ECOLOGY

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment, such as
the interactions organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment.
is the study of structures and functions of nature.
distribution and abundance of organisms
adaptation of organisms
study of ecosystem

From the Greek word Oikology. Oikos means habitat and logos means study.

ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction
with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil),
interacting as a system.
[2]
These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together
through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

2 MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS OF ECOLOGY

Autecology - This branch of ecology studies an individual organism including its life history and
behaviour as a means of adaptation to the environment. Such a study may be concerning an animal,
a plant or an aquatic plant etc.

Synecology - This branch of ecology is concerned with the study of a group or groups of organisms
which form a unit.

EVOLUTION

Change in the genetic makeup. Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations.

FOUNDERS OF ECOLOGY

THEOPHRACUS (300BC)

ERNEST HAECKEL - described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree
relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology.

THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS - MALTHUSIAN THEORY "Population grows geometrically while
food production grows arithmetically"

CARL LUDWIG WILLDENOW - "Similar climate supports similar vegetation even though the species
are different."

FRIEDRICH WILHELM HEINRICH ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT - was a naturalist, geologist and
explorer.

ARTHUR E. TANSLEY - Study of all ecosystem

EDUARD SUESS - Coined the term "Biosphere" in 1875.

VLADIMIR I. VERNADSKY - He is most noted for his 1926 book The Biosphere in which he
inadvertently worked to popularize Eduard Suess 1885 term biosphere, by hypothesizing that life is
the geological force that shapes the earth.

EUGENE ODUM AND HOWARD ODUM - Ecosystem Ecology. Wrote the "The Fundamentals of
Ecology" published in 1953.

JOAKIM FREDERIK SCHOUW - Studied the effects of temperature on the plants.

Ecological succession - observe process of change in the species structure of an ecological community
over time.

JOHANNES EUGENIUS WARMING - wrote the first text on plant technology entitled
"plantesamfund" (ecology of plant)

CHARLES ADAMS - published the first text on animal ecology entitled "A guide to a study of animal
ecology" 1948

CHARLES LYELL - the earth changes through time.
AUGUST THIENEMANN - 1931, studied about limnology, introduce the term producers and
consumers. Nutrients cycling or trophic level.

2 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

ABIOTIC

1. TEMPERATURE - affects the metabolism of an organism.
Metabolism: refers to all the physical and chemical processes in the body that convert or use energy
Anabolism: build up phase of energy
Catabolism: breaking down phase of energy

Homeostasis - stable internal condition/balanced

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS BASED ON HOW THEY MAINTAIN THEIR TEMPERATURE

Homeoherms - can maintain a relatively constant body temperature. Also known as endothermic
organism, sweat glands.
Poikiloherms - cold-blooded animals, ectothermic (heat from outside)
Heteroherms - they have the ability to produce their own heat. Ex. Bats. They also have the ability to
reduce their body temperature and metabolism.

2. WATER
Surface tension - is the measure of how difficult it is to stretch/break the molecules of the water.
Polar - unequal
Capillary Action - this the process of the water moving up through a narrow tube against the force
of gravity. Ex. blood vessels.
Water in pure state has a neutral ph.
Water exists in nature: solid, liquid and gas
Water is the universal solvent. (hydrophilic subs and hydrophobic subs)
has high specific heat - the amount of energy require to change the temperature.
(Polar covalent bond) H2O

CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO WATER REQUIREMENT

Phytes - plants

Xerophytes - plants grow in dry environment
Hydrophytes - plants grow in or on water
Mesophytes - plants that have an average water requirements.

3. LIGHT

2 ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTS

1. Shade Tolerance - the ability of an organism to survive even in shaded areas.

2. Photoperiodism - physiological response of an organism, especially plants, to the length of the light.
Short-day plants - Ex. strawberries
Long-day plants
Day-neutral plants
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO LIGHT REQUIREMENT

Sciophytes - Scio = shade. Plants grow in shaded areas
Heliophytes - Helio = sun. Plants that need sun

4. SOIL - It provides nutrients and minerals.

Soil Profile - refers to the layers of the soil
O-horizon - consists of leaves, highly fragmented rocks.
A - horizon - Surface soil: Derived from O - horizon. Organics mixed with mineral matter. The
Layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer elevates
(is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents.
B - horizon - also known as depositional horizon. It contains minerals from O and A horizon. This
layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as
illuviation.
C - horizon - Parent rock: Consist of weathered - parent material. The parent material in
sedimentary deposits. Layer of large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more
soluble compounds .

IRON - is the chemical element that makes the soil red.

TYPES OF SOIL ACCORDING TO SOIL TEXTURE

1. Sandy - excess water drained quickly
- they formed up easy during the day and easy to cultivate.
- air can easily pass through the soil
2. Clay - holds large quantities of water
- air cannot pass through the soil
- high water retaining capacity
3. Loam - high nutrition content
- easy to cultivate

Soil Ph - to determine the biological activities.



5. AIR/WIND/ ATMOSPHERE
-They can help seed generation and pollination. Some animals need it.

IMPORTANT GASES OF ORGANISM
- Nitrogen - basic constituent of organic compound
- Oxygen - aerobic organism
- Carbon Dioxide

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

PRODUCERS
Autotrophs - organisms used organic sources of both carbon and energy
Photosynthetic autotrophs - they use carbon dioxide and sun as a source of energy.
Chemoautotrophic organism - they use carbon dioxide for the source of carbon and
bacteria (inorganic chemical) as a source of energy. (inorganic chemicals)
Phytoplankton - producers in ocean biome. Hydrogen Sulfite (NH3), inorganic
chemicals that can be used by chemotrophic organism.

CONSUMERS
Heterotrophic - use organic molecules
DECOMPOSERS AND DETRITIVORES
Decomposers - breakdown decaying organisms
Detritivores - eat decaying organism
FOOD CHAIN - is the transfer of food and energy from organism to another organism.
2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC OR LAW OF ENTROPHY
"When converting energy from one to another, there is no loss of total energy but there is a loss of
useful energy in the form of heat." Isaac Newton

Atmosphere
- Thin layer of gases that envelops the earth.
TERRA NASA December 1999
Machines / Instruments use to Measure
1. MOPITT (Measurement of Pollutants in the Troposphere) methane and carbon dioxide;
Terra spacecraft, measuring tropospheric carbon monoxide (CO) on the global scale.
2. MAPS (Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites) carbon dioxide
Biosphere sum of an ecosystem
Gases at the atmosphere
1. Nitrogen (78.08%)
- most abundant and important gas
- Daniel Rutherford (1772)
- relatively inactive gas (must be bonded with other gas)
- can dilute O2 to lessen the rate of combustion
- used in making explosives (Nitroglycerin + Trinitrotoluene) and gun powder (potassium nitrate)
- used in CYROGENICS - preservation in a low temperature
- important element in the body of plants and animals
- used to from organic compounds

2. Oxygen (20.95%)
- used in the process of catabolism used to burn the energy
- useful in combustion
- used in burning fossil fuel gas
solid form coal
liquid form petroleum
gas natural gas
- used in steel making and welding (mixed with acetylene gas and oxygen)
3. Carbon Dioxide (0.03%)
- found in fire extinguisher and soda
- dry ice (solid form of carbon)
used in cloud seeding
clean air out of pollution
5 Major Suppliers of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere
- volcanic eruption
- respiration
- decayed organisms
- burning of fossil fuels
- cultivation of plants

4. Argon (0.98%)
- most abundant noble gas (stable, rare gas and very low chemical reactivity)
- used in incandescent light bulb

5. Neon (18.18 ppm [parts per million])
- used in neon lights

6. Helium (5.24 ppm)
- found in fairly large amount
- used in filling balloons

7. Methane (2.0 ppm)
- main component of natural gas

Variable materials in Atmosphere
8. Water Vapor
- source of clouds and precipitation

9. Aerosols
- microscopic particles suspended in the air
ex. (fine soil, smoke, soot sunburn carbon, pollen and ashes)

10. Ozone
- ozone particles are highly concentrated
- found in stratosphere (good ozone)
- ozone in troposphere is the bad ozone
- air pollutant contribute in smog

Layers of the Atmosphere
Troposphere
- extend 8-17 km from the surface center
tropein to turn / to change
- contains 75% of the atmosphere
- most dense among all the levels
- altitude generally decreases, the temperature increases
- most changes in water and atmosphere happens here

Stratosphere
- it extends from 12 km - 51 km
- stratos stratified layer
- 24% of the atmosphere
- temperature increases as altitude increases
because the ozone molecules absorbs the ultraviolet rays
- concentrated on 24 km
- ozone measured in Dobson unit named after Gordon Dobson
- 300 Dobson unit
use to measure ozone level
TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
SBUV Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet
- most plane likes to fly in this layer

Mesosphere
- Extends from stratopause about 50-85 km.
- coldest layer of the atmosphere
- temperature reaches -90C
- least dense that any layer
- thick enough to slow down meteors

Thermosphere
- warmest layer
- the energy from the sun is absorbed here
- 1,500C - maximum temperature
- stratification of gases

Ionosphere
- represents less than 0.1 of the total of the atmosphere
- the only layer of electrically charged particles
- suns radiation is ionized here
Aurora caused by the collision of electronically charged particles with oxygen and
nitrogen atoms
Aurora Phenomenon - Mixture of different colors
Aurora Borealis (Northern lights)
Aurora Australis (Southern Lights)

Exosphere
- altitude of 600 km
- region where atoms and molecules except in the phase
- high kinetic energy
- Hydrogen and Helium (abundant)

Weather and Climate
Weather
- at a given time and place; average interplay of all interacting elements over a short period of time

Climate
- total effect of all the daily weather condition
Factors that Affect the Weather
1. Temperature
- degree of hotness and coldness
3 ways to transfer Heat Energy
Conduction through molecular activity (ex. Metals)
Convection by mass movement
Radiation through an empty space (ex. space heater)

2. Humidity
- amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere
relative humidity
- amount of water vapour present in the air divided in the amount of ______ the air can hold

3. Cloud
- condensed water vapour
3 Basic Forms
- cirrus
- cumulus
- stratus
According to Heights
- low, middle, high, clouds with vertical development

1. High Clouds (____________)
3. Low Clouds - range from the surface of about 6,500 ft.
- Stratus - low, sheet-like clouds
- stratocumulus - large, rounded clouds
- nimbostratus - low, shapeless, Rain clouds
4. Clouds w/ vertical development - range from 1,600 ft - 5,000 ft
- cumulus - thick pumpkin shape often separated from one another
- cumulonimbus - thunder- spread clouds

4. Wind - is a moving air
5. Precipitation - Any form of solid/liquid particles that fall from atmosphere and reach the surface of the
earth.

Kinds of Precipitation
Rain, drizzle, snow, snow grains, sleet, glaze, hailstone, Rime

Climate
Open classification of climate by : Wladimir Koppen
1. Humid Tropical / Megathermal Cimate
- winterless climate, having a temperature of 18C
2. Dry Climate / Acid + Semi Acid Climate
- evaporation exceeds precipitation (ex. desert areas)
3. Humid middle latitude/ mesothermal climate
- mild winter; the coldest is a mean temperature of below 18C but above 3C (ex. Japan)
4. Continental / Microthemal Climate
- severe winter; the coldest is a mean temperature of below 30C and the warmest exceeds 10C
(ex. Turkey)
5. Polar Climate
- summerless climate (ex. North America and Antartica)






LITHOSPHERE
CRUST
- cool, rigid, brittle, will crack, form fault lines, will break apart.
- 0.6%
- consists of O2, Si, K, Fe, Mg
- fragmented into mosaic of individual segments called PLATES.
PLATES
- Continental drift
- Diastrophism (deformation of earth's crust)
PLATE BOUNDERY - where two tectonic plates meet
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDERIES
1. TRANSFORM BOUNDERIES - occur when 2 plates slide or glide each other.
- sinistral
- dextral
2. DIVERGENT BOUNDERIES - occur when 2 plates slide apart from each other.
3. CONVERGENT BOUNDERIES - occur when 2 plates slide toward each other to form subduction
zones (one plate moving underneath the other) or continental collision
CONTINENTAL CRUST
- thicker
- consists mainly of granite
- felsic rocks - light mineral (quartz, biotic, K-feldespart) more silica, less Fe and Mg
OCEANIC CRUST - mafic and ultramafic rocks - dark- colored minerals (olivine, othropyroxene,
clinopyroxene, amphibole) less silica, more Fe and Mg
- denser
- consists of mainly basalt
MANTLE
- Constitutes 80% of the earth's volume
- composed mostly of oxides and sulfides of Fe, Mg and Si.
ASTHENOSPHERE - (upper mantle) softer and viscous compared to crust. They are deformed rather
than fractured.
PERIDOTITE - (ultra mafic rock) olivine and pyroxene.
MOHOROVIC discontinuity - the boundary between crust and mantle. Name Audrija Mohorovic.
GUTENBERG discontuity - boundary between mantle and core. Named after Veno Gutenberg.
CORE
- 700 km in diameter and located at the earth's center
- INNER CORE - solid composed of Fe, Nickel and cobalt
- OUTER CORE - liquid, purely, Fe
- hottest layer
PETROLOGY - study of rocks
ROCKS - aggregate units of the earth's crust and are composed of minerals.
1. IGNEOUS ROCK
- plutonic - granite
- volcanic - (through volcanic activities) rhyolite, obsidian, basalt
2. SEDIMENTARY ROCK - formed from fragments of rocks.
- Detrital - Ex. Shale (from slit), conglomerate (pebbles), sand stone, sand grains
- Chemical - formed from mineral grains that fall out of solution by evaporation of chemical reaction.
Ex. halite (made from evaporation of sea water), selenite (made from evaporation of calcium and
sulfite), limestone (made from evaporation of sea water)
- Organic biogenic - formed from remains of organisms.
Ex. anthracite (highest carbon content, fewest impurities), bituminous (black coal),
lignite (brown coal, lowest rank of coal)
Amber - ancient hardened tree sap, Amber ranges from creamy yellow to transparent yellow or red
dark brown.
3. METAMORPHIC - formed from existing rock by the action of heat, pressure and chemicals.
Ex. slate, marble, quartzite


MINERALS
1. Silicon - contains silicon, talc, quartz, micas
2. Non - metallic - includes sulfates and carbonates which may be useful in industry.
3. Metal ore - Ex. copper ores, gold, silver, galena.
4. Gem minerals - diamonds, ruby, emerald etc.
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Color

2. Luster
metallic - opaque (pyrite, magnetic, galena)
non metallic - transparent types:
- vitreons - glassy, quartz and tourmaline
- pearly - talc
- resinous - sphalerite
- greasy - looks like they have thin layer of oil (GRAPHITE)
- silky - gypsum and malachite
- adamantin - brilliant luster (DIAMOND)
3. Density
4. Hardness - resistance to scratching.
- Friedrich Mohs - Mohs Scales
5. Fracture - refers to the way a mineral breaks on surfaces.
- a mineral fractures when it is broken or crashed.

POPULATION group of interbreeding organisms of the same kind occupying a particular space
1. Population Density
- Size of the population to a definite unit of space
CRUDE DENSITY number of individuals per unit area
ECOLOGICAL DENSITY density measured in terms of the area a variable as living space/habitat
2. Population Dispersion
- Distribution of organisms with in a population
Random individuals are arranged without any pattern
Uniform the individuals are spaced evenly
(allelopathy/autotoxicity) walnut tree [juglone]
Clumped in w/c individuals are grouped in patches
3. Population Dispersal
- It is an ecological process that involves the movement of an individual or multiple individuals away
from the population in w/c they were born to another location or population where they will settle
and reproduced.
Emigration leaving a population
Immigration joining
Migration leaving temporarily and returning to the place of origin
4. Natality/Birthrate is the rate at which new individuals are added to a particular population by
reproduction
5. Mortality/Deathrate is the rate at which the individuals die or get killed
Generally expressed as number of deaths per 1000 individuals of a population per year
6. Age Distribution determines the reproductive states of a population
Pre-reproductive
Reproductive
Post-reproductive
7. Biotic Potential ability of an organism to reproduce
8. Population Growth Curve










CARRYING CAPACITY
- The maximum, equilibrium number of organisms of a particular species that can be supported
indefinitely in a given environment
POPULATION LIMITING FACTORS
1. Availability of raw materials
2. Energy
3. Accumulation of waste products
4. Interaction among organisms

(CHAPTER 8)
MUTUALISM the survival of other organism with the help of another organism
Facultative one organism can survive even without the other organism
Aphids and ants
Best example of facultative is between the plan and the pollinator (bee and flower). Other factor that can
help with the pollination is wind.
Crab and algae is another factor
Obligate can only survive with the help of another organism
Lichens, fungus and alga
Best example of obligate is between yucca plant and yucca moth
Corals and zooxanthellae (algae)
COMMENSALISM the use of an organism to another organism w/o harming it.
Phoresy the attachment of an organism to another for transportation (ex. Whales and barnacles)
Inquilinism epiphyte (orchids)
Metabiosis the organism unintentionally creates a home for another organism (ex. Woodpeckers)
Chemical Commensalism excretes chemical that an organism benefits
AMMENSALISM - one organism is affected by another organism, unintentionally
J -SHAPED S - SHAPED
Competition (ex. Cow and grass, humans and pollution)
Antibiosis excretes chemical that harms the other organism (ex. Walnut and other plants, bread mold
penicillium)
PREDATION relationship between a predator and prey
Morphological Strategies
- Horn
- Claws
- Spikes
- Spines
- Teeth
a. Structural Adaptation
Slug moth caterpillar
Sohal surgeonfish
b. Camouflage
Flat tail horned lizard
Stonefish
c. Mimicry (mimic and model)
Batesian harmless mimicry
Mallerian 2 harmful organism (cuckoo bee and yellow bee, arrow frog and mantella)
Behavioral Strategies
Pursuit Deterrent convince predator not to pursue them (ex. Gazelle stooting, thanatosis [ playing
dead])
Nocturnality (ex. Kangaroo rat)
Dillution Effect (ex. School of fishes)
Defensive Regurgitation (ex. Northern Fulmar Chick)
PARASITISM type of relationship where two organisms co exist at the same time
Endoparasitism (Inside)
eg. Hookworms
a. Intracellular within the cell/inside
b. Intercellular spaces between 2 cells (ex. Heartworm in dog and human)
Ectoparasitism - outside the host
Epiparasitism parasites feeds on other parasites
Host Defenses
1. Adaptive immunity antibodies
2. Cellular immunity
3. Evation barriers
4. Grooming removing the ectoparasites