EXTINCTION

Definition:

 In biology and ecology, extinction is the ceasing of existence of a species or a

higher taxonomic unit (taxon), such as a phylum or class. The moment of
extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that
species or group.

 Extinction is a natural and ongoing phenomenon.

 99.99% of all species that have existed here on Earth are now extinct. (Mayr,
2001)

 There have been at least 5 major extinction episodes when a large number of
taxa are exterminated in a geologically short period of time.

 The Permian-Triassic extinction alone killed off about 90 percent of marine

species and 70 percent of the terrestrial vertebrate species alive at the time.

 Extinction affects individual species—that is, groups of interbreeding

organisms—as well as collections of related species, such as members of the
same family, order, or class.

 Endangered species are species that are in danger of becoming extinct.

 Species that are not extinct are termed extant.

 *Note. Not all extinction is slow and gradual.

Terminology:

 A species becomes extinct when the last existing member of that species
dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when no surviving specimens
are able to reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become
functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals are surviving, but are
unable to reproduce due to health, age, lack of both sexes (in species that
reproduce sexually), or other reasons.

Pseudoextinction

 It is also called phyletic extinction.

 It is a term used by paleontologists to refer to a situation whereby the

parent species is extinct but the daughter species or subspecies are
still alive. That is, it is the process whereby a species has evolved into a
different species, which has been given a new name; thus, the term really
refers to a name change rather than the disappearance of the
biological entity.
Overview and RATE OF EXTINCTION

 The rate at which extinctions occurred prior to humans, independent of mass

extinctions, is called the "background" or "normal" rate of extinction.

 A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first

appearance, although some species survive virtually unchanged for hundreds
of millions of years.

Causes

 Genetic and demographic causes

 Habitat degradation

 Predation

 Competition
  Disease

Genetic and demographic causes

 Natural selection acts to propagate beneficial genetic traits and eliminate

weaknesses. However, it is sometimes possible for a deleterious mutation to
be spread throughout a population through the effect of genetic drift.

 A diverse or "deep" gene pool gives a population a higher chance of surviving

an adverse change in conditions. Effects that cause or reward a loss in
genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species.

POPULATION BOTTLENECKS (genetic and demographic causes)

 Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by

severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding
more frequent.

 The founder effect can cause rapid, individual-based speciation and is the
most dramatic example of a population bottleneck.

Habitat degradation

 This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or
indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished
resources or against new competitor species. Major climate changes, such as
ice ages or asteroid impacts, and subsequent habitat degradation have been
cited as major factors in major extinctions in the past.

 Habitat degradation, through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by
killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can
also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span,
reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.

 Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche
habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement
with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this; elimination of the
dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to
survive. For example, a fern that depends on dense shade to make a suitable
environment can no longer survive with no forest to house it.

 Vital resources, including water and food, can also be limited during habitat
degradation, causing some species to become extinct.

Predation, competition, disease

 Introduction of new competitor species are also a factor in extinction

and often accompany habitat degradation, as well. Sometimes these new
 competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other
times they may merely out-compete vulnerable species for limited resources.

 Humans have been transporting animals and plants from one part of the
world to another for thousands of years, sometimes deliberately (e.g.,
livestock released by sailors onto islands as a source of food) and sometimes
accidentally (e.g., rats escaping from boats).

 In most cases, such introductions are unsuccessful, but when they do become
established as an invasive alien species, the consequences can be
catastrophic. Invasive alien species can affect endemic (native) species
directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or
parasites that sicken or kill them or, indirectly, by destroying or degrading
their habitat.

Mass extinctions

 There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life prior to
humans, and many smaller extinction events. The most recent of these, the
K-T extinction, 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, is
best known for having wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs, among many other
species.

 In its most general sense, the term mass extinction refers to any episode of
multiple loss of species.

 There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life prior to
humans, and many smaller extinction events. The most recent of these, the
K-T extinction, 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, is
best known for having wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs, among many
other species.

 The first global mass extinction occurred about 440 million years ago in
the Ordovician Period. At this time, all animals and plants on Earth still
lived in the ocean. More than 85 percent of the species became extinct,
including many families of invertebrate marine animals belonging to groups
such as brachiopods, echinoderms, and trilobites.

 The second mass extinction took place about 360 million years ago, near
the end of the Devonian Period, when 82 percent of all species were lost.
Animals and plants now lived on land as well as in the sea. The greatest
extinctions affected marine animals, including cephalopods and armored
fish.

 The third and greatest mass extinction to date occurred 251 million
years ago at the end of the Permian Period. In this mass extinction, as
 many as 96 percent of all species in the oceans and 70 percent of all
species on land were lost.

 About 200 million years ago at the end of the Triassic Period, the fourth
mass extinction claimed 76 percent of the species alive at the time.
Primitive fishlike animals called conodonts disappeared from the seas, as
did many types of marine reptiles. Many species of amphibians and reptiles
on land also died out, including a number of groups of archosaurs, advanced
reptiles that included dinosaurs. However, dinosaurs themselves
managed to survive the mass extinction and went on to become the
dominant animals on land for another 140 million years.

 The fifth and most recent mass extinction occurred about 65 million years
ago at the end of the Cretaceous Period and resulted in the loss of 76
percent of all species, most notably the dinosaurs.

Extinct animal species

Quagga: The quagga (Equus quagga) was a type of zebra native to southern Africa.
Plentiful in the late 1600s, the quagga was hunted to near extinction by the late
19th century. The last surviving quagga died in captivity in 1883. Quaggas had
white legs with brown bodies and creamy white stripes on the head and neck.

Tasmanian wolf: Despite its doglike appearance, the thylacine or Tasmanian wolf
was a meat-eating marsupial. The thylacine lived in Australia and Tasmania. The
species survived into the early part of the 20th century but was ruthlessly hunted as
a threat to livestock. It is thought to be extinct, although possible sightings in the
wild continue.

Tarpan horse: Now extinct, the tarpan was a wild horse that roamed in herds in
European forests and on the plains of Russia. Tarpans were extensively hunted in
the 1800s because of their destructiveness to agricultural crops.

Passenger pigeon: Once abundant in North America, the passenger pigeon became
extinct in 1914 as a result of extensive hunting and loss of habitat.
Moas: At one time over 20 species of this large, flightless bird inhabited the wilds of
New Zealand. Already rare by the time Europeans arrived in the 18th century, moas
became extinct within the next 100 years.

Extinct Plant Species

St. Helena Olive: It was an island endemic native to St Helena in the South Atlantic
Ocean. Although called the St Helena olive it is unrelated to the true olive (Olea
europaea). The last remaining tree in the wild died in 1994, and the last remaining
individual in cultivation died in December 2003, despite conservation efforts.
Cooksonia: Cooksonia is an extinct grouping of primitive land plants. The earliest
Cooksonia date from the Late Wenlock (middle Silurian), about 425 million years
ago; the group continues to be an important component of the flora until the early
Devonian. For historical reasons, while Cooksonia fossils are distributed globally,
most type specimens come from Britain and Eastern Australia.

Archaefructus: Archaefructus is an extinct genus of herbaceous aquatic seed plants

with 3 known species. Fossil material assigned to this genus originates from the
Yixian Formation in northeastern China, originally dated as late Jurassic but now
thought to be approximately 125 million years old, or early Cretaceous in age. Even
with its revised age, Archaefructus has been proposed to be one of the earliest
known genera of flowering plants.