IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

LESSON PLAN Format No.3b

Sub Code : ME2034
Sub Name: Nuclear en!neer!n
"ranc#: Mec#an!cal En!neer!n Seme$%er : &II
'n!% : I
T!%le: N'CLEAR P()SICS
LP Re*+ No: 02
,a%e: 2-+4+20.4
Pae:0. o/ 00
Ob1ec%!*e: To impart knowledge on basic nuclear physics namely atom, nucleus, binding energy,
radio activity, models of nucleus.
Se$$!on
No
To2!c$ %o be co*ered Per!od 3 Pae+ No Te4% Teac#!n
Me%#od
L T
1
Introduction to nuclear physics
protons, neutrons and electrons
1 1!1" T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)
Isotopes, isobars, isotones, isomers,
binding energy for fission and fusion
1 )))* T#1$ 1 %&'((T
3
+instein,s theory of relativity, -ass
+nergy relationship, e.uivalence of
mass and energy
1
3/33 ,3!
T#1$
1 %&'((T
0
1adioactivity alpha decay, gamma
radiation, beta decay
1 3",*3"T#1$ 1 %&'((T
2
Nuclear models li.uid drop model,
independent particle model, the shell
model
1 *3"T#1$ 1 %&'((T
*
3ibration model, the rotational model,
the Nilsson model, the generali4ed shell
model
1 *3"T#1$ 1 %&'((T
!
Neutron interactions
1 51"1#)$ )
Inno*a%!*e
Me%#odolo5
5
Neutron cross section, cross sections for
mi6tures
1 3/T#1$ 1 %&'((T
" 1eaction rate, average cross section 1
0)
02T#1$,133
10)T#1$
1 %&'((T
E*alua%!on : IA 6I and Model E4am
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
Sub Code : ME2034
Sub Name: Nuclear en!neer!n
"ranc#: Mec#an!cal En!neer!n Seme$%er : &III
'n!% 6 II
T!%le: N'CLEAR REACTIONS AN, REACTION
MATERIALS
LP Re*+ No: 02
,a%e: 2-+4+20.4
Pae:02 o/ 00
Ob1ec%!*e: To impart knowledge on nuclear fission and fusion, nuclear fuel cycles, uranium production
and purification.
Se$$!on
No
To2!c$ %o be co*ered Per!od 3 (our$ Pae+ No Te4% Teac#!n
Me%#od L T
1/
-echanism of nuclear fission 1
1*/1*1T#1$ 1 %&'((T
11
-echanism of nuclear fusion 1
1*01!)T#1$ 1 %&'((T
1)
7hain reactions 1
1!5T#1$ 1
Inno*a%!*e
Me%#odolo5
13
7ritical mass and composition 1
15!)//T#1$ 1,) %&'((T
10
Nuclear fuel cycles 1
1/013)T#1$ 1 %&'((T
12 8ranium production
1
1/013)T#1$ 1 %&'((T
1* 8ranium purification
1
))"T#1$ 1 %&'((T
1! 9ther nuclear fules :irconium
1
)0*)05T#1$ 1 %&'((T
15 :irconium, thorium, beryllium
1
)21)*/T#1$ 1 %&'((T
E*alua%!on : IA 6I and Model E4am
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
Sub Code : ME2034
Sub Name: Nuclear en!neer!n
"ranc#: Mec#an!cal En!neer!n Seme$%er : &II
'n!% 6 III
T!%le: REPROCESSING
LP Re*+ No: 02
,a%e: 2-+4+20.4
Pae:03 o/ 00
Ob1ec%!*e: To gain the knowledge on nuclear fuel reprocessing, spent fuel characteristics, solvent
e6traction e.uipment+
Se$$!on
No
To2!c$ %o be co*ered Per!od 3 (our$ Pae+ No Te4% Teac#!n
Me%#od L T
1"
Nuclear fuel reprocessing ;
introduction
1
)!5 T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)/
<eparation technologies water and
organic solvents
1
)5/ T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)1 (yro processing
1
)"1 T#1$ 1
Inno*a%!*e
Me%#odolo5
))
<pent fuel characteristics spent fuel
decay heat
1
3// T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)3
Fuel composition, long time
radioactivity
1
222 T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)0
<pent fuel corrosion, disposal 1
22* T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)2
1ole of solvent e6traction in
reprocessing
1
3"! T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)*
<olvent e6traction e.uipment
mi6ture settlers
1
0/5 T#1$ 1 %&'((T
)! 7olumns, centrifugal contactors
1
0/5 T#1$ 1 %&'((T
E*alua%!on : IA 6I and Model E4am
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
Sub Code : ME2034
Sub Name: Nuclear en!neer!n
"ranc#: Mec#an!cal En!neer!n Seme$%er : &II
'n!% 6 I&
T!%le: N'CLEAR REACTOR
LP Re*+ No: 0.
,a%e: 2-+4+20.4
Pae:04 o/ 00
Ob1ec%!*e: To impart knowledge on fast breeding reactors, reactor shielding and fusion reactors.
Se$$!on
No
To2!c$ %o be co*ered Per!od 3 Pae+ Te4%3 Teac#!n
Me%#od
L T
)5
Nuclear reactors Introduction 1 0*5
T#1$
1
%&'((T
)"
Types of fast breeding reactors gas cooled,
sodium cooled, lead cooled
1
0!/ T#1$ 1
%&'((T
3/
Fast breeding reactors =esign and
construction
1
30) T#1$ 1
%&'((T
31
1eactor pumps, heat e6changer 1
300 T#1$ 1
Inno*a%!*e
Me%#odolo5
3) 1eactor steam generators, turbines 1 33" T#1$ 1 %&'((T
33 >eat transfer techni.ues in nuclear reactors 1 22" T#1$ 1 %&'((T
30 1eactor shielding principle, types 1 2*/ T#1$ 1 %&'((T
32 Fusion reactors Introduction 1 2*1 T#1$ 1 %&'((T
3*
Fusion reactors working principle and
types
1 2*)2*0
T#1$
1 %&'((T
E*alua%!on : IA 6II and Model E4am
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
Sub Code : ME2034
Sub Name: Nuclear en!neer!n
"ranc#: Mec#an!cal En!neer!n Seme$%er : &II
'n!% 6 &
T!%le: SAFET) AN, ,ISPOSAL
LP Re*+ No: 0.
,a%e: 2-+4+20.4
Pae:07 o/ 00
Ob1ec%!*e: To impart knowledge on nuclear plant safety and nuclear waste disposal.
Se$$!on
No
To2!c$ %o be co*ered Per!od 3 Pae+ Te4%3 Teac#!n
Me%#od
L T
3! Nuclear plant safety Introduction 1 3)/ 1 %&'((T
35 <afety systems 1 3)1 ) %&'((T
3"
<ystem changes and conse.uences of
accidents
1
2!1 1
%&'((T
0/ 7riteria for safety 1 2!) 1 %&'((T
01 Nuclear waste types 1 2!3 1 %&'((T
0) Nuclear waste disposal 1 2!! 1 %&'((T
03
1adiation ha4ards types 1
251 1
Inno*a%!*e
Me%#odolo5
00 (revention of radiation ha4ards 1 25! 1 %&'((T
02 ?eapons proliferation 1 03*,025 1 %&'((T
E*alua%!on : IA 6III and Model E4am
8 G" 6 Green "oard PPT 6 Po9er Po!n% Pre$en%a%!on
Cour$e ,el!*er5 Plan:
:ee;
1 ) 3 0 2 * ! 5 " 1/ 11 1) 13 10 12
'n!%$
I I I I I I I & &
Con%en% be5ond %#e S5llabu$:
1. Fusion and (lasma (hysics ; -IT
). Nuclear <ystems =esign (ro@ect #Fall )/11$ -IT
3. Neutron Interactions and Applications ; -IT
TE<T "OO=S:
T1. Thomas B.7annoly, CFundamentals of nuclear +ngineeringD Bohn ?iley 1"!5.
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
REFERENCES:
11. 7ollier B.%., and >ewitt %.F, CIntroduction to Nuclear powerD, >emisphere publishing, New Eork.
1"5!
1). ?akil -.-.+l., C(ower (lant TechnologyD ; -c%raw>ill International, 1"50.
:eb$!%e$ 3 :eb cour$e$: :
1. httpF''ocw.mit.edu'courses'nuclearengineering'
). httpF''www.worldnuclear.org'info'nuclearfuelcycle'powerreactors'nuclearpowerreactors'
3. httpF''ocw.mit.edu'courses'nuclearengineering'))/)introductiontoappliednuclearphysics
spring)/1)'lecturenotes'
0. httpF''ocw.mit.edu'courses'nuclearengineering'))/1introductiontoioni4ingradiationfall
)//*'lecturenotes'
&!deo$:
httpF''www.youtube.com'watchGvHie:>%ub51lw
httpF''freevideolectures.com'7ourse')30)'+nergy1esourcesandTechnology'13I
httpF''www.youtube.com'watchGvHJF.k8d)@B*o
httpF''www.learnerstv.com'video'FreevideoKecture2511engineering.htm
httpF''nptel.ac.in'courses'1121/0/03'
TOPICS FOR INNO&ATI&E TEAC(ING:
8nit 1: Neutron interactions
8nit )F 7hain reactions
8nit 3F (yro processing
8nit 0F 1eactor pumps, heat e6changer
8nit 2F 1adiation ha4ards
Pre2ared b5 A22ro*ed b5
S!na%ure
Name
P+=ala!$el*an 3 =+Mad#e$9aran Mr+&+&elmuruan
,e$!na%!on A$$oc!a%e Pro/e$$or 3 A$$!$%an% Pro/+ (+O+, 3 Mec#
,a%e
ME2034 N'CLEAR ENGINEERING L T P C
3 0 0 3
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
O">ECTI&E
To gain some fundamental knowledge about nuclear physics, nuclear reactor, nuclear
fuels, reactors and safe disposal of nuclear wastes.
'NIT I N'CLEAR P()SICS
?
Nuclear model of an atom+.uivalence of mass and energybinding radio activityhalf
lifeneutron interactionscross sections.
'NIT II N'CLEAR REACTIONS AN, REACTION MATERIALS ?
-echanism of nuclear fission and fusion radio activity chain reactionscritical mass and
compositionnuclear fuel cycles and its characteristicsuranium production and purification
:irconium, thorium, beryllium.
'NIT III REPROCESSING ?
1eprocessingF nuclear fuel cyclesspent fuel characteristicsrole of solvent e6traction in
reprocessingsolvent e6traction e.uipment.
'NIT I& N'CLEAR REACTOR ?
Nuclear reactorsF types of fast breeding reactorsdesign and construction of fast breeding reactors
heat transfer techni.ues in nuclear reactors reactor shielding. Fusion reactors.
'NIT & SAFET) AN, ,ISPOSAL ?
<afety and disposalF Nuclear plant safetysafety systemschanges and conse.uences of
accidentcriteria for safetynuclear wastetypes of waste and its disposalradiation
ha4ards and their preventionweapons proliferation.
TOTAL: 47 PERIO,S
TE<T "OO=S:
1. Thomas B.7annoly, CFundamentals of nuclear +ngineeringD Bohn ?iley 1"!5.
REFERENCES:
1. 7ollier B.%., and >ewitt %.F, CIntroduction to Nuclear powerD, >emisphere publishing, New
Eork.1"5!
). ?akil -.-.+l., C(ower (lant TechnologyD ; -c%raw>ill International, 1"50.
'NIT I
N'CLEAR P()SICS
In%roduc%!on %o nuclear En!neer!n:
This course is intended to understand the engineering design of nuclear power plants using the
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
basic principles of reactor physics, thermodynamics, fluid flow and heat transfer. This course
includes the followingF 1eactor designs, Thermal analysis of nuclear fuel, 1eactor coolant flow
and heat transfer, (ower conversion cycles, Nuclear safety and 1eactor dynamic behavior.
This course covers the engineering principles of nuclear reactors, emphasi4ing power reactors.
<pecific topics include power plant thermodynamics, reactor heat generation and removal #single
phase as well as twophase coolant flow and heat transfer$, and structural mechanics. It also
discusses engineering considerations in reactor design.
+.uipment failure, nuclear meltdown and release of radioactive material as a result of the Bapan
earth.uake brought worldwide criticism for the Fukushima =aiichi nuclear plant disaster. This
steered the world back to the ageold debate on the benefits of nuclear technology.
A world with more energy and less carbon emission, no electricity problems and better medical
facilities, the advantages are clearly more.
<tudying radioactive materials and radiation and learning how to use them in areas such as
power and nuclear medicine forms the basis of nuclear engineering.
LIndia has no choice but to go in for nuclear energy in a big way. 1enewable energy has to be
encouraged to the ma6imum possible and there has to be a focus on the importance of nuclear
energy to meet the country,s re.uirement in the future. Nuclear engineering encompasses areas of
the research, development, and application of nuclear energy and power plants. It also involves
the handling of nuclear fuels and the safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
T52e$ Rad!a%!on Produced b5 Rad!oac%!*e ,eca5:
?hen an atom undergoes radioactive decay, it emits one or more forms of radiation with
sufficient energy to ioni4e the atoms with which it interacts. Ioni4ing radiation can consist of
high speed subatomic particles e@ected from the nucleus or electromagnetic radiation #gamma
rays$ emitted by either the nucleus or orbital electrons.
Alpha(articlesF
7ertain radio nuclides of high atomic mass #1a))*, 8)35, (u)3"$ decay by the emission of
alpha particles. These alpha particles are tightly bound units of two neutrons and two protons
each #>e0 nucleus$ and have a positive charge. +mission of an alpha particle from the nucleus
results in a decrease of two units of atomic number #:$ and four units of mass number #A$. Alpha
particles are emitted with discrete energies characteristic of the particular transformation from
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
which they originate. All alpha particles from a particular radionuclide transformation will have
identical energies.
&eta(articlesF
A nucleus with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons may decay through the emission of a high
speed electron called a beta particle. This results in a net change of one unit of atomic number
#:$. &eta particles have a negative charge and the beta particles emitted by a specific
radionuclide will range in energy from near 4ero up to a ma6imum value, which is characteristic
of the particular transformation.
%ammaraysF
A nucleus which is in an e6cited state may emit one or more photons #packets of electromagnetic
radiation$ of discrete energies. The emission of gamma rays does not alter the number of protons
or neutrons in the nucleus but instead has the effect of moving the nucleus from a higher to a
lower energy state #unstable to stable$. %amma ray emission fre.uently follows beta decay, alpha
decay, and other nuclear decay processes.
'NIT II
N'CLEAR REACTIONS AN, REACTION MATERIALS
Nuclear reactions and nuclear scattering are used to measure the properties of nuclei.
1eactions that e6change energy or nucleons can be used to measure the energies of binding and
e6citation, .uantum numbers of energy levels, and transition rates between levels. A particle
accelerator which produces a beam of highvelocity charged particles #electrons, protons, alphas,
or Cheavy ionsD$, creates these reactions when they strike a target nucleus. Nuclear reactions can
also be produced in nature by highvelocity particles from cosmic rays, for instance in the upper
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
atmosphere or in space. &eams of neutrons can be obtained from nuclear reactors or as secondary
products when a chargedparticle beam knocks out weakly bound neutrons from a target nucleus.
&eams of photons, mesons, muons, and neutrinos can also produce nuclear reactions.
In order for a nuclear reaction to occur, the nucleons in the incident particle, or pro@ectile, must
interact with the nucleons in the target. Thus the energy must be high enough to overcome the
natural electromagnetic repulsion between the protons. This energy CbarrierD is called the
7oulomb barrier. If the energy is below the barrier, the nuclei will bounce off each other. +arly
e6periments by 1utherford used lowenergy alpha particles from naturally radioactive material to
bounce off target atoms and measure the si4e of the target nuclei.
?hen a collision occurs between the incident particle and a target nucleus, either the
beam particle scatters elastically leaving the target nucleus in its ground state or the target
nucleus is internally e6cited and subse.uently decays by emitting radiation or nucleons. A
nuclear reaction is described by identifying the incident particle, target nucleus, and reaction
products. For e6ample, when a neutron strikes a nitrogen nucleus, 10N, to produce a proton, 1>,
and an isotope of carbon, 107, the reaction.
REFINING
The product of a uranium mill is not directly usable as a fuel for a nuclear reactor. 1efining
involves the chemical conversion of uranium concentrates into purified forms suitable as feed
material for enrichment processes. 1efining, as discussed in this report, also involves the
recycling of various production scraps, production residues, and uranium recovered from fuel
reprocessing.
=uring ?orld ?ar II, uranium refining was performed by various contractors. After the war,
the A+7 built governmentowned contractoroperated uranium refineries in ?eldon <pring,
-issouri, and Fernald, 9hio. These facilities operated until they were shut down in 1"** and
1"5", respectively.
ENRIC(MENT
The final step, which is the most difficult and costly, is the enrichment process. <everal different
methods #gaseous diffusion, electromagnetic separation, and thermal diffusion$ have been
developed to increase the concentration of the uranium)32 isotope. -ost of the uranium
enriched in the 8.<. was produced using the gaseous diffusion method.
The enrichment process begins after refining, when 8F* is received in solid form at a %=( and
heated to form a gas. This 8F* gas contains both uranium)32 and uranium)35 isotopes. In the
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
gaseous diffusion enrichment process, 8F* gas is pumped through miles of piping and barrier
like structures that have millions of uniformly si4ed, tiny holes. The weight differential between
molecules containing uranium)32 and molecules containing uranium)35 determines the rate at
which the isotopes pass through the holes. The gas molecules containing the lighter uranium)32
move slightly faster than those containing the heavier uranium)35 and diffuse through the
barrier at a faster rate than do the molecules containing uranium)35. As a result, a partial
separation of the uranium isotopes is accomplished, resulting in uranium)32 having a higher
concentration on the downstream side of the barrier than on the feed side of the barrier.
'NIT III
REPROCESSING
Nuclear reprocessing technology was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable
plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel. 1eprocessing serves multiple purposes, whose relative
importance has changed over time. 9riginally reprocessing was used solely to e6tract plutonium
for producing nuclear weapons. ?ith the commerciali4ation of nuclear power, the reprocessed
plutonium was recycled back into -9M nuclear fuel for thermal reactors. The reprocessed
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
uranium, which constitutes the bulk of the spent fuel material, can in principle also be reused as
fuel, but that is only economic when uranium prices are high. Finally, a breeder reactor is not
restricted to using recycled plutonium and uranium. It can employ all the actinides, closing the
nuclear fuel cycle and potentially multiplying the energy e6tracted from natural uranium by
about */ times.
Nuclear reprocessing reduces the volume of highlevel waste, but by itself does not reduce
radioactivity or heat generation and therefore does not eliminate the need for a geological waste
repository. 1eprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential to contribute
to nuclear proliferation, the potential vulnerability to nuclear terrorism, the political challenges of
repository siting #a problem that applies e.ually to direct disposal of spent fuel$, and because of
its high cost compared to the oncethrough fuel cycle. In the 8nited <tates, the 9bama
administration stepped back from (resident &ush,s plans for commercialscale reprocessing and
reverted to a program focused on reprocessingrelated scientific research. Nuclear fuel
reprocessing is performed routinely in +urope, 1ussia and Bapan
P'RE<@ the current standard method, is an acronym standing for (lutonium and 8ranium
1ecovery by +Mtraction. The (81+M process is a li.uidli.uid e6traction method used to
reprocess spent nuclear fuel, in order to e6tract uranium and plutonium, independent of each
other, from the fission products. This is the most developed and widely used process in the
industry at present. ?hen used on fuel from commercial power reactors the plutonium e6tracted
typically contains too much (u)0/ to be useful in a nuclear weapon. >owever, reactors that are
capable of refuelling fre.uently can be used to produce weapongrade plutonium, which can later
be recovered using (81+M. &ecause of this, (81+M chemicals are monitored.
UREX
The (81+M process can be modified to make a 81+M #81anium +Mtraction$ process which
could be used to save space inside high level nuclear waste disposal sites, such as the Eucca
-ountain nuclear waste repository, by removing the uranium which makes up the vast ma@ority
of the mass and volume of used fuel and recycling it as reprocessed uranium.
The 81+M process is a (81+M process which has been modified to prevent the plutonium from
being e6tracted. This can be done by adding a plutonium reductant before the first metal
e6traction step. In the 81+M process, N""."O of the uranium and P"2O of technetium are
separated from each other and the other fission products and actinides. The key is the addition of
acetohydro6amic acid #A>A$ to the e6traction and scrub sections of the process
TRUEX
Adding a second e6traction agent, octyl #phenyl$N, Ndibutyl carbamoylmethyl phosphine
o6ide#7-(9$ in combination with tributylphosphate, #T&($, the (81+M process can be turned
into the T18+M #T1ans8ranic +Mtraction$ process. T18+M was invented in the 8<A by
Argonne National Kaboratory and is designed to remove the transuranic metals #Am'7m$ from
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
waste. The idea is that by lowering the alpha activity of the waste, the ma@ority of the waste can
then be disposed of with greater ease. In common with (81+M this process operates by a
solvation mechanism.
Re2roce$$!n 2ol!c!e$
7onceptually reprocessing can take several courses, separating certain elements from the
remainder, which becomes highlevel waste. 1eprocessing options includeF
<eparate 8, (u, #as today$.
<eparate 8, (uQ8 #small amount of 8$.
<eparate 8, (u, minor actinides
f
.
<eparate 8, (uQNp, AmQ7m.
<eparate 8Q(u all together.
<eparate 8, (uQactinides, certain fission products.
'NIT I&
N'CLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reac%or is a device to initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear
reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and in propulsion of ships.
>eat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid #water or gas$, which runs through
turbines. These either drive a ship,s propellers or turn electrical generators. Nuclear generated
steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. <ome reactors
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, or for production of plutonium for
weapons. <ome are run only for research. Today there are about 02/ nuclear power reactors that
are used to generate electricity in about 3/ countries around the world.
F!$$!on:
?hen a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium)32 or plutonium)3" absorbs a neutron, it
may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, #the
fission products$, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of
these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events,
which release more neutrons, and so on. This is known as a nuclear chain reaction.
To control such a nuclear chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the
portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have
automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe
conditions.
7ommonlyused moderators include regular #light$ water #in !0.5O of the world,s reactors$,
solid graphite #)/O of reactors$ and heavy water #2O of reactors$. <ome e6perimental types of
reactor have used beryllium, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility
Elec%r!cal 2o9er enera%!on
The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into
usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to
produce pressuri4ed steam which will then drive a steam turbine that turns an alternator and
generates electricity.
Nuclear Po9er Reac%or$
There are many different types of power reactors. ?hat is common to them all is that they
produce thermal energy that can be used for its own sake or converted into mechanical energy
and ultimately, in the vast ma@ority of cases, into electrical energy.
In these reactors, the fission of heavy atomic nuclei, the most common of which is uranium)32,
produces heat that is transferred to a fluid which acts as a coolant. =uring the fission process,
bond energy is released and this first becomes noticeable as the kinetic energy of the fission
products generated and that of the neutrons being released. <ince these particles undergo intense
deceleration in the solid nuclear fuel, the kinetic energy turns into heat energy.
In the case of reactors designed to generate electricity, to which the e6planations below will now
be restricted, the heated fluid can be gas, water or a li.uid metal. The heat stored by the fluid is
then used either directly #in the case of gas$ or indirectly #in the case of water and li.uid metals$
to generate steam. The heated gas or the steam is then fed into a turbine driving an alternator.
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
<ince, according to the laws of nature, heat cannot fully be converted into another form of
energy, some of the heat is residual and is released into the environment. 1eleasing is either
direct ; e.g. into a river ; or indirect, into the atmosphere via cooling towers. This practice is
common to all thermal plants and is by no means limited to nuclear reactors which are only one
type of thermal plant.
'NIT &
SAFET) AN, ,ISPOSAL
1adioactive wastes are wastes that contain radioactive material. 1adioactive wastes are usually
byproducts of nuclear power generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear
technology, such as research and medicine. 1adioactive waste is ha4ardous to most forms of life
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
and the environment, and is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health
and the environment.
1adioactivity naturally decays over time, so radioactive waste has to be isolated and confined in
appropriate disposal facilities for a sufficient period of time until it no longer poses a ha4ard. The
period of time waste must be stored depends on the type of waste and radioactive isotopes. It can
range from a few days for very shortlived isotopes to millions of years for spent nuclear fuel.
7urrent ma@or approaches to managing radioactive waste have been segregation and storage for
shortlived waste, nearsurface disposal for low and some intermediate level waste, and deep
burial or partitioning ' transmutation for the highlevel waste.
A summary of the amounts of radioactive waste and management approaches for most developed
countries are presented and reviewed periodically as part of the International Atomic +nergy
Agency #IA+A$ Boint 7onvention on the <afety of <pent Fuel -anagement and on the <afety of
1adioactive ?aste -anagement.

T52e$ o/ rad!oac%!*e 9a$%e$
E4em2% 9a$%e A *er5 lo9 le*el 9a$%e
+6empt waste and very low level waste #3KK?$ contains radioactive materials at a level which
is not considered harmful to people or the surrounding environment. It consists mainly of
demolished material #such as concrete, plaster, bricks, metal, valves, piping etc$ produced during
rehabilitation or dismantling operations on nuclear industrial sites. 9ther industries, such as food
processing, chemical, steel etc also produce 3KK? as a result of the concentration of natural
radioactivity present in certain minerals used in their manufacturing processes #see also
information page on Naturally9ccurring 1adioactive -aterials$. The waste is therefore disposed
of with domestic refuse, although countries such as France are currently developing facilities to
store 3KK? in specifically designed 3KK? disposal facilities.
Low-level waste
Kowlevel waste #KK?$ is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel
cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc, which contain small amounts of mostly
shortlived radioactivity. It does not re.uire shielding during handling and transport and is
suitable for shallow land burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before
disposal. It comprises some "/O of the volume but only 1O of the radioactivity of all radioactive
waste.
Intermediate-level waste
Intermediatelevel waste #IK?$ contains higher amounts of radioactivity and some re.uires
shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludges and metal fuel cladding, as well as
contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. <maller items and any nonsolids may be
IFET COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
LESSON PLAN Format No.3b
solidified in concrete or bitumen for disposal. It makes up some !O of the volume and has 0O of
the radioactivity of all radwaste.
High-level waste
>ighlevel waste #>K?$ arises from the ,burning, of uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor. >K?
contains the fission products and transuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly
radioactive and hot, so re.uires cooling and shielding. It can be considered as the ,ash, from
,burning, uranium. >K? accounts for over "2O of the total radioactivity produced in the process
of electricity generation. There are two distinct kinds of >K?F
8sed fuel itself.
<eparated waste from reprocessing the used fuel #as described in section on -anaging
>K? from used fuel below$.
>K? has both longlived and shortlived components, depending on the length of time it will
take for the radioactivity of particular radionuclides to decrease to levels that are considered no
longer ha4ardous for people and the surrounding environment. If generally shortlived fission
products can be separated from longlived actinides, this distinction becomes important in
management and disposal of >K?.
Electricity generation:
In terms of radioactivity, highlevel waste #>K?$ is the ma@or issue arising from the use of
nuclear reactors to generate electricity. >ighly radioactive fission products and also transuranic
elements are produced from uranium and plutonium during reactor operations and are contained
within the used fuel. ?here countries have adopted a closed cycle and utilised reprocessing to
recycle material from used fuel, the fission products and minor actinides are separated from
uranium and plutonium and treated as >K? #uranium and plutonium is then reused as fuel in
reactors$. In countries where used fuel is not reprocessed, the used fuel itself is considered a
waste and therefore classified as >K?.
Kow and intermediatelevel waste is produced as a result of operations, such as the cleaning of
reactor cooling systems and fuel storage ponds, the decontamination of e.uipment, filters and
metal components that have become radioactive as a result of their use in or near the reactor.