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PROJECT REPORT
On
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CONTENTS

Problem Profile
1 to 3
General Block Diagram
4 to 5
Hardware Description
6 to 7
Motors
8 to 13
Voltage Regulator
14 to 15
Motor Driver
16 to 21
Wireless Communication
22 to 26
Diodes
27 to 29
Chain Drive
30 to 31
Applications
33
Conclusion
34
Appendix I: Bibliography
38
Appendix II: List of Figures
39








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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


We express our gratitude to the Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, for giving us the opportunity
to work on the major project during our final year of B. Tech. Project work is an important aspect in
the field of engineering.
It is not until you undertake projects like these that you realize how massive the effort it really is, or
how much you must rely upon the selfless efforts and goodwill of others. There are many who helped
us with these projects, and we want to thank them all.
We would like to thank Dr. S C Laroiya, Director, Rayat Institute of Engineering and
Information Technology, Railmajra for his kind support. Our special thanks to Prof. R S Gupta ,
HOD, Mechanical Engineering, for his invaluable guidance throughout our project work.
We specially thank Prof. Ishwinder Singh project guide, whos invaluable guidance in this difficult
and endeavour period has provided us with the requisite motivation to complete our project
successfully.
We specially appreciate the help and guidance all those people who have directly or indirectly helped
us making our project a success.



PROJECT ASSOCIATES









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Chapter 1: Problem Profile
I NTRODUCTI ON
The idea behind this project is to design an MONOMOBILE (Motion Sensor Operated Wheel
Chair) is to help quadriplegic patient, who cannot move without help from others. This
MONOMOBILE gives them freedom to move on their own.
Although the appearance and capabilities of robots vary vastly, all robots share the features of
a mechanical, movable structure under some form of control. The control of robot involves
three distinct phases: perception, processing and action, generally, the preceptors are sensors
mounted on the robot, processing is done by the on board microcontroller or processor, and
the task (action) is performed using motors with some other actuators.

PROJ ECT WORKI NG
In our project we have to design a tilt communicator system for the Quadriplegic patient who
is suffering from damage in the spinal cord. Quadriplegics are limited in their motion and
need some device to communicate with their wheel chair for mobility without others
assistance. Providing the quadriplegics with movement and help them to be more
independent is the main goal of the project.
The tilt communicator is designed with artificial intelligence and embedded to provide a
communication between the patient and the wheel chair through the tilt movements of the
hand. In the tilt controller wheel chair, an accelerometer is used to produce an digital voltage
output (0 or 1) based on the specified tilt of the hand movement viz. front, back, right or left.
This digital output will be made available to the RF transmitter as an input using a logic
designed with the help of diodes and relays for the four respective directions of controlling.
An RF receiver system using 434 MHz frequency oscillator is used at the receiver section
that provides a real time controller to the wheel chair to control the motion in the desired
direction by calculating the intended direction of the head movement.












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PROJ ECT OVERVI EW
Electronics Parts:
The electronics of hand tilt operated wheel chair govern data transfer between the server and
the robot, the control of two D.C motors, wireless link at the receivers side. All electronic
modules are supplied power by a distributed power supply which steps down voltages to
levels required by various electronic modules.

Mechanical Assembly:
Mechanical designing of this robot would be involving testing on different kinds of chassis
for the robot strong enough to carry a laptop and an easy drive using gear reduction and
worm wheel assembly.

1. Dimensional requirements:
Although the dimensions of the area on floor covered by the robot are not such a major
factor, the factors that we would consider while finalizing the size are The area required by
the different parts to be placed viz. PCBs, Battery, Camera assembly.

2. Weight Considerations
The estimated total weight of the robot would be about required to be around 100 kg
therefore the D.C. motors chosen for driving the robot were to be powerful enough to carry
the weight and not lock while turning.
Chain drive system is used with the motor to provide the enough torque to carry the
weight around 100 kg.
3. Reliability of design
When the idea of this robot was conceived it was decided that this robot and all its parts be
made very reliable .Therefore the entire structure would be put in place by tightening
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multiple screws and bolts, and welded joints are also include, making it extremely reliable
and available for fine adjustments with great precision.

4. Strength required
The strength of the robot in terms of the strength of design would be optimized while taking
into account the conditions the wheel chair has to operate in.
5. Plug and play
The ease of any plug and play design has been well accomplished in case of the computers
used around the world. At the time while the idea of this robot was being conceived one of
the major plus points was to use a design conforming to the plug and play idea used in
todays computers. The advantages of this terminology of design are:
A. Ease of servicing / reparability of parts
B. Ease of maintenance
C. Improved reliability










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Chapter 2: General Block Diagram
Block Diagram Of Transmitter


Fig. I

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BLOCK DI AGRAM OF RECEI VER



Fig II

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Chapter 3 : Hardware Description
List Of Components used:


S.NO

Name

Quantity

Colour/Material

Pins
1 Chassis (mechanical) 1 Mild Steel -
2 RF modules 1 - -
3 Wheels for robot 4 2- cycle wheels
2- caster wheel
-
4 Motors 2 DC Geared (60rpm) -
5 Relays 1 - 5
6 Motor Driver L293D
( H-Bridge)
1 Black 16
7 Diodes
8 Designed PCB 1 -

9 Nut-Bolt Pair 8 -
10 Jumper Wire
( Single Stand Wire)
-
11 IC Base ( 8,14,16,40 pin) 3 Black -
12 Voltage regulator 7805 1 Black 3
13 Batteries 2 1- to drive motor
2- for circuit
-
14 10k ohm resistance 1 -
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15 10 microfarad capacitor 1 -


Parts of Project:
The main parts of projects are:
7805 Voltage Regulator
Motors
Chassis
Motor Driving Circuits
Wireless Modules
Mercury Sensors
Comparator LM35 Motors

Construction details of project:
Overall dimensions: mm by mm
Motor : 60 rpm
Wheels used: + Caster wheel
+ Cycle wheel
Sprockets Diameter on rear wheel :
Sprocket Diameter on front wheel :
Diameter of caster wheel:
Diameter of cycle wheel:
Batteries: 12 V





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CHAPTER 4: MOTORS

Motor used in project: DC Geared ( 60 rpm)
Motor Description:
An electric motor is a type of machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Electric motors operate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying
conductors to generate force, although a few use electrostatic forces. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by
an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators,
and vice versa. For example a starter/generator for a gas turbine or Traction motors used on
vehicles often perform both tasks.
Electric motors are found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and disk drives. They may be powered
by direct current(e.g., a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle), or by alternating
current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found
in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest
electric motors are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline
compressors, with ratings in the millions of watts. Electric motors may be classified by the
source of electric power, by their internal construction, by their application, or by the type of
motion they give.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interactions of an electric
current and a magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing
efficiency were constructed throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of
electric motors on a large scale required efficient electrical generators and electrical
distribution networks.
Some devices, such as magnetic solenoids and loudspeakers, although they generate some
mechanical power, are not generally referred to as electric motors, and are usually
termed actuators and transducers, respectively.
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The principle
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by an electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was
dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed. When a current was
passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave
rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in
school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury.
This is the simplest form of a class of devices called homopolar motors. A later refinement is
the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices only, unsuited to practical
applications due to their primitive construction.

Fig III
Categorization of electric motors
The classic division of electric motors has been that of Alternating Current (AC) types
vs. Direct Current (DC) types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid
distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run on AC power, these motors being
referred to as universal motors.
Rated output power is also used to categories motors, those of less than 746 Watts, for
example, are often referred to as fractional horsepower motors (FHP) in reference to the old
imperial measurement.
The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern
drivers have moved the commentator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor,
driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some
approximation thereof. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor and the stepping
motor, both being poly-phase AC motors requiring external electronic control, although
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historically, stepping motors (such as for maritime and naval gyrocompass repeaters) were
driven from DC switched by contacts.
Considering all rotating (or linear) electric motors require synchronism between a moving
magnetic field and a moving current sheet for average torque production, there is a clearer
distinction between an asynchronous motor and synchronous types. An asynchronous motor
requires slip between the moving magnetic field and a winding set to induce current in the
winding set by mutual inductance; the most ubiquitous example being the common
AC induction motor which must slip to generate torque. In the synchronous types, induction
(or slip) is not a requisite for magnetic field or current production (e.g. permanent magnet
motors, synchronous brush-less wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine).
Comparison of motor types
Servo motor
A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback to
correct the performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where
the feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical position or other parameters.
For example, an automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no
automatic feedback which controls positionthe operator does this by observation. By
contrast the car's cruise control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a
servomechanism.
Synchronous electric motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils
passing magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which
drives it. Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions.
Contrast this with an induction motor, which must slip to produce torque. A synchronous
motor is like an induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and
brushes are used to conduct current to rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move
at the same speed hence the name synchronous motor.
Induction motor
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used name is
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squirrel cage motor because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage
(hamster wheel). An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor
(rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power
is supplied to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power
is induced in the rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating
transformer because the stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the
transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. Induction motors are widely
used, especially polyphone induction motors, which are often used in industrial drives.
Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)
An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the attraction
and repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional
coil-based motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very small
motors employ lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic
attraction and repulsion, and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first
electrostatic motors were developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the
electrostatic motor finds frequent use in micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their
drive voltages are below 100 volts, and where moving, charged plates are far easier to
fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the molecular machinery which runs living cells is
often based on linear and rotary electrostatic motors.
DC Motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs
are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor,
which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and
brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an
oscillating AC current from the DC sourceso they are not purely DC machines in a strict
sense.
Brushed DC motors
DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature, with a split
ring commentator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or
more coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to
the rotor coil through the commentator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it,
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producing electromagnetism. The commutation causes the current in the coils to be switched
as the rotor turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the
magnetic poles of the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does)
but rather keeps rotating indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the
motor to overcome the shaft torque load and internal losses due to friction, etc.)
Brushless DC motors
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brush gear assembly is replaced by an
external electronic switch synchronized to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically
85-90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5%
were reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009), whereas DC motors
with brush gear are typically 75-80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC
motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet
external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the
position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase
after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors
or from the back EMF (electromotive force) of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-
phase synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A
specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main
phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These
motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled vehicles. When configured with the
magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelers as out runner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in
computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.)
drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers.
They have several advantages over conventional motors:
Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much
cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of
the fan's bearings.
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Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly
longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also
tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a
brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or
computers.
The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a
convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In
fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise
speed control.
Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better
suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone
which can accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.
Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are
generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.
They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is
affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts.
Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also
find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
Coreless or ironless DC motors
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel)
portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the
electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a
specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these
motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a
winding-filled cylinder, or a self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and
the bonding material. The rotor can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically soft
stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a return path for the stator magnetic flux. A
second arrangement has the rotor winding basket surrounding the stator magnets. In that
design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically soft cylinder that can serve as the housing for the
motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux.
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Chapter 5: VOLTAGE REGULATERS
Regulator
Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed
(typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. They are also rated by the maximum
current they can pass. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current
('overload protection') and overheating
('thermal protection').
Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have
3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the
right. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.
Please see the Electronics in Meccano website for more information about voltage regulator
ICs.



Fig V: An assortment of 78XX ICs





Voltage regulator
Fig IV

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The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of self-contained
fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is a very popular choice for
many electronic circuits which require a regulated power supply, due to their ease of use and
relative cheapness. When specifying individual ICs within this family, the xx is replaced with
a two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the particular device is designed to
provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while the 7812 produces 12 volts). The
78xx line are positive voltage regulators, meaning that they are designed to produce a voltage
that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are
complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to
provide both positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit, if necessary.
78xx ICs have three terminals and are most commonly found in the TO220 form factor,
although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are also available from some
manufacturers. These devices typically support an input voltage which can be anywhere from
a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 or 40 volts, and
can typically provide up to around 1 or 1.5 amps of current (though smaller or larger
packages may have a lower or higher current rating).











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CHAPTER 6: MOTOR DRIVERS

L293D is a dual H-Bridge motor driver, so with one IC we can interface two DC motors
which can be controlled in both clockwise and counter clockwise direction and if you have
motor with fix direction of motion the you can make use of all the four I/Os to connect up to
four DC motors. L293D has output current of 600mA and peak output current of 1.2A per
channel. Moreover for protection of circuit from back EMF output diodes are included within
the IC. The output supply (VCC2) has a wide range from 4.5V to 36V, which has made
L293D a best choice for DC motor driver.

A simple schematic for interfacing a DC motor using L293D is shown below

Fig VI
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As you can see in the circuit, three pins are needed for interfacing a DC motor (A, B, Enable).
If you want the o/p to be enabled completely then you can connect Enable to VCC and only 2
pins needed from controller to make the motor work.
As per the truth mentioned in the image above its fairly simple to program the
microcontroller. Its also clear from the truth table of BJT circuit and L293D the
programming will be same for both of them, just keeping in mind the allowed combinations
of A and B. We will discuss about programming in C as well as assembly for running motor
with the help of a microcontroller. As seen from above, l293d is an 16 pin IC(integrated
Circuit) shown below along with its pin configuration:


An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either
direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run
forwards and backwards. H-bridges are available as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete
components.
A "double pole double throw" relay can generally achieve the same electrical functionality as an H-
bridge (considering the usual function of the device). Though an H-bridge would be preferable where a
smaller physical size is needed, high speed switching, low driving voltage, or where the wearing out of
mechanical parts is undesirable.
The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-bridge
is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the
first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By
opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse
operation of the motor.
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Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this
would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4.
This condition is known as shoot-through





Fig VII: H- Bridge
L293D PIN CONFIGURATION AND input- output logic function table:

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.
Operation
The two basic states of an H-bridge.
The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but can also be used to
'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are shorted, or to let
the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following
table summarises operation.

Fig VIII: Typical solid state H-bridge
A solid-state H-bridge is typically constructed using reverse polarity devices (i.e., PNP BJTs
or P-channel MOSFETs connected to the high voltage bus and NPN BJTs or N-channel
MOSFETs connected to the low voltage bus).
The most efficient MOSFET designs use N-channel MOSFETs on both the high side and low
side because they typically have a third of the ON resistance of P-channel MOSFETs. This
requires a more complex design since the gates of the high side MOSFETs must be driven
positive with respect to the DC supply rail. However, many integrated circuit MOSFET
drivers include a charge pump within the device to achieve this.
Alternatively, a switch-mode DC-DC converter can be used to provide isolated ('floating')
supplies to the gate drive circuitry. A multiple-output fly back converter is well-suited to this
application.
Another method for driving MOSFET-bridges is the use of a specialised transformer known
as a GDT (Gate Drive Transformer), which gives the isolated outputs for driving the upper
FETs gates. The transformer core is usually a ferrite toroid, with 1:1 or 4:9 winding ratio.
However, this method can only be used with high frequency signals. The design of the
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transformer is also very important, as the leakage inductance should be minimized, or cross
conduction may occur. The outputs of the transformer also need to be usually clamped by
zener diodes, because high voltage spikes could destroy the MOSFET gates.
A common variation of this circuit uses just the two transistors on one side of the load,
similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". The half bridge
is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiers and in
switching amplifiers. The half H-bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to
distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H-bridges. Adding a third 'leg' to the bridge creates a 3-
phase inverter, the core of any AC motor drive.
A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where one of the high- and low-side
switching devices (on opposite sides of the bridge) are replaced with diodes. This eliminates
the shoot-through failure mode, and is commonly used to drive variable/switched reluctance
machines and actuators where bi-directional current flow is not required.
One of the first realizations in robotics is that making something move isnt an easy task. You
simply cant take a brain circuit and connect it to a motor and expect anything to happen.
The motor will simply say HAH! at the puny output signal from the brains, and stay
stationary. What the brain needs is an enforcer muscle. Something to convince the motor to
do things the way the brains want it to be done. There are many ways to strengthen (buffer)
a signal so its strong enough to drive a large load like a motor. Transistor H-bridges circuit,
buffer chips, and dedicated motor driving chips are all suitable candidates, with their own
benefits and limitations. For our Secret motor driver, we wanted something that would take
standard TTL (well, CMOS too) inputs and make a standard servo our slave. You see,
standard servos use a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signal to tell a servo where to
rotate to. PWM works by sending a rapid train of high/low signals to the servos regular
driver brains, and depending on how different the high signal is from the low signal, the servo
moves to the
according position. PWM is great if you dont want to rotate much more than 180, which is
fine for actuators, but not for driving wheels. With our Secret motor driver and a bit of
servo hacking, were going to lobotomize and turn a standard servo into something more
useful - a small, compact, powerful gear motor! Itll be something you can use very simple
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input signals to control its rotation. Well even throw in a 5V regulator hack if you want to
clamp the voltage right at the servo. Or, modify it for use on a breadboard, which will make
good use of the drivers indicator LEDs to show direction of rotation.














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CHAPTER 6: WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Wireless telecommunications, is the transfer of information between two or more points that
are physically not connected. Distances can be short, as a few meters as in television remote
control; or long ranging from thousands to millions of kilometers for deep-space radio
communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way
radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other
examples of wireless technology include GPS units, Garage door openers or garage doors,
wireless computer mice, keyboards and Headset (telephone/computer), headphones, radio
receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones.
Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are
impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in
the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio
transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.)
which use some form of energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF),acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer
information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both
short and long distances.
OVERVIEW OF RF TECHNOLOGY
Radio frequency (RF) is a rate of oscillation in the range of about 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which
corresponds to the frequency of radio waves, and the alternating currents which carry radio
signals. RF usually refers to electrical rather than mechanical oscillations, although
mechanical RF systems do exist.
PROPERTIES OF RF CIRCUITS
Electric Currents that oscillate at radio frequencies have special properties not shared
by direct current or alternating current of lower frequencies. The energy in an RF current can
radiate off a conductor into space as electromagnetic waves (radio waves); this is the basis of
radio technology. RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but flows
along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect. For this reason, when the human body
comes in contact with high power RF currents it can cause superficial but serious burns
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called RF burns. RF current can easily ionize air, creating a conductive path through it. This
property is exploited by "high frequency" units used in electric arc welding, which use
currents at higher frequencies than power distribution uses. Another property is the ability to
appear to flow through paths that contain insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a
capacitor. When conducted by an ordinary electric cable, RF current has a tendency to reflect
from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and travel back down the cable toward
the source, causing a condition called standing waves, so RF current must be carried by
specialized types of cable called transmission line.

RADIO COMMUNICATION
In order to receive radio signals an antenna must be used. However, since the antenna will
pick up thousands of radio signals at a time, a radio tuner is necessary to tune in to a
particular frequency (or frequency range). This is typically done via a resonator in its
simplest form, a circuit with a capacitor and an inductor forming a tuned circuit. The
resonator amplifies oscillations within a particular frequency band, while reducing
oscillations at other frequencies outside the band.













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Transmitter Section:
Now, we would be using 4 data bits from the parallel port and give it to the encoder module of a RF
circuit. Wireless data transmission is the second part of our hardware. This would be done with the
help of RF modules available. RF module, as the name suggests, uses radio frequency to send signals.
These signals are transmitted at a particular frequency and a baud rate. A receiver can receive these
signals only if it is configured for that frequency. This RF module comprises of an RF
Transmitter and an RF Receiver. The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency
of 434 MHz. An RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF through its
antenna. The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an
RF receiver operating at the same frequency as that of the transmitter. But, in order to transmit and
receive signals from these wireless modules of frequency 434MHz, an extra circuitry called encoders
and decoders are used at the transmitter and receiver side respectively. At transmitter section, we have
a PC > Parallel port > DB25 connector > 4 bit parallel data output.


FigIX : Transmitter Block Diagram (TX-2B)
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RECEIVER SECTION

Now, at receiver section we would install a receiver module first to receive the data
transmitted from RF Transmitter. Then this data would be given out from the receiver module
in a serial format and then a decoder circuitry is used that decodes this data and convert it into
parallel form and gives a 4 bit data output. This function is just reciprocal of that of the
transmitter. This decoded 4 bit output would then be transmitted the robot motors would be
controlled with the help of decoded signal received at the output with the help of a motor
driver H-Bridge and hence robot at the remote location would be controlled with the help of
commands entered by a remote PC.

FIG X: RECEIVER BLOCK DIAGRAM
Description:
The TX-2B/RX-2B is a pair of CMOS LSIs designed for remote controlled helicopter
applications. The TX-2B/RX-2B has five control keys for controlling the motions of the
helicopter.

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Features:
* Wide operating voltage range (VCC=1.5~5.0V)
* Low stand-by current
* Auto-power-off function for TX-2B
* Few external components are needed

Fig XI: Pin Configuration










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CHAPTER 7: DIODES
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.

SYMBOL:

Light emitting diodes: The light emitting diode or LED is one of the most popular
types of diode. When forward biased with current flowing through the junction, light
is produced. The diodes use component semiconductors, and can produce a variety of
colours, although the original colour was red.

Photodiode: When light strikes a PN junction it can create electrons and holes,
causing a current to flow. As a result it is possible to use semiconductors to detect
light. These types of diodes can also be used to generate electricity. For some
applications, PIN diodes work very well as photo detectors.
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Schottky diodes: This type of diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary
silicon PN junction diodes. At low currents the drop may be somewhere between
0.15and 0.4 volts as opposed to 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. To achieve this
performance they are constructed in a different way to normal diodes having a metal
to semiconductor contact. They are widely used as clamping diodes, and in RF

Varicap or varactor diodes: This type of diode is used in radio frequency (RF)
applications. The diode has a reverse bias placed upon it and in this way no current
flows across the junction. However the width of the depletion layer varies according
to the amount of bias placed on it. The diode can be thought of as two plates of a
capacitor, with the depletion layer between them. As the capacitance varies according
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to the width of the depletion layer and this can be varied by changing the reverse bias
on the diode, it is possible to control the capacitance of the diode.

Zener diode: The zener diode is a very useful type of diode. It is run under reverse
bias and when a certain voltage is reached it breaks down. If the current is limited
through a resistor, it enables a stable voltage to be produced. This type of diode is
therefore widely used to provide a reference voltage in power supplies.






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CHAPTER-8: CHAIN DRIVE
Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often
used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles and motorcycles. It is
also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles.
Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive
chain or transmission chain, passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear
meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain
putting mechanical force into the system. Another type of drive chain is the Morse chain,
invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York, USA. This has inverted teeth.
Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag
objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching
shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go
around corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power
into the system or transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the
diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered,
so that, for example, the pedals of a bicycle can spin all the way around more than once for
every rotation of the gear that drives the wheels.
A chain-drive system uses one or more roller chains to transmit power from a differential to
the rear axle. This system allowed for a great deal of vertical axle movement (for example,
over bumps), and was simpler to design and build than a rigid driveshaft in a workable
suspension. Also, it had less unsprang weight at the rear wheels than the Hotchkiss drive,
which would have had the weight of the driveshaft and differential to carry as well. This
meant that the vehicle would have a smoother ride. The lighter unsprang mass would allow
the suspension to react to bumps more effectively
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CHAIN DRIVE


















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CHAPTER-9 APPLICATIONS

One of the main reason behind designing this wheelchair is to help the persons who are
physically challenged and are not able to work independently. This kind of wheelchair
provide them with one of basic right of society i.e. Right to freedom. With this chair, at least
they can perform their basic daily routine independently. The tilt sensors that we use can be
used with any body part which is functional like hands, head etc. With proper development of
this project it can be made to do so many things

Future scope of the microcontroller kit used in this project
Various future scope of this microcontroller kit are:-
1. This coding serves the purpose of explaining the student of technical institute and
college about serial communication and its interfacing with microcontroller.
2. Useful for embedded application and robotics project.
3. Helpful for beginner in field of embedded system and robotics.











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Chapter 10 : Conclusion
After complete designing of our project, we have made number of experiment on it. As on
very first run of our project, the relays failed. The reason behind the failure was the wrong
choice of relays but we replaced it and finally the project ran successfully . We learned a lot
from the project as this was our first practical experience.
We found that this project was properly working and each peripheral interfaced is properly
working, and many operations on this project can be performed very easily without any
difficulty.




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Appendix I: References

1. Robokits World RF Modules (Tx + Rx Pair) 433 MHz ASK [RKI-1064] - The RX
ASK is an ASK Hybrid receiver module, Online, 15 August 2008
< http://www.robokitsindia.com >

3. Wireless Made Simple - RF module, antenna and connector solutions offer easily
applied remote control functionality to your product, Online, 18 August 2008
< http://8051.com >

4. Datasheet search site, datasheets, Datasheet search site for Electronic Components
and Semiconductors, integrated circuits, diodes and other semiconductors.
Online, 31 August 2008
< http://www.alldatasheet.com >

5. How Stuff Works explains hundreds of subjects, from car engines to lock-picking to
ESP, using clear language and tons of illustrations Online, 11 October 2008
< www.howstuffworks.com >

Books
1. Author:Bibin John(Advanced search in robotics) Publisher: PEARSON, Prentice
Hall, 1990

2. RS components , Catalog book, 2008







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Appendix II : List of Figures
S.No Name of Figure

Pg. No
Fig I Block Diagram

4
Fig II Block Diagram

5
FigIII Motor

9
Fig IV Voltage Regulator

14
Fig V 78XX ICs

14
Fig VI Motor Driver

16
Fig VII H-Bridge

18
Fig VIII H-Bridge

19
Fig IX Transmitter Block Diagram

24
Fig X Receiver Block Diagram

25
Fig XI Pin Configuration

26
Fig XII Diode

27