PQ08 Unbalance

1: Part 1: Modern Power Theorys

1.1. Overview of Power Theory
What difference to fundamental power equations are brought by distorted power. Apparent
power can no longer be explained only in terms of active and reactive power as something is
missing - distortion power (symbol D). Historically, it was a simple mathematical isolation of
the missing component in power and then terming it distortion power. Budeanu defined the
concept of distortion power as distortion is the cause.
Historically Steinmetz (1892):Ratio of active to apparent power decrease when waveform
becomes more distorted such as electric arc (lighting application).
Unbalance in loading, asymmetry in supply voltages, and distortion in voltage and/or current
contributes to the degradation of power factor
A brief overview is given of some of the significant contributors to power theory.
The IEEE has recognised the need to a practical approach to power theory for the engineer as
contributions to power theory are still forthcoming and has started to formulate an opinion in
the 1990s.
What is wrong with Q
B
the Budeanu Reactive Power?
o The summation of reactive powers does not make sense. This statement is supported by case study in
this module that will prove that the Budeanu reactive power has no clear physical sense. A similar
argumentation was used by Czarnecki in his famous paper Why the Budeanu Power Theory is
Wrong and should be abandoned.
Physical nature of reactive power: energy accumulation in electric and magnetic fields of
reactive components in the load and source results in oscillatory exchange of energy between
these reactive components
Requirements for modern power theories:
generalisation of the classic single-frequency power theory that has by now been universally
accepted.
amenable to conventional measurement techniques as possible and require the minimum of
sophistication in instrumentation.
its different defined components must be relatable to physically observable or ascribable
phenomena and not to hypothetical or abstract mathematical definition.
it must present a suitable basis for quantifiable measurement, control, tariff systems and
design.
it must cater for every conceivable practical situation and never violate circuit laws,
regardless of which domain it is transformed into.
it must be useful to the engineer who has to apply these definitions in design, specification
and operation of the power system.
The IEEE 1459-2000: Power Definitions for Modern Power Systems
The IEEE 1459 is introduced in this section as a practical approach to power definitions for
the engineer who has to operate and design within a practical power system:
o Harmonics in voltage and current
o Unbalance in loading
o Asymmetry between phase voltages
The useful powers as per IEEE 1459 definition.
Power factor as now open for discussion
1.2. Case Study
A real life power system was investigated when a significant load was added to the PCC. The
concern was that this transformer will not be able to maintain an acceptable Quality of Supply
at the PCC with the new load. The case study determines what the three-phase effective
voltages and currents are, the different apparent powers and power factors and then quantifies
the level of pollution due to harmonics and unbalance. Three values resulting from alternative
calculations have been obtained for:
Effective apparent power:
Arithmetic apparent power:
Vector apparent power:
Fair conclusion: The three-phase effective power factor is numerically the smallest if unbalance
and/or waveform distortion exist.
2. Part 2: Voltage and current unbalance
2.1. What is Voltage and Current Unbalance?
Conditions for perfectly balanced linear load (Z) connected at a Point of Common Coupling
(PCC), perfectly symmetrical and with perfectly sinusoidal voltages at the PCC. Mathematical
Analysis
Sequence components are used to analyse the unbalance in a power system; termed the
positive-, negative- and zero-sequence components.
It is a synthetic concept to understand the physical world (phase domain).
The Fortesque transform set the mathematical basis to derive sequence components.
Short (disturbance caused) temporary and long term (usually unbalanced load) unbalance
Negative effects of unbalance
Quantification of unbalance number of equations by different references (negative to positive
sequence)
2.2. Case Study
Arc furnace with a slight difference between the phase values and the negative sequence voltage
value resulted in a Voltage Unbalance Factor (negative to positive sequence components) of
2.4%.
How much of VUF is due to the unbalance in current and how much of that VUF is due
to asymmetry in the network voltages (the background unbalance without this
unbalanced loading).
Investigation on how much the efficiency of energy transfer is reduced by these
unbalances between phase voltages and currents based on IEEE 1459-2000 method for
calculation of the growth in apparent power due to unbalance- both of unbalance in
voltages and in loading.
The 3 different PF formulations are lastly listed.
2.3. Sources of Unbalance
Major causes of current/voltage unbalance at PCC as:
Non-uniform distribution of single-phase loads among the three-phases of the electrical
power system such as in low voltage systems (kVA range)
Single-phase loads connected phase to phase, such as traction systems (kVA MVA
range)
Unbalanced three-phase loads, such as arc furnaces (up to tens of MVA)
Other causes as:
Asymmetrical transmission impedances (untransposed lines)
Asymmetrical transformer winding impedances
Open wye and open delta transformer banks
Blown fuses on phases of capacitor banks.
Unbalance may also result due to:
Mismatch in reactive power between generation and demand (overloading of equipment)
High impedance connections (loose contacts)
2.4. Effects of unbalance
Efficiency of energy transfer is less under unbalance conditions and a lower power factor
results.
The effects on power system:
additional energy losses in supply system due to higher RMS line currents
additional heating in rotating loads due to negative sequence currents
Propagation of voltage unbalance due to interconnection of network- the negative
sequence voltages/currents are transferred through transformer windings
Other consequences include adverse effect on asynchronous machines but also synchronous
machines and power electronics
2.5. Mitigation of unbalance
Different symmetrization techniques on system and user levels
2.6. Standards
IEC, ANSI, EU, NRS
2.7. Voltage Unbalance Reporting
A discussion and demonstration of how a standard is applied when assessing the voltage
unbalance at a point of supply.
2.8. Conclusion
The management of voltage unbalance will be aided by knowledge on the root cause.
The level of compatibility between supply and loading conditions is to be monitored.
Careful design of supply system is required to ensure minimum contribution to voltage
unbalance level at supply points.
Careful integration and operation of unbalanced loads to minimise contribution to level of
voltage unbalance.
Mitigation can be done by the addition of parallel and/or series networks
Symmetrisation/balancing of supply currents by parallel networks can eliminate the
contribution to voltage unbalance by load operation