DTS-SI TECHNOLOGY...............................................................27
4.1.2 DTS-FI TECHNOLOGY...............................................................29
4.2 STATISTICS...........................................................................................32
4.3 ADVANTAGES &DISADVANTAGES................................................33

5. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES


3

CHAPTER:1

INTRODUCTION



1.1 GENERAL
A conventional 4 Stroke engine has a Single Spark Plug located at
one end of the combustion chamber and hence the combustion is
inefficient leading to sub optimal mileage and sub optimal performance
& can even have problems with oil flow. Hence forth there was a
requirement
to change engines' design, fuelling, ignition, production and quality to
achieve the following objectives. Uniform power delivery in all
operating conditions:-
A high degree of drivability
First rate standards of reliability
Long service life.
With a view to overcome the above limitations a new patent was
introduced that is known as DTS-I technology & its use is increasing
day by days. DIGITAL TWIN SPARK ignition engine has two Spark
plugs located at opposite ends of the combustion chamber and
hence fast and efficient combustion is obtained. The benefits of this
efficient combustion process can be felt in terms of better fuel efficiency
4

and lower emissions. The ignition system on the Twin spark is a digital
system with static spark advance and no moving parts subject to wear. It
is mapped by the integrated digital electronic control box which also
handles fuel injection and valve timing. It features two plugs per
cylinder


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL 4-STROKE AND DTS-i
ENGINE



This innovative solution, also entailing a special configuration of the
5

hemispherical combustion chambers and piston heads, ensures a fast,
wide flame front when the air-fuel mixture is ignited, and therefore less
ignition advance, enabling, moreover, relatively lean mixtures to be
used. This technology provides a combination of the light weight and
twice the power offered by two-stroke engines with a significant power
boost, i.e. a considerable "power-to-weight ratio" compared to quite a
few four-stroke engines. The actual picture of Bajaj Pulsar Bike is





Moreover, such a system can adjust idling speed & even cuts off fuel
feed when the accelerator pedal is released, and meters the enrichment of
6

the air-fuel mixture for cold starting and accelerating purposes; if
necessary, it also prevents the upper rev limit from being exceeded. At
low revs, the over boost is mostly used when overtaking, and this is why
it cuts out automatically. At higher speeds the over boost will enhance
full power delivery and will stay on as long as the driver exercises
maximum pressure on the accelerator.


1.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Digital electronic ignition with two plugs per cylinder and two
ignition distributors;
Twin overhead cams with camshaft timing variation;
Injection fuel feed with integrated electronic twin spark ignition;
A high specific power;
Compact design and Superior balance;
This power unit, equipping the naturally aspirated 2-litre used on the
Alfa 164, is a direct dilative of the engine fitted on the 2.0 Twin Spark
version of the Alfa 75, a recent addition to the Alfa car range. It includes
a number of exclusive engineering solutions resulting in superior power
output and exceptional peak torque for this cylinder capacity. Its main
characteristics are:

7

Digital electronic ignition with two plugs per cylinder and two
ignition distributors
Twin overhead cams with camshaft timing variation
Injection fuel feed with integrated electronic twin spark ignition
Cylinder capacity amounts to 1,962 cc thanks to an 84 mm bore and 88.5
mm stroke with the Compression ratio 10: 1.
Maximum power output at 5,800 rpm is a remarkable 148 BHP DIN,
while maximum torque, of 19 mkg DIN, is reached at 4,000 rpm. The
shape of the torque curve has been perfected to make available fully 16
mkg when revving speed reaches 2,000 rpm and 18 mkg as early as
3,000 rpm, thus making the engine's performance much more
responsive.










8





CHAPTER:2

CONSTRUCTION



2.1ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
The engine used on the Alfa 164 T. Spark is a four-in-line
cylinder unit whose weight has been considerably reduced with all
aluminium-alloy engine block, cylinder head, oil sump and tappet
covers. Eight counterweights ensure optimal balancing of the high
strength nitride steel crankshaft. The pressed-in cast iron cylinder liners
feature wet mounting for more effective heat dissipation.

2.2 CONSTRUTIONAL DETAILS

9

The construction of DTS-i engine is same as that of the conventional 4-
Stroke engine. It consists of following parts:
Piston
Cylinder
Crankshaft
Connecting rod
Fly wheel
Carburettor
2-sparkplug
2-ports
2-valves
Here the only change made is that the 2 sparkplug placed at the two
opposite end of the combustion chamber At 90 degree to each other.

2.3 VALVE DRIVE
The twin overhead cams, driven by a double chain, act directly on
theValves set in a tight Vee configuration (46o). The timing of the valve

10



TIGHT VEE CONFIGURATION OF VALVES





train is not fixed as in most present day engines, but can be adjusted by a
patented device conceived and produced by Alfa Romeo,the timing
variation. This is an electro-hydraulic actuator keyed onto the gear that
drives the camshaft acting on the intake valves. This actuator enables the
camshaft to be shifted into two different angular positions and to modify
the intake valve opening durations. Its operation is controlled by the
11

electronic control box of the integrated ignition and fuel injection
system.
Valve timing actuator logic is predetermined so that overlap - i.e. that
fraction of the engines operating cycle when both the exhaust and the
intake valves are open simultaneously is shorter at low revs and with
lighter loads and longer at higher engine speeds when extra power is
required

At high and medium-high engine speeds or whenever additional
power has to be provided (normal timing) cylinder filling is
optimal, maximizing power output and torque
At low and medium-low revs and lighter loads (delayed timing),
fluctuation-free operation is ensured combined with a reduction in
specific consumption
At all engine speeds, noxious emissions are minimized.


12


PICTURE SHOWING INTAKE AND EXHAUST VALVES




2.4 FUEL FEED
The Alfa 164 T. Spark power plant is equipped with the ML 4.1
Bosch Motronic multi-point injection system, controlled by the same
microprocessor which governs the twin spark ignition and variable valve
timing Systems.
13

The excellent volumetric efficiency of the Twin Spark engine is also
enhanced by the special straight section individual intake man folding
that cuts down losses and fully exploits intake resonance for better mid-
range torque.
Having all thermodynamic cycle components under the wings of a single
electronic control unit means that the power plant used on the Alfa 1 64
T. Spark can guarantee-in addition to outstanding torque and power
figures-regular, smooth running at all speeds regardless of load.
Moreover, this engine features particularly attractive specific fuel
economy compared with rival naturally aspirated units in the same
displacement class (with savings of up to 20- 25%).










14





CHAPTER:3

WORKING



3.1THE ACTUAL PROBLEM WITH HIGHER CAPACITY
BIKES:
The central problem in the higher capacity bikes is its higher
capacity(i.e. larger bore) it self. As the capacity is higher its intake of
fresh charge (air fuel mixture) will usually gets increases which in turn
increases the fuel consumption. And also the complete combustion of
the fresh charge that entered the combustion chamber is not assured,
because initially the capacity is higher, therefore the flame front of the
spark ignited by the spark plug has to travel the additional distance of
increased bore in order to fire the charge at the farthest corners of the
cylinder thereby slackening the combustion process. There must be some
15

modifications in the engine design to eliminate these problems in higher
capacity bikes. The application of Digital twin spark ignition technology
can eliminate this problem up to maximum extent

3.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS BEFORE USING DTS-I
TECHNOLOGY

The orthodox single cylinder, four-stroke, spark ignition engine is
generally equipped with a single spark plug. The fresh charge (air fuel
mixture) that entered the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed during the compression stroke resulting the increase of
pressure and temperature of the charge. The spark plug, usually situated
at one end of the combustion chamber, ignites the air-fuel mixture and
the ensuing flame spreads like a slowly inflating balloon. There is an
inevitable delay for this inflating balloon to reach the furthest part of the
combustion chamber. So there are pockets of poor combustion within
the chamber and, overall, the combustion is slow and inefficient.
When it comes to higher capacity engines the distance to be travelled by
the flame front is further increased resulting the still slower combustion.

3.3 HOW DTS-i ENGINE SOLVES THE PROBLEM?

16

The Digital Twin Spark Ignition technology takes care of this slower
combustion problem in a simple but a novel way. The cylinder head is
equipped with two spark plugs, instead of the usual one. By generating
two sparks at either ends of the combustion chamber, (approximately
90 to the valve axis) the air-fuel mixture gets ignited in a way that
creates two flame fronts and, therefore, a reduction in flame travel of the
order of 40 per cent is achieved. A fast rate of combustion is achieved
leading to faster rise in pressure. The obvious outcome of this is more
torque, better fuel efficiency and lower emissions. An electronic device
(microprocessor) controls the firing order of these twin spark plugs.
The fresh charge that entered the cylinder during the suction stroke is
compressed during the compression stroke. Then a spark will be ignited
by one of the twin spark plugs and the flame front begins to expand like
an inflating balloon. In the mean while another spark will be ignited by
another spark plug as per controls of the microprocessor. The flame front
also begins to expand like an inflating balloon. Therefore the areas that
are not covered by the first flame front will be covered by second flame
front resulting in the complete & rapid combustion of the fuel.
However, this technology even though proved as a successful one all
bike-manufacturing companies are not incorporating this technology in
their models. Their idea is this faster rate of combustion can be achieved
by employing a single spark plug with differential sparking cycles.
There are some advance technology used in DTS-i engine which makes
it more powerful than the conventional single sparkplug 4-stroke engine
like
17

1. Tricks III technology
2. CDI technology

3.3.1 TRICS III
Throttle Responsive Ignition Control System 3rd generation. It is a
means of controlling the Ignition by operating the Throttle. Depending
on the needs of the Rider whether it be cruising, acceleration or max
speed, the ignition requirements constantly change. Based on a particular
amount of Throttle opening, the Magnetic field generated by the Magnet
opens or closes the Reed switch. The Reed switch is connected to the
Digital CDI, which signals the CDI to change/switch, the desired
Ignition Advance Timing Maps. This helps in achieving a good balance
between driveability and Optimum Ignition Spark advance, resulting in
an almost perfect Ignition Spark advance for every Throttle opening and
Engine rpm.

18

3.3.2 C.D.I
Capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) or thyristor ignition is a type of
automotive electronic ignition system which is widely used in outboard
motors, motorcycles, lawn mowers, chainsaws, small engines, turbine-
powered aircraft, and some cars. It was originally developed to
overcome the long charging times associated with high inductance coils
used in inductive discharge ignition (IDI) systems, making the ignition
system more suitable for high engine speeds (for small engines, racing
engines and rotary engines). The capacitive-discharge ignition uses
capacitor discharge current output to fire the spark plugs.

Capacitor discharge ignition
19

3.3.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Most ignition systems used in cars are inductive discharge ignition (IDI)
systems, which are solely relying on the electric inductance at the coil to
produce high-voltage electricity to the spark plugs as the magnetic field
collapses when the current to the primary coil winding is disconnected
(disruptive discharge). In a CDI system, a charging circuit charges a
high voltage capacitor, and at the instant of ignition the system stops
charging the capacitor, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output to
the ignition coil before reaching the spark plug.
A typical CDI module consists of a small transformer, a charging circuit,
a triggering circuit and a main capacitor. First, the system voltage is
raised up to 250 to 600 volts by a power supply inside the CDI module.
Then, the electric current flows to the charging circuit and charges the
capacitor. The rectifier inside the charging circuit prevents capacitor
discharge before the moment of ignition. When the triggering circuit
receives triggering signals, the triggering circuit stops the operation of
the charging circuit, allowing the capacitor to discharge its output
rapidly to the low inductance ignition coil. In a CD ignition, the ignition
coil acts as a pulse transformer rather than an energy storage medium as
it does in an inductive system. The voltage output to the spark plugs is
purely dependent on the design of the CD ignition. Voltages exceeding
the insulation capabilities of existing ignition components can lead to
early failure of those components. Most CD ignitions are made to give
very high output voltages, but this is not always beneficial. When there's
no triggering signal, the charging circuit is re-connected to charge the
capacitor.
20

The amount of energy the CDI system can store for the generation of a
spark is dependent on the voltage and capacitance of the capacitors used,
but usually it's around 50 mJ, or more. The standard
points/coil/distributor ignition, more properly called the inductive
discharge ignition system or Kettering ignition system, produces 25mJ at
low speed and drops off quickly as speed increases.
Most CDI modules are generally of two types:
AC-CDI - The AC-CDI module obtains its electricity source solely from
the alternating current produced by the alternator. The AC-CDI system
is the most basic CDI system which is widely used in small engines.
Note that not all small engine ignition systems are CDI. Some older
engines, and engines like older Briggs and Stratton use magneto ignition.
The entire ignition system, coil and points, are under the magnetized
flywheel.
Another sort of ignition system commonly used on small off-road
motorcycles in the 1960s and 1970s was called Energy Transfer. A coil
under the flywheel generated a strong DC current pulse as the flywheel
magnet moved over it. This DC current flowed through a wire to an
ignition coil mounted outside of the engine. The points sometimes were
under the flywheel for two-stroke engines, and commonly on the
camshaft for four-stroke engines. This system worked like all Kettering
(points/coil) ignition systems... the opening points trigger the collapse of
the magnetic field in the ignition coil, producing a high voltage pulse
which flows through the spark plug wire to the spark plug.
21

If the engine was rotated while examining the wave-form output of the
coil with an oscilloscope, it would appear to be AC. Since the charge-
time of the coil corresponds to much less than a full revolution of the
crank, the coil really 'sees' only DC current for charging the external
ignition coil.
Some electronic ignition systems exist that are not CDI. These systems
use a transistor to switch the charging current to the coil off and on at the
appropriate times. This eliminated the problem of burned and worn
points, and provided a hotter spark because of the faster voltage rise and
collapse time in the ignition coil.
DC-CDI - The DC-CDI module is powered by the battery, and therefore
an additional DC/AC inverter circuit is included in the CDI module to
raise the 12 V DC to 400-600 V DC, making the CDI module slightly
larger. However, vehicles that use DC-CDI systems have more precise
ignition timing and the engine can be started more easily when cold.

3.3.4 IGNITION WITH C.D.I

A Digital CDI with an 8 bit microprocessor chip handles the spark
delivery. The programmed chips memory contains an optimum Ignition
timing for any given engine rpm, thereby obtaining the best performance
characteristics from the combustion chamber. Working together with the
TRICSIII system, it delivers Optimum Ignition Timing for varying load
conditions. The ignition system on the Twin spark is a digital system
with static spark advance and no moving parts subject to wear. It is
22

mapped by the integrated digital electronic control box which also
handles fuel injection and valve timing. It features two plugs per
cylinder.

This innovative solution, also entailing a special configuration of the
hemispherical combustion chambers and piston heads, ensures a fast,
wide flame front when the air-fuel mixture is ignited, and therefore less
ignition advance, enabling, moreover, relatively lean mixtures to be
used. As a result, the adoption of twin spark ignition yields:

A remarkable improvement in thermodynamic efficiency and
hence a considerable increase in the amount of power
available;
more effective combustion at low load and at idling speed;
A sizeable reduction in specific fuel consumption;
A reduced exhaust emission;
Less chance of ignition system failure...
(Failure of either circuit will not stop the engine, which can still work
with single spark ignition).



23

STARTING OF PULSAR DTS-i ENGINE






24







3.4 MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Governing equations of the cycle model:
The energy equation in crank angle basis is written as:
==/+/=//
To determine instantaneous cylinder volume, pressure, and
burned and unburned gas temperatures, the following
governing equations have been used
()={+/[+[(-r
2
crsin
2
).]]
}
Equations to determine the burnt mass fraction
25









26





CHAPTER:4

ADVANCEMENTS IN DTS-i TECHNOLOGY


4.1 TWO NEW TECHNICAL IMPROVISATIONS
DTS-i.e. Engine can be further tuned to deliver exhilarating
performance or exceptional mileage. The further advances of DTS-I
technology are:
Digital Twin Spark Swirl Induction (DTS - Si)
Digital Twin Spark Fuel Injection (DTS - Fi)

4.1.1 DIGITAL TWIN SPARK SWIRL INDUCTION
Need for Swirl Induction:
The DTS-I technology is the parent technology for this latest DTS-Si
technology. Even though a faster rate of combustion is achieved by
27

incorporating the DTS-I technology, there is a chance for further of
improvement of rapid combustion process at lighter loads. When there is
a sufficient or heavy load on the engine, the 4 stroke cycle completes
at a faster rate resulting in the faster combustion because of the twin
sparks produced by the twin plugs. But when there exists a lighter load
on the engine, the 4 stroke cycle will not complete at a faster rate.
Therefore even the incorporation of twin spark plugs cannot aid the
faster combustion i.e. still a better rate of combustion can be achieved
at lighter loads.
Combustion efficiency in lean Air-Fuel mixture conditions can be
further improved by generating high turbulence in the combustion
chamber. Combustion chambers having low turbulence give rise to
propagation of a flame front, which is akin to that of a gradually
expanding balloon. This results in a slower rate of combustion and thus
slower rate of pressure rise.
End result is lower efficiency. When high turbulence is generated and
combustion takes place, the surface of the ballooning flame front
fragments itself, with projection like fingers, which increases its surface
area, thereby improving combustion further.

Here comes the Swirl Induction concept, which is meant for producing
higher turbulence in the combustion chamber. Swirl Induction is nothing
but imparting a swirling motion to the fresh charge that enters the
combustion chamber. This can be done by making slight modifications
in the ports positioning of engine.
28


The picture on this page shows how swirl induction works:-



Actual DTS-i ENGINE


The DTS-Si engine will have two spark plugs but it differs from the
parent DTS-I engine in the design of position of the ports. The straight
29

ports used in conventional engines have limitations in generating high
swirl values due to their geometry. One of the ways to generate more
swirl is to have a port configuration that promotes this phenomena. An
offset port configuration was arrived upon and optimized to generate the
required swirl numbers. Incorporated in the new engine, this results in a
swirling motion of the incoming charge, which decays itself into
turbulence as the piston moves in the Induction and Compression
strokes.
This results in the Air-Fuel mixture being more thoroughly mixed and
spread around the combustion chamber. Sparks provided by the twin
spark plugs ignite this highly turbulent and compressed Air-Fuel
mixture, leading to a flame front with high surface area, resulting in a
rapid rise of pressure due to rapid combustion. The values of turbulence
achieved now, are substantially higher than that of a straight port
cylinder head, such as in DTS-i. A combination of DTS-i and Swirl
induction thus provides extremely rapid combustion, resulting in high
efficiency.

This technology is applied by Bajaj Auto Ltd in its latest model XCD-
125 that delivers an outstanding mileage of 109 kmpl under ideal
conditions, which is the best of Indian motorbikes. The DTS-Si engine is
far superior to the conventional 4-stroke engines, which dominate the
100cc segment at present. With the new DTS-Si engine the consumer
now would not have to compromise between power and mileage - he
gets the best of both.
30


4.1.2DIGITAL TWIN SPARK FUEL INJECTION (DTS - Fi):
DTS Fi is another advancement of the parent DTS i technology. This
technology is the combination of both DTS i and fuel injection. This
technology is meant for increasing the fuel efficiency in power bikes.
Generally in conventional 4-stroke engines, which uses petrol as fuel,
makes use of carburettor , which mixes the fuel and fresh air in required
ratio and supplies the same to the combustion chamber. The process is
similar for all loads. But the fuel consumption will be more when there
is a heavy load on the engine and it is less when there is a light load on
the engine. It is impossible for a conventional carburettor to take care of
the fuel supply for these varying loads. Therefore there is a need for
some intelligent device that controls the fuel supply according to the
varying loads.
That so wanted intelligent device is nothing but the Electronic Control
Unit (ECU). The Electronic Control Unit is a microprocessor based
system and can be regarded as the brain of the fuel injection system.

Fig. showing sectional view of DTS-Fi engine
31


4.1.3 WORKING OF ECU

Control of Air/Fuel ratio
For an engine with fuel injection, an engine control unit (ECU) will
determine the quantity of fuel to inject based on a number of parameters.
If the throttle position sensor is showing the throttle pedal is pressed
further down, the mass flow sensor will measure the amount of
additional air being sucked into the engine and the ECU will inject fixed
quantity of fuel into the engine ( most of the engine fuel inlet quantity is
fixed). If the engine coolant temperature sensor is showing the engine
has not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected (causing the engine to
run slightly 'rich' until the engine warms up). Mixture control on
computer controlled carburettors works similarly but with a mixture
control solenoid or stepper motor incorporated in the float bowl of the
carburettor.
32

Control of ignition timing
A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate combustion in the
combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the spark
(called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy. If the
ECU detects knock, a condition which is potentially destructive to
engines, and determines it to be the result of the ignition timing
occurring too early in the compression stroke, it will delay (retard) the
timing of the spark to prevent this. Since knock tends to occur more
easily at lower rpm, the ECU may send a signal for the automatic
transmission to downshift as a first attempt to alleviate knock.

A full authority throttle control system may be used to control idle
speed, provide cruise control functions and top speed limitation.

Control of variable valve timing
Some engines have Variable Valve Timing. In such an engine, the ECU
controls the time in the engine cycle at which the valves open. The
valves are usually opened sooner at higher speed than at lower speed.
This can optimize the flow of air into the cylinder, increasing power and
economy.

4.2 STATISTICS

33

The following are the various statistics showing the advantages of
application of DTS i & its derived technologies:




4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

4.3.1 ADVANTAGES



Less vibrations and noise
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
CBZ-Xtreme Unicorn pulsar
power
Torque
Mileage
34

Long life of the engine parts such as piston rings and
valve stem.
Decrease in the specific fuel consumption
No over heating
Increase the Thermal Efficiency of the Engine & even
bear high loads on it.
Better starting of engine even in winter season & cold
climatic conditions or at very low temperatures because
of increased Compression ratio.
Because of twin Sparks the diameter of the flame
increases rapidly that would result in instantaneous
burning of fuels. Thus force exerted on the piston would
increase leading to better work output.



4.3.2 DISADVANTAGES

There is high NOx emission
If one spark plug get damaged then we have to replace
both
The cost is relatively more
You spend double the amount on spark plugs when it is
time to replace them.
35

The engine tends to overheat and loose power at higher
speeds as compared to a single plug engine.
In case the Engine is kept unused for a long time soiling
of spark plugs occur. Twin Spark system helps to reduce
this problem.















36





CHAPTER:5

CONCLUSION

Hence it can be concluded that the application of these
technologies the present day automobiles will give the present
generation what they want i.e. power bikes with fuel efficiency. Since
these technologies also minimize the fuel consumption and harmful
emission levels, they can also be considered as one of the solutions for
increasing fuel costs and increasing effect of global warming.
From this paper I have concluded that perfect Combustion in Internal
Combustion engine is not possible. So for the instantaneous burning of
fuels in I.C. engine twin spark system can be used which producing twin
sparks at regular interval can help to complete the combustion.



37






REFERENCES

1. Alabastri E., L. Magni, S. Ozioso, R. Scattolini, C. Siviero, and A.
Zambelli. Modeling, analysis and simulation of a digital twin
spark injection system. In Proceedings of the IFirst IFAC
Symposium on Advances in Automotive Control, 2004.
2. Baker P. and Watson H. Mpi air/fuel mixing gaseous and liquid
plg. SAE Technical Papers, 01(246), 2005.
3. Bajaj Auto.com
4. Kouremenos D. A. and Hountalas D. T. Development and
validation of a detailed fuel injection system simulation model for
dtsi engines. SAE Technical Papers, 01(0527), 1999.
5. Official Journal L 044, 16/02/2000. Directive 1999/96/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council.
6. Wikipedia.org