Isotopes of Seaborgium - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Seaborgium (Sg) is an artificial element, and thus a standard atomic mass cannot be given. Like all artificial
elements, it has no stable isotopes. The first isotope to be synthesized was
263m
Sg in 1974. There are 12 known
radioisotopes from
258
Sg to
271
Sg and 2 known isomers (
261m
Sg and
263m
Sg). The longest-lived isotope is
271
Sg
with a half-life of 2.4 minutes.
1 Table
1.1 Notes
2 History of synthesis of isotopes by cold fusion
2.1
208
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
262-x
Sg (x=1,2,3)
2.2
207
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
261-x
Sg (x=1,2)
2.3
206
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
260-x
Sg
2.4
208
Pb(
52
Cr,xn)
260-x
Sg (x=1,2)
2.5
209
Bi(
51
V,xn)
260-x
Sg (x=2)
3 History of synthesis of isotopes by hot fusion
3.1
238
U(
30
Si,xn)
268-x
Sg (x=3,4,5,6)
3.2
248
Cm(
22
Ne,xn)
270-x
Sg (x=4?,5)
3.3
249
Cf(
18
O,xn)
267-x
Sg (x=4)
4 Synthesis of isotopes as decay products
5 Chronology of isotope discovery
6 Isotopes
7 Isomerism in seaborgium nuclides
7.1
266
Sg
7.2
265
Sg
7.3
263
Sg
8 Spectroscopic decay schemes for seaborgium isotopes
8.1
261
Sg
9 Retracted isotopes
9.1
269
Sg
10 Chemical yields of isotopes
10.1 Cold fusion
10.2 Hot fusion
11 References
Isotopes of seaborgium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_seaborgium
1 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
nuclide
symbol
Z(p) N(n)

isotopic mass (u)

half-life
decay
mode(s)
[n 1]
daughter
isotope(s)
nuclear
spin
excitation energy
258
Sg
106 152 258.11298(44)#
3.3(10) ms
[2.9(+13-7) ms]
SF (various) 0+
259
Sg
106 153 259.11440(13)#
580(210) ms
[0.48(+28-13) s]

255
Rf
1/2+#
260
Sg
106 154 260.114384(22) 3.8(8) ms
SF (74%) (various)
0+
(26%)
256
Rf
261
Sg
106 155 261.115949(20) 230(60) ms
(98.1%)
257
Rf
7/2+#
EC (1.3%)
261
Db
SF (.6%) (various)
261m
Sg
9 s IC
261
Sg
262
Sg
[n 2]
106 156 262.11634(4)
8(3) ms
[6.9(+38-18) ms]
SF (various) 0+
263
Sg
[n 3]
106 157 263.11829(10)# 1.0(2) s
259
Rf
9/2+#
263m
Sg
100(70)# keV 120 ms
(87%)
259
Rf
3/2+#
SF (13%) (various)
264
Sg
106 158 264.11893(30)# 37 ms SF (various) 0+
265a
Sg
106 159 265.12109(13)#
8(3) s
261
Rf
265b
Sg
16.2 s
261
Rf
266
Sg
[n 4]
106 160 266.12198(26)# 360 ms SF (various) 0+
267
Sg
[n 5]
106 161 267.12436(30)# 19 ms
SF (83%) (various)
(17%)
263
Rf
269
Sg
[n 6]
106 163 269.12863(39)# 2 min
265
Rf
271
Sg
[n 7]
106 165 271.13393(63)# 2.4(+43-10) min
(67%)
267
Rf
SF (33%) (various)
^ Abbreviations:
EC: Electron capture
IC: Internal conversion
SF: Spontaneous fission
1.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs in the decay chain of
270
Ds 2.
271
Ds 3.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs as decay product of
270
Hs 4.
^ Not directly synthesized, occurs as decay product of
271
Hs 5.
285
Fl 6.
287
Fl 7.
Notes
2 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends.
Spins with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty
values denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC
which use expanded uncertainties.
This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of seaborgium by so-called "cold" fusion reactions. These are
processes which create compound nuclei at low excitation energy (~10-20 MeV, hence "cold"), leading to a
higher probability of survival from fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground state via the
emission of one or two neutrons only.
208
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
262-x
Sg (x=1,2,3)
The first attempt to synthesise seaborgium in cold fusion reactions was performed in September 1974 by a
Soviet team led by G. N. Flerov at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna. They reported producing a
0.48 s spontaneous fission (SF) activity which they assigned to the isotope
259
Sg. Based on later evidence it was
suggested that the team most likely measured the decay of
260
Sg and its daughter
256
Rf. The TWG concluded
that, at the time, the results were insufficiently convincing.
[1]
The Dubna team revisited this problem in 1983-1984 and were able to detect a 5 ms SF activity assigned directly
to
260
Sg.
[1]
The team at GSI studied this reaction for the first time in 1985 using the improved method of correlation of
genetic parent-daughter decays. They were able to detect
261
Sg (x=1) and
260
Sg and measured a partial 1n
neutron evaporation excitation function.
[2]
In December 2000, the reaction was studied by a team at GANIL, France and were able to detect 10 atoms of
261
Sg and 2 atoms of
260
Sg to add to previous data on the reaction.
After a facility upgrade, the GSI team measured the 1n excitation function in 2003 using a metallic lead target.
Of significance, in May 2003, the team successfully replaced the lead-208 target with more resistant lead(II)
sulfide targets (PbS) which will allow more intense beams to be used in the future. They were able to measure
the 1n,2n and 3n excitation functions and performed the first detailed alpha-gamma spectroscopy on the isotope
261
Sg. They detected ~1600 atoms of the isotope and identified new alpha lines as well as measuring a more
accurate half-life and new EC and SF branchings. Furthermore, they were able to detect the K X-rays from the
daughter rutherfordium element for the first time. They were also able to provide improved data for
260
Sg,
including the tentative observation of an isomeric level. The study was continued in September 2005 and March
2006. The accumulated work on
261
Sg was published in 2007.
[3]
Work in September 2005 also aimed to begin
spectroscopic studies on
260
Sg.
The team at the LBNL recently restudied this reaction in an effort to look at the spectroscopy of the isotope
261
Sg. They were able to detect a new isomer,
261m
Sg, decaying by internal conversion into the ground state. In
the same experiment, they were also able to confirm a K-isomer in the daughter
257
Rf, namely
257m2
Rf.
[4]
207
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
261-x
Sg (x=1,2)
3 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in 1974 with identical results as for their first experiments with a
Pb-208 target. The SF activities were first assigned to
259
Sg and later to
260
Sg and/or
256
Rf. Further work in
1983-1984 also detected a 5 ms SF activity assigned to the parent
260
Sg.
[1]
The GSI team studied this reaction for the first time in 1985 using the method of correlation of genetic parent-
daughter decays. They were able to positively identify
259
Sg as a product from the 2n neutron evaporation
channel.
[2]
The reaction was further used in March 2005 using PbS targets to begin a spectroscopic study of the even-even
isotope
260
Sg.
206
Pb(
54
Cr,xn)
260-x
Sg
This reaction was studied in 1974 by the team at Dubna. It was used to assist them in their assignment of the
observed SF activities in reactions using Pb-207 and Pb-208 targets. They were unable to detect any SF,
indicating the formation of isotopes decaying primarily by alpha decay.
[1]
208
Pb(
52
Cr,xn)
260-x
Sg (x=1,2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in their series of cold fusion reactions performed in 1974. Once
again they were unable to detect any SF activities.
[1]
The reaction was revisited in 2006 by the team at LBNL as
part of their studies on the effect of the isospin of the projectile and hence the mass number of the compound
nucleus on the yield of evaporation residues. They were able to identify
259
Sg and
258
Sg in their measurement of
the 1n excitation function.
[5]
209
Bi(
51
V,xn)
260-x
Sg (x=2)
The team at Dubna also studied this reaction in their series of cold fusion reactions performed in 1974. Once
again they were unable to detect any SF activities.
[1]
In 1994, the synthesis of seaborgium was revisited using
this reaction by the GSI team, in order to study the new even-even isotope
258
Sg. Ten atoms of
258
Sg were
detected and decayed by spontaneous fission.
This section deals with the synthesis of nuclei of seaborgium by so-called "hot" fusion reactions. These are
processes which create compound nuclei at high excitation energy (~40-50 MeV, hence "hot"), leading to a
reduced probability of survival from fission and quasi-fission. The excited nucleus then decays to the ground
state via the emission of 3-5 neutrons.
238
U(
30
Si,xn)
268-x
Sg (x=3,4,5,6)
This reaction was first studied by Japanese scientists at the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) in
1998. They detected a spontaneous fission activity which they tentatively assigned to the new isotope
264
Sg or
263
Db, formed by EC of
263
Sg.
[6]
In 2006, the teams at GSI and LBNL both studied this reaction using the
method of correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays. The LBNL team measured an excitation function for
the 4n,5n and 6n channels, whilst the GSI team were able to observe an additional 3n activity.
[7][8][9]
Both
4 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
teams were able to identify the new isotope
264
Sg which decayed with a short lifetime by spontaneous fission.
248
Cm(
22
Ne,xn)
270-x
Sg (x=4?,5)
In 1993, at Dubna, Yuri Lazarev and his team announced the discovery of long-lived
266
Sg and
265
Sg produced
in the 4n and 5n channels of this nuclear reaction following the search for seaborgium isotopes suitable for a
first chemical study. It was announced that
266
Sg decayed by 8.57 MeV alpha-particle emission with a projected
half-life of ~20 s, lending strong support to the stabilising effect of the Z=108,N=162 closed shells.
[10]
This
reaction was studied further in 1997 by a team at GSI and the yield, decay mode and half-lives for
266
Sg and
265
Sg have been confirmed, although there are still some discrepancies. In the recent synthesis of
270
Hs (see
hassium),
266
Sg was found to undergo exclusively SF with a short half-life (T
SF
= 360 ms). It is possible that this
is the ground state, (
266g
Sg) and that the other activity, produced directly, belongs to a high spin K-isomer,
266m
Sg, but further results are required to confirm this.
A recent re-evaluation of the decay characteristics of
265
Sg and
266
Sg has suggested that all decays to date in
this reaction were in fact from
265
Sg, which exists in two isomeric forms. The first,
265a
Sg has a principal
alpha-line at 8.85 MeV and a calculated half-life of 8.9 s, whilst
265b
Sg has a decay energy of 8.70 MeV and a
half-life of 16.2 s. Both isomeric levels are populated when produced directly. Data from the decay of
269
Hs
indicates that
265b
Sg is produced during the decay of
269
Hs and that
265b
Sg decays into the shorter-lived
261g
Rf
isotope. This means that the observation of
266
Sg as a long-lived alpha emitter is retracted and that it does
indeed undergo fission in a short time.
Regardless of these assignments, the reaction has been successfully used in the recent attempts to study the
chemistry of seaborgium (see below).
249
Cf(
18
O,xn)
267-x
Sg (x=4)
The synthesis of seaborgium was first realized in 1974 by the LBNL/LLNL team.
[11]
In their discovery
experiment, they were able to apply the new method of correlation of genetic parent-daughter decays to identify
the new isotope
263
Sg. In 1975, the team at Oak Ridge were able to confirm the decay data but were unable to
identify coincident X-rays in order to prove that seaborgium was produced. In 1979, the team at Dubna studied
the reaction by detection of SF activities. In comparison with data from Berkeley, they calculated a 70% SF
branching for
263
Sg. The original synthesis and discovery reaction was confirmed in 1994 by a different team at
LBNL.
[12]
Isotopes of seaborgium have also been observed in the decay of heavier elements. Observations to date are
summarised in the table below:
5 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
Evaporation Residue Observed Sg isotope
291
Lv,
287
Fl,
283
Cn
271
Sg
285
Fl
269
Sg
271
Hs
267
Sg
270
Hs
266
Sg
277
Cn,
273
Ds,
269
Hs
265
Sg
271
Ds,
267
Ds
263
Sg
270
Ds
262
Sg
269
Ds,
265
Hs
261
Sg
264
Hs
260
Sg
Isotope Year discovered discovery reaction
258
Sg
1994
209
Bi(
51
V,2n)
259
Sg
1985
207
Pb(
54
Cr,2n)
260
Sg
1985
208
Pb(
54
Cr,2n)
261g
Sg
1985
208
Pb(
54
Cr,n)
261m
Sg
2009
208
Pb(
54
Cr,n)
262
Sg
2001
207
Pb(
64
Ni,n)
[13]
263
Sg
m
1974
249
Cf(
18
O,4n)
[11]
263
Sg
g
1994
208
Pb(
64
Ni,n)
[13]
264
Sg
2006
238
U(
30
Si,4n)
265
Sg
a, b
1993
248
Cm(
22
Ne,5n)
266
Sg
2004
248
Cm(
26
Mg,4n)
[14]
267
Sg
2004
248
Cm(
26
Mg,3n)
[15]
268
Sg
unknown
269
Sg
2010
242
Pu(
48
Ca,5n)
[16]
270
Sg
unknown
271
Sg
2003
242
Pu(
48
Ca,3n)
[16]
There are 12 known isotopes of seaborgium (excluding meta-stable and K-spin isomers). The longest-lived is
6 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
currently
271
Sg which decays through alpha decay and spontaneous fission, with a half-life of around 2.4
minutes. The shortest-lived isotope is
258
Sg which also decays through alpha decay and spontaneous fission. It
has a half-life of 2.9 ms.
266
Sg
Initial work identified an 8.63 MeV alpha-decaying activity with a half-life of ~21s and assigned to the ground
state of
266
Sg. Later work identified a nuclide decaying by 8.52 and 8.77 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of
~21s, which is unusual for an even-even nuclide. Recent work on the synthesis of
270
Hs identified
266
Sg
decaying by SF with a short 360 ms half-life. The recent work on
277
Cn and
269
Hs has provided new
information on the decay of
265
Sg and
261
Rf. This work suggested that the initial 8.77 MeV activity should be
reassigned to
265
Sg. Therefore the current information suggests that the SF activity is the ground state and the
8.52 MeV activity is a high spin K-isomer. Further work is required to confirm these assignments. A recent
re-evaluation of the data has suggested that the 8.52 MeV activity should be associated with
265
Sg and that
266
Sg only undergoes fission.
265
Sg
The recent direct synthesis of
265
Sg resulted in four alpha-lines at 8.94,8.84,8.76 and 8.69 MeV with a half-life
of 7.4 seconds. The observation of the decay of
265
Sg from the decay of
277
Cn and
269
Hs indicated that the 8.69
MeV line may be associated with an isomeric level with an associated half-life of ~ 20 s. It is plausible that this
level is causing confusion between assignments of
266
Sg and
265
Sg since both can decay to fissioning
rutherfordium isotopes.
A recent re-evaluation of the data has indicated that there are indeed two isomers, one with a principal decay
energy of 8.85 MeV with a half-life of 8.9 s, and a second isomer which decays with energy 8.70 MeV with a
half-life of 16.2 s.
263
Sg
The discovery synthesis of
263
Sg resulted in an alpha-line at 9.06 MeV.
[11]
Observation of this nuclide by decay
of
271g
Ds,
271m
Ds and
267
Hs has confirmed an isomer decaying by 9.25 MeV alpha emission. The 9.06 MeV
decay was also confirmed. The 9.06 MeV activity has been assigned to the ground state isomer with an
associated half-life of 0.3 s. The 9.25 MeV activity has been assigned to an isomeric level decaying with a
half-life of 0.9 s.
Recent work on the synthesis of
271g,m
Ds was resulted in some confusing data regarding the decay of
267
Hs. In
one such decay,
267
Hs decayed to
263
Sg which decayed by alpha emission with a half-life of ~ 6 s. This activity
has not yet been positively assigned to an isomer and further research is required.
261
Sg
7 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
This is the currently accepted decay scheme for
261
Sg
from the study by Streicher et al. at GSI in 2003-2006
269
Sg
In the claimed synthesis of
293
Uuo in 1999 the isotope
269
Sg was identified as a daughter product. It decayed by
8.74 MeV alpha emission with a half-life of 22 s. The claim was retracted in 2001.
[17]
This isotope was finally
created in 2010.
Cold fusion
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing seaborgium
isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents
an observed exit channel.
Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n
54
Cr
207
Pb
261
Sg
54
Cr
208
Pb
262
Sg
4.23 nb, 13.0 MeV 500 pb 10 pb
51
V
209
Bi
260
Sg
38 pb, 21.5 MeV
52
Cr
208
Pb
260
Sg
281 pb, 11.0 MeV
Hot fusion
8 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for hot fusion reactions producing seaborgium
isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents
an observed exit channel.
Projectile Target CN 3n 4n 5n 6n
30
Si
238
U
268
Sg
+ 9 pb, 40.0 ~ 80 pb, 51.0 MeV ~30 pb, 58.0 MeV
22
Ne
248
Cm
270
Sg
~25 pb ~250 pb
18
O
249
Cf
267
Sg
+
^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.;
Wapstra, A. P. et al. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles.
Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements (Note: for Part I see Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 63, No. 6, pp.
879-886, 1991)". Pure and Applied Chemistry 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1351%2Fpac199365081757).
1.
^
a

b
Mnzenberg, G.; Hofmann, S.; Folger, H.; Heberger, F. P.; Keller, J.; Poppensieker, K.; Quint, B.; Reisdorf,
W. et al. (1985). "The isotopes
259
106,
260
106, and
261
106". Zeitschrift fr Physik A 322 (2): 227.
Bibcode:1985ZPhyA.322..227M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ZPhyA.322..227M). doi:10.1007/BF01411887
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01411887).
2.
^ Streicher et al.; Antalic, S.; Aro, S. S.; Venhart, M.; Hessberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Ackermann, D.; Kindler, B. et
al. (2007). "Alpha-Gamma Decay Studies of
261
Sg". Acta Physica Polonica B 38 (4): 1561.
Bibcode:2007AcPPB..38.1561S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AcPPB..38.1561S).
3.
^ Berryman et al.; Clark, R.; Gregorich, K.; Allmond, J.; Bleuel, D.; Cromaz, M.; Dragojevi, I.; Dvorak, J. et al.
(2010). "Electromagnetic decays of excited states in
261
Sg (Z=106) and
257
Rf (Z=104)". Phys. Rev. C 81 (6):
064325. Bibcode:2010PhRvC..81f4325B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhRvC..81f4325B).
doi:10.1103/PHYSREVC.81.064325 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPHYSREVC.81.064325).
4.
^ "Measurement of the
208
Pb(
52
Cr,n)
259
Sg Excitation Function" (http://rnc.lbl.gov/nsd/annualreport2005
/contributions/Folden_LE.pdf), Folden et al., LBNL Annual Report 2005. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
5.
^ Ikezoe, H.; Ikuta, T.; Mitsuoka, S.; Nishinaka, I.; Tsukada, K.; Ohtsuki, T.; Kuzumaki, T.; Nagame, Y. et al.
(1998). "First evidence for a new spontaneous fission decay produced in the reaction
30
Si +
238
U". The European
Physical Journal A 2 (4): 379. Bibcode:1998EPJA....2..379I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998EPJA....2..379I).
doi:10.1007/s100500050134 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs100500050134).
6.
^ "Production of seaborgium isotopes in the reaction of
30
Si +
238
U" (http://www.gsi.de/informationen/wti/library
/scientificreport2006/PAPERS/NUSTAR-SHE-05.pdf), Nishio et al., GSI Annual Report 2006. Retrieved on
2008-02-29
7.
^ Nishio et al.; Hofmann, S.; Heberger, F. P.; Ackermann, D.; Antalic, S.; Comas, V. F.; Gan, Z.; Heinz, S. et al.
(2006). "Measurement of evaporation residue cross-sections of the reaction
30
Si +
238
U at subbarrier energies".
Eur. Phys. J. A 29 (3): 281287. Bibcode:2006EPJA...29..281N (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/2006EPJA...29..281N). doi:10.1140/epja/i2006-10091-y (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1140%2Fepja%2Fi2006-10091-y).
8.
^ "New isotope
264
Sg and decay properties of
262-264
Sg" (http://repositories.cdlib.org
/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5547&context=lbnl), Gregorich et al., LBNL repositories. Retrieved on 2008-02-29
9.
^ Lazarev, Yu. A.; Lobanov, YV; Oganessian, YT; Utyonkov, VK; Abdullin, FS; Buklanov, GV; Gikal, BN; Iliev, S
et al. (1994). "Discovery of Enhanced Nuclear Stability near the Deformed Shells N=162 and Z=108". Physical
Review Letters 73 (5): 624627. Bibcode:1994PhRvL..73..624L (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1994PhRvL..73..624L). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.73.624 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.73.624).
PMID 10057496 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10057496).
10.
^
a

b

c
Ghiorso, A., Nitschke, J. M., Alonso, J. R., Alonso, C. T., Nurmia, M., Seaborg, G. T., Hulet, E. K.,
Lougheed, R. W. (1974). "Element 106". Phys. Rev. Lett. 33 (25): 14901493. Bibcode:1974PhRvL..33.1490G
11.
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(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974PhRvL..33.1490G). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.1490 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.33.1490).
^ Gregorich, K. E.; Lane, MR; Mohar, MF; Lee, DM; Kacher, CD; Sylwester, ER; Hoffman, DC (1994). "First
confirmation of the discovery of element 106". Physical Review Letters 72 (10): 14231426.
Bibcode:1994PhRvL..72.1423G (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994PhRvL..72.1423G).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.72.1423 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.72.1423). PMID 10055605
(//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10055605).
12.
^
a

b
see darmstadtium 13.
^ see hassium 14.
^ see hassium 15.
^
a

b
see flerovium 16.
^ see ununoctium 17.
Isotope masses from:
M. Wang, G. Audi, A.H. Wapstra, F.G. Kondev, M. MacCormick, X. Xu, et al. (2012). "The
AME2012 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references." (http://amdc.in2p3.fr
/masstables/Ame2012/Ame2012b-v2.pdf). Chinese Physics C, 36 (12): 16032014.
Bibcode:2012ChPhC..36....3M (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012ChPhC..36....3M).
doi:10.1088/1674-1137/36/12/003 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1088%2F1674-1137%2F36%2F12%2F003).
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation
of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf).
Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P.
Taylor (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
(http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/75/6/0683/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6):
683800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200375060683).
M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)"
(http://iupac.org/publications/pac/78/11/2051/pdf/). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11):
20512066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1351%2Fpac200678112051). Lay
summary (http://old.iupac.org/news/archives/2005/atomic-weights_revised05.html).
Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk
page.
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation
of nuclear and decay properties" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/amdc/nubase/Nubase2003.pdf).
Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A (http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/2003NuPhA.729....3A). doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http://dx.doi.org
/10.1016%2Fj.nuclphysa.2003.11.001).
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/nudat2/).
Brookhaven National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.
N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics (85th ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.
GSI (2011). "Superheavy Element Research at GSI" (http://tan11.jinr.ru/pdf/08_Sep
/S_1/01_Duellmann.pdf). GSI. Retrieved August 2012.
10 of 11 1.3.2014 21:28
Isotopes of dubnium Isotopes of seaborgium Isotopes of bohrium
Table of nuclides
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